Chapter Test

Answers
Chapter 1: electric charges and Ans. 9. Given that,
q1 = q2 = ± 20 nC
fields
= ± 20 × 10-9 C
2 -1 -2
Ans. 1. c. C N m
and distance, 2a = 5 mm = 5 × 10-3 m
Ans. 2. a. Given that, \ Dipole moment, p = q (2 a)

4mc -3mc q2 -5mc
q1 q3       = 20 × 10-9 × 5 × 10-3
r = 20cm 40cm
= 10-10 C-m.
 1  q1q2
F1 =   Ans. 10. Since, positive charge q2 and q3 exert a net force
 4 πε0  r 2 in the + X-direction on the charge q1 fixed along the
X-axis, the charge q1 is negative as shown in figure.
9 × 109 × 3 × 10−6 × 4 × 10−6 108 × 10−3
= = = 2.7 N Obviously, due to addition of positive charge Q at
(20 × 10−2 )2 4 × 10−2
(x, 0), the force on-q shall increase along the positive
9 × 109 × 3 × 10−6 × 5 × 10−6 X-axis.
F2 = Y
(20 × 10−2 )2

135 × 10−3 +q1

= = 3.375 N
4 × 10−2

Hence, Fnet = F1 + F2
+Q
−q1 X
    = 2.7 + 3.375 = 6.075 N ≅ 6 N (x, 0)
Ans. 3. c.
Electrostatic field lines are continuous curves +q3
without any breakage. They start at positive Ans. 11. Given,
charges and end at negative charges. They cannot
q1 = 0.2 mC = 0.2 × 10-6 C
form closed loops.
q2 = - 0.4 mC = - 0.4 × 10-6 C, F = - 0.4 N
Ans. 4. b.
As we know that force,
Gauss law implies that the total electric flux through
q1q2
a closed surface is zero if no net charge is enclosed F=
by the surface and it is true for any closed surface, 4πε0r 2
independent of its shape and size.
2 q1q2
Ans. 5. induction \ r =
4 πε0F

Ans. 6. electric field lines
Ans. 7. (i) c. Conservation of charges. 0.2 × 10−6 × 0.4 × 10−6 × 9 × 109
=
0 .4
Ans. (ii) b. Coulomb’s law is true for all the distances 2 -3
⇒ r = 1.8 × 10
whether it is small and large.
\ r = (1.8 × 10-3)1/2
Ans. (iii) d. radial, outwards
= 0.0424 m = 42.4 × 10-3 m
Ans. (iv) a. outwards
Ans. 12. As we know that, force exerted between two
Ans. (v) d. Electric flux over a surface of neuron in an point charges in air,
electric field may be positive, negative and zero. q1q2
Ans. 8. According to the question, F=
4πε0r 2
charge, q = 1 C
So, force exerted between two point charges in a
From Gauss’s law, medium of dielectric constant K,
q 1 q1q2
flux, φ= = F′ =
ε0 ε0 4πε0K (r ′ )2

-1
or f = (e0) where, r ′ = distance.
2 |
According to the question, Ans. 15. (i) As per the question,
EAB
F = F′
E
ne
q1q2 q1q2 A t

⇒ = α
4 πε0r 2 4 πε0K (r ′ )2
a a EAC
1 1
=
r2 K (r ′ )2 +q −2q
60° 60°
B C
r2 = K(r′)2
The magnitude,
r = K r′ →
1 q
E AB = ⋅ =E
4 πε0 a 2
r
\ r′ =
K →
1 2q
and E AC = 4 πε ⋅ 2 = 2E
Ans. 13. The electric dipole moment is a vector quantity 0 a

whose direction is along the axis of the dipole 2 2

\ E net = (2E ) + (E ) + 2 × 2E × E cos 120°

pointing from the negative charge to the positive
 1
charge. E net = (2E )2 + E 2 + 2 × 2E × E ×  − 
 2
Electric
field E net = 4E 2 + E 2 − 2E 2
(E) P
1 q 3
E net = E 3 =
4 πε0 a 2

(ii) The direction of resultant electric field at vertex A
Electric E AB sin 120°
−q +q dipole tan α =
moment E AC + E AB cos 120°

The direction of electric field is from positive charge 3
E×
to negative charge. As it is clear from the figure, 2 1
tan α = =
the direction of electric field intensity at a point on  −1  3
2E + E ×  
2
 
the equatorial line of the dipole is opposite to the
direction of dipole moment. Hence, a = 30° (with side AC )
Ans. 16. (i) According to the question, the electric field
Hence, angle between them is 180°.
lines between the charge and the plate is shown in
Ans. 14. Electric field at perpendicular distance r. figure given below.
Q
λ +
E=
2πε0r
v Induced
+ charge
+
+ E
(−e,m) slab
+
r
1
(ii) (a) For region II, EII = ( σ − σ2 )
Electric force on electron, F = eE 2ε0 1
To move in circular path, necessary centripetal
towards right side from sheet A to sheet B.
force is provided by electric force. 1
(b) For region III, EIII = ( σ + σ2 )
mv 2
eλ 2 ε0 1
F= = eE =
r 2πε0r
towards right side away from the two sheets.
Hence, speed of the electron, Chapter 2 : Electrostatics
v=
eλ Potential and capacitance
2πε0m
Ans. 1. b. Two equipotential surfaces can cross each
⇒     v ∝ r0
other.
 Physics |  Class 12  | 3
Ans. 2. a. 9 km Q
Ans. (ii) As we know, C =
We know that, C = 4pe0r V
C 9
Capacitor having less potential difference will have
\ r =
-6
= 10 × 9 × 10
4 πε0  1
more capacitance for a constant value  C ∝  of
= 9 × 103 m = 9 km  V
Ans. 3. c. To get equivalent capacitance 6 mF two 4mF charge.
capacitors are to be connected in series and third Thus, capacitor A has higher capacitance.
one is connected in parallel. Ans. (iii) Given, d = 0.1 m, A = 1 m
2

4 µF 4 µF
ε0A 8.85 × 10−12 × 1
C= =
d 0. 1
  = 8.85 × 10-12 × 10
4 µF Q
Also, C =
From figure equivalent capacitance, V
4×4  V 
Ceq = + 4 = 2 + 4 = 6 mF
4+4 ⇒ VC = Q
∵E = d ⇒ V = E × d 
Ans. 4. c.
Earth is a good conductor of very large size. When
\ Q=C×E×d
-12
some small charge is given to earth, its potential Q = 8.85 × 10 × 10 × 100 × 0.1
does not change. Hence, potential of earth is Q = 8.85 × 10
-10
C
assumed to be zero. It is just like sea level which ε0A
does not alter materially when water is added Ans. (iv) As we know, C =
d
to it or removed from it. Thus, the potential of
all other bodies are measured with reference to Hence, capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
the earth. For this, if the connection of a charged depends on the thickness of the plate, area of
body to the ground by a metallic conductor would the conducting plates and distance of separation
cause electrons to flow to that body from ground, between the conducting plates.
the body is at positive potential. Conversely, is also Ans. 9. Capacitance is given by,
true, in either case the conductor is neutralised and
q 70
brought to zero potential. In fact the atmosphere C= = = 3.5 pF
does possess significant electric field. V 20

Ans. 5. b. Ans. 10. A parallel plate capacitor is charged. If the

The capacitance of a parallel plates capacitor is plates are pulled apart, then the potential difference
increases.
ε0A
given by C = where A is area of each plate, d 1
d Ans. 11. Energy stored, U = CV 2
2
is the distance between plates.
ε0A 1
= × 10 × 10−6 × (100)2
C1 1 2

\ = d =
C2 ε0A 2   = 5 × 10-6 × 104
d /2   = 5 × 10-2 = 0.05 J
\ C2 = 2C1 Ans. 12. The length of diagonal of the cube of each side
When dielectric of dielectric constant K is introduced 3x 2 = x 3
x is
in between the plates, then the capacitance

\ Distance between centre of cube and each vertex,
K ε0A
C= i.e., C ∝ K Capacitance C depends on
d x 3
r=
2
introduced dielectric.
-1 -2 -4 2 1 q
Ans. 6. [M L T I ] Now, potential, V =
4 πε0 r
Ans. 7. Electric field
Ans. 8. (i) The dielectric material get polarised when it Since, cube has 8 vertices and 8 charges each of
is placed in an electric field. The field produced due value q are present there
to polarisation of the material minimize the effect
1 8q 4q
of external field. Hence, the electrical field inside a \ V =
=
4 πε0 x 3 3 πε0x
dielectric decreases when it is placed in an external
field. 2
4 |
Ans. 13. 3 mF and 6 mF are in series. q  1 1  q 2a
=  − = ⋅
3×6 4 πε0  r − a r + a  4 πε0 r 2 − a 2
\ = 2 mF  
( 3 + 6)
1 p
This is in parallel with 2 mF. = ⋅
\ Total capacitance in the circuit is 4 mF, Q = CV. 4 πε0 r − a 2 [ p = q (2a)]
2
 

1 For a far away point, r >> a
Energy = QV = (1/ 2)V 2C
2 1 p 1

\V= ⋅ or V∝
= (1/2) × 22 × 4 × 10-6 J = 8 mJ 4 πε0 r 2 r2
Ans. 14. From the figure, C1, C2, C3 are connected in
Thus, due to a dipole potential at a point is V ∝ 1/r2.
series. (ii) Let A → area of each plate and C1 and C2 are
B C
C2 capacitance of each slab.
ε0A
Let initially, C = C = = C2
C1 C3 1 d

C4 After inserting respective dielectric slabs.

A D C′1 = KC...(1)
600 V ε0 ( A / 2 ) ε0 ( A / 2 )
and C 2′ = K 1 + K2
1 1 1 1 d d

\ = + +
Cs C 1 C 2 C 3 ε0A
= (K 1 + K 2 ) ;
1 1 1 3 2d
= + + = µF
20 20 20 20 C
C 2′ = (K + K 2 )
20 2 1 …(2)
or Cs = µF
3 From Eqs. (1) and (2), we get
Now Cs is in parallel with C4 C′1 = C′2

\ Equivalent capacitance, C
⇒ KC = (K + K 2 )
20 80 2 1
Ceq = Cs + C 4 = + 20 = = 26.67 mF
3 3
1
⇒ K= (K + K 2 )
Ans. 15. (i) Work done in moving a charge q from 2 1
a to b = 0 Ans. 17. As, charge on capacitor increases, we have to
Work done in moving a charge q from c to d = 0 work more against electrostatic repulsion and this
This is because electric field is perpendicular to the amount of work done will be stored as potential
energy in the capacitor.
displacement.
(i) We know that, q = CV ⇒ V = q/C
Now, work done from b to c = - work done from d
q
to a total work done = 0 dW = Vdq = dq
C
ε A
(ii) Before the metal sheet is inserted, C = 0 where, q = instantaneous charge,
d
C = instantaneous capacitance and
After the sheet is inserted, the system is equivalent
V = instantaneous voltage
to two capacitors in series, each of capacitance
\ Total work done in storing charge from 0 to q is
ε A 4ε A
C ′ = 0 = 0 = 4C given by
(d / 4 ) d
q
q q2
1 1 1 2 W = ∫ dq =
Equivalent capacitance = + = C 2C
Ceq 4C 4C 4C 0

(ii) In series combination of capacitors, same charge

4C lie on each capacitor for any value of capacitances.
Ceq = = 2C
2 +Q −Q +Q −Q +Q −Q
+− +− +−
A O B +− +− +−
Ans. 16. (i) −q +q p +− +− +−
r +− +− +−
C1 C2 C3
Let P be an axial point at distance r from the centre
of the dipole. Electric potential at point P will be V1 V2 V3
1 ( −q ) 1 q
V = V1 + V2 = ⋅ + ⋅
4 πε0 r + a 4 πε0 r − a V
(+) (−)
Capacitors in series combination
 Physics |  Class 12  | 5
Also, potential difference across the combination is Ans. 4. c.
equal to the algebraic sum of potential differences Consider a conductor of length l and area of cross-
across each capacitor. section A. Time taken by the free electrons to cross
i.e., V = V1 + V2 + V3…(i) the conductor.
where, V1, V2, V3 and V are the potential differences
t = l/vd.
across C1, C2, C3 and equivalent capacitor,
respectively. q Al × ne
Hence, current, I = =
t l /vd
q
\ q = C1V1
⇒ V1 =
C1 or I = Anevd
or I ∝ vd
q q
Similarly, V2 = ⇒ V3 = Thus current is directly proportional to drift
C2 C3
velocity.

\ Total potential difference  [from Eq. (i)] Ans. 5. Kirchhoff’s laws
q q q Ans. 6. null deflection
V= + +
C1 C2 C3 Ans. 7. (i) d. Depends upon the relative values of

internal and external resistances.
V 1 1 1
= + + Ans. (ii) c. e
q C1 C2 C3
For parallel combination of n cells,
1 1 1 1 eeq = e
⇒ = + +
C C1 C2 C3 Ans. (iii) d. 0.888 A
V 1 mε
= I= m = number of cells = 4
[ where C is equivalent mR + r ′
q C′
 capacitance of combination] e = 2 V, R = 2 W, r=1W
1 C2 C3 + C3 C1 + C1 C2 8 8
or    = I= = = 0.888 A
C C1 C2 C3 8+1 9
Ans. (iv) b. nr - 4r
C1 C2 C3

⇒ C= Ans. (v) c.
C1 C2 + C2 C3 + C3 C1
(b) is correct but (a) is wrong
Let two cells of emf’s e1 and e2 and of internal
Chapter 3: current resistances r1 and r2 respectively are connected in
parallel.
electricity r1
q
Ans. 1. c. Electric current, I = ε1
t
60
= = 0.5 A
2 × 60 r2

Ans. 2. a. ε2

I
The equivalent emf is given by
ε1r2 + ε2r1
εeq = …(1)
r1 + r2

O V The equivalent internal resistance is given by
ohm’s law V = IR is an equation of straight line.
1 1 1
= +
Hence I-V characteristics for ohmic conductors is req r1 r2

also a straight line and its slope gives resistance of
r1r2
the conductor. or req = …(2)
r1 + r2
Ans. 3. a. 
l
Let us consider, two cells connected in parallel of
Resistance of wire R = ρ where r is resistivity of
A same emf e and same internal resistance r.
material which does not depend on the geometry From eq. (1), we get
of wire. Since, when wire banded, resistivity, length εr + εr
εeq = =ε
and area of cross-section do not change, therefore r +r
resistance of wire also remain same. From eq. (2), we get
6 |
2 2
r2 r \ πr1 l1 = πr2 l2 
( Volume remains constant)
req = =
r +r 2
l r12
Ans. 8. Applying KCL at point B, or = 2 …(1)
I = 2 A + 2A = 4 A r2 l1
2

P R Now, the resistance of the rod after reformation
Ans. 9. As = , so resistance of the galvanometer
Q S ρl2
R2 =
can be omitted (P and Q are in series) = 2R, R πr22
and S are also in series = 2R). Now the equivalent
2R × 2R R1 ρl1 2
resistance =
4R
=R
\
R2
=
2
/ ρl22 = ll1 × r22
πr1 πr2 2 r1
P l1
2 l2
Ans. 10. Q = 100 − l or 3 = 100 − l R1 l1  l1 l1
2
1 1 2
or R = l × l =  l  = (2)  (using eq. (1))
or 5l1 = 200 or l1 = 40 cm 2 2 2  2
ρl R
Ans. 11. Resistance of a wire, R =
\ R2 =
A 4
V 2 V 2A Ans. 14. The given network represent a Wheatstone
Rate of energy dissipated as heat is H = =
R ρl bridge

V 2A R R
=
For wire 1, H 1 = 2R 2R
ρL
The resistance 3R is ineffective.
V 2A 0.694V 2A
For wire 2, H 2 = = = 0.694 H1 The equivalent circuit reduces to the circuit shown
(1.2ρ)(1.2L ) ρL
in the figure.
V 2A 1.23V 2A R R
For wire 3, H 3 = = = 1.23 H1
(0.9ρ)(0.9L ) ρL A B
2 2
V A 0.666V A
For wire 4, H4 = = 0.666 H1
(ρ)(1.5L ) ρL 2R 2R
\ H3 > H1 > H2 > H4
Ans. 12. Using Kirchhoff’s law in loop A P2P1 DA
E
A I P2 I − I1 B
(i) Equivalent Resistance,
I1
7V, 2 Ω 3V, 1 Ω 2R × 4R 8R 2 4R
10 Ω Req = = =
2R + 4R 6R 3
(ii) As Wheatstone bridge is balanced, no current
D I P1 I − I1 C
flows through 3R, i.e., current in 3R is zero.

\ 10I1 + 2I - 7 = 0 Ans. 15. (i) The network is a simple series and parallel
combination of resistors. First the two 4 W resistors
  10I1 + 2I = 7 …(1)
in parallel are equivalent to
Using Kirchhoff’s law in loop P2 P1 CBP2
a resistor = [(4 × 4)/(4 + 4)] W = 2 W.
- 3 + 1(I - I1) - 10I1 = 0
In the same way, the 12 W and 6 W resistors in parallel
I - 11I1 = 3; I = 3 + 11I1…(2)
are equivalent to a resistor of [(12 × 6)/(12 + 6)] W
From eqs. (1) and (2), we get
= 4 W.
10I1 + 2(3 + 11I1) = 7 The equivalent resistance R of the network

⇒ 10I1 + 6 + 22I1 = 7 is obtained by combining these resistors
1 (2 W and 4 W) with 1 W in series, that is,
\  32I1 = 1; I 1 =
= 0.031 A          R = 2 W + 4 W + 1 W = 7 W
32
(ii) The total current I in the circuit is
Ans. 13. The resistance of rod before reformation
ε 16 V
ρl1  ρl ρl  I= = = 2A
R1 = R = ∵R = =  R + r (7 + 1)Ω
πr12 A            
  πr 2 
Consider the resistors between A and B. If I1 is

Now, the rod is reformed such that the current in one of the 4 W resistors and I2 the
l1 current in the other,
l2 =
2 I1 × 4 = I2 × 4
 Physics |  Class 12  | 7
that is, I1 = I2, which is otherwise obvious
Brief description: Plug in the key K1 and keep K2
from the symmetry of the two arms. unplugged and find the balancing length l1 such
But I1 + I2 = I = 2A. Thus, I1 = I2 = 1 A that : E = Kl1 …(i)
that is, current in each 4 W resistor is 1 A. Current in With the key K2 also plugged in find out balancing
1 W resistor between B and C would be 2 A. length l2 again such that:
Now, consider the resistances between V = Kl2…(ii)
C and D. If I3 is the current in the 12 W resistor, and E 
r =  − 1 R
I4 in the 6 W resistor, V 

I3 × 12 = I4 × 6, i.e., I4 = 2I3

l 
But, I3 + I4 = I = 2 A r =  1 − 1 R
l
 2 

 2  4
Thus, I 3 =   A, I 4 =   A (ii) The potentiometer is preferred over the
 3  3 voltmeter for measurement of e.m.f. of a cell
because potentiometer draws no current from the
that is, the current in the 12 W resistor is (2/3) A, voltage source being measured.
while the current in the 6 W resistor is (4/3) A.
(iii) V = 5V, RAB = 50 W, R = 450 W
(iii) The voltage drop across AB is
5 1
VAB = I1 × 4 = 1 A × 4 W = 4 V, I= = = 0.01 A
450 + 50 100
This can also be obtained by multiplying the
VAB = 0.01 × 50 = 0.5 V
total current between A and B by the equivalent
0. 5
resistance between A and B, that is, K= = 0.05 Vm−1
10
VAB = 2 A × 2 W = 4 V
The voltage drop across BC is V 300 × 10−3
l= = = 6m
VBC = 2 A × 1 W = 2 V K 0.05

Finally, the voltage drop across CD is With 2 V driver cell current in the circuit is
 2 2
VCD = 12 W × I3 = 12 Ω ×   A = 8 V I= = 0.04 A
 3 450 + 50
Potential difference across AB = 0.004 × 50
This can alternately be obtained by multiplying
total current between C and D by the equivalent = 200 mV.
resistance between C and D, that is, Hence the circuit will not work.
   VCD = 2 A × 4 W = 8 V chapter 4: Moving charges and
Note that the total voltage drop acorss AD
is 4 V + 2 V + 8 V = 14 V.
Magnetism
Thus, the terminal voltage of the battery Ans. 1. b. 30°
is 14 V, while its emf is 16 V. The loss of F = ILB sinq
the voltage (= 2 V) is accounted for by F 0 .4 1
the internal resistance 1 W of the battery or sin θ = = =
IlB 20 2
1× ×4
[2 A × 1 W = 2 V]. 100
Ans. 16. Circuit diagram and describing the method to
⇒ q = 30°

measure internal resistance of cell by potentiometer
Ans. 2. b. direction of magnetic field.
Reason
Calculating balancing length and reason (circuit Ans. 3. b.
Magnetic field lines can be entirely confined to the
works or not)
core of a toroid because toroid has no ends. It can

(i) Circuit diagram: confine the field within its core. A straight solenoid
K2
R.B. has two ends. If the entire flux were confined
between these ends, the flux throughout the
E cross-section at each end would be non-zero.
B A
Ans. 4. d.
N2 G Since in the two parallel wires the flow of current is
R
in opposite directions they repel each other, so they
will move apart. Parallel currents attract and anti-
N1
parallel currents repel.
K1 Ans. 5. Hans Christian Oersted.
8 |
Ans. 6. high resistance 2RB 2 × 15 × 10−2 × 4 × 10−4
I= = = 1.06 A
Ans. 7. (i) d. any one of (i), (ii) and (iii) N µ0 4 π × 10−7 × 90

\
Ans. (ii) a. B will have smaller radius of curvature than
Ans. 11. We know that,
mv 2 µ I dl sin θ
that of A using, qv Bsinq =
r | dB | = 0
4π r 2

1 dl = Dx = 10-2 m, I = 10 A, r = 0.5 m = y, m0/4p
r∝ for the same values of m.v.q and B
sinθ Tm
= 10−7
r sin 90° A
\ A =
= 2 or rA = 2rB or rB < rA
rB sin 30° q = 90°; sin q = 1
10−7 × 10 × 10−2
Ans. (iii) d. 0.5 mm
\ |dB| = = 4 × 10−8 T
25 × 10−2
The radius of the helical path of the electron in the
The direction of the field is in the +z-direction. This
uniform magnetic field is
is so since
mv ⊥ mv sin θ (2.4 × 10−23kg m/ s) × sin 30°
= r= = dl × r = ∆x i × yj = y ∆x (i × j) = y ∆x k
eB eB (16 × 10−19 C) × 0.15 T

We remind you of the following cyclic property of
= 5 × 10-4 m = 0.5 × 10-3 m = 0.5 mm cross-products,
Ans. (iv) c. 0.157 m i × j = k ; j × k = i; k × i = j

→
−2  Ans. 12. A galvanometer can be converted into a
Here, B = 8.35 × 10 i T
voltmeter by connecting a very high resistance
→
v = 2 × 105 i + 4 × 105 Jm/s,
 R in series with it. This is done, so that there is no

-27 potential drop across it.
m = 1.67 × 10 kg.
Let R is so chosen that current Ig gives full
Pitch of the helix (i.e., the linear distance moved deflection in the galvanometer where Ig is the
along the magnetic field in one rotation) is given by range of galvanometer.
2πmvx
Pitch of the helix = Voltmeter
qB
Ig R
2 × 3.14 × 1.67 × 10−27 × 2 × 105 G
= = 0.157 m A B
−19 −2
1.6 × 10 × 8.35 × 10
V
qB
Ans. (v) b. Let galvanometer of resistance G, range Ig is to be
2πm
converted into voltmeter of range v (volt). Now,
Period of revolution
V = Ig (G + R)
 mv sin θ 
2π  
2πR  qB  ⇒ T = 2πm V
T= ⇒T = ⇒   R +G =
v sin θ v sin θ qB Ig

1 qB V
\ Frequency, v =
=
⇒ R= −G
T 2πm Ig

Ans. 8. Since dl and r for each element of the straight The appropriate scale need to be graduated to
segments are parallel. Therefore measure potential difference.
→ →
dl × r = 0 Ans. 13. (i) Let a and b be two long a B1 b B2
Hence, B is also zero. straight parallel conductors,
d
Ia and Ib are the current
Ans. 9. No, steady current is not the only source of
flowing through them and
magnetic field. As, magnetic field can be produced I Ib
separated by a distance d. a
by other sources also such as alternating current,
Magnetic field induction at a
moving charged particle, etc. point P on a conductor b due Q d P
F1 F2
Ans. 10. Here, N = 90 to current Ia passing through
R = 15 cm = 15 × 10-2 m, B = 4 × 10-4 T a is
µ0NI µ0 2Ia
B =
B1 =
2R 4 πd
 Physics |  Class 12  | 9
Now, unit length of b will experience a force as In order to deretermine the mangetic field at point
F2 = B1Ib × 1 = B1Ib P which is situated at a distance R from the centre
µ 2I I of the circular loop around the conductor wire, B
\ F2 = 0 a b (magnetic field) is tangential to ricrumference of
4π d
the loop.
Conductor a also experiences the same amount Now, 
of force directed towards b. Hence, a and b attract
∫ B ⋅ d I = ∫ Bdl = B 2πR = µ0I
each other. ⇒ B = m0 I / 2p R  [From Ampere’s circuital law]
The direction of magnetic field will be determined

\ The force between two current carrying parallel by right hand rule.
conductors per unit length is (ii) Figure shows the longitudinal sectional view of
µ 2I I long current carrying solendoid. The current comes
F = 0⋅ ab out of the plane of paper at points marked.
4π d
Q
(ii) l
a B1 B2 b d c

Ia
Ib

Q P
F1
F2 a b

Now, let the direction of current in conductor b be

reversed. The magnetic field B2 at point P due to B
current Ia flowing through a will be downwards.
Similarly, the magnetic field B1 at point Q due to
current Ib passing through b will also be downward
as shown. The force on a will be, therefore towards Let B be the magnetic at any point inside the solenoid.
the left. Also, the force on b will be towards the Considering the rectangular closed path abcda.
right. Hence, the two conductors will repel each Applying Ampere’s circuital law over loop abcda.
other as shown.
Ans. 14. (i) Ampere’s circuital law As, Ampere’s circuital
∫ B ⋅ d I = µ0 × (Total current passing through loop

abcda.)
law states that the line intergral of magnetic field B
b c d a N 
around any closed loop is equal to m0 times the total ∫a B ⋅ d I + ∫b B ⋅ d I + ∫c B ⋅ d I + ∫ B ⋅ d I = µ0  lI 
current threading through the loop.
d L 
i.e., ∫ B ⋅ d I = µ0I N
where, = number of turns per unit length and
L
ac = cd = l = length of rectangle.
b c
C ∫a Bdl cos0° + ∫b Bdl cos 90° + 0
I I a N
+ ∫ Bdl cos90° = µ0   lI
d L

b N N
B ∫ dl = µ0   lI ⇒ Bl = µ0   lI
a L
  L

B = m0 (N/L)I or B = m0 nI
Boundary Surface
where, n = number of turns per unit length. This is
Derivation To explain the Ampere’s circuital law the required experission for magnetic field inside
consider an infinitely long conductor wire carryying the long current carrying solenoid.
a steady current I as shown in the figure.
Ans. 15. Consider the case r > a. The Amperian
I
loop, labelled 2, is a circle concentric with the
cross-section. For this loop,
     L = 2 p r
P × B (tangential to
R Ie = Current enclosed by the loop = I

circumferenc)
The result is the familiar expression for a long
straight wire B(2p r) = m0I
10 |
µ I Finally, q = p/2 (or 90°).
\ B = 0 …(1)
2πr Thus, final torque tf = m B = 10 × 2 = 20 N m.
1 (d) From Newton’s second law,
B∝ (r > a)
r              dω
I = mB sin θ
Consider the case r < a. The Amperian loop is a dt

circle labelled 1. For this loop, taking the radius of
the circle to be r, where I is the moment of inertia of the coil. from
L=2pr chain rule.
Now the current enclosed Ie is not 1, but is less than dω dω dθ dω
this value. Since the current distribution is uniform, = = =ω
dt d θ dt d θ
the current enclosed is,
Using this,
 πr 2  Ir 2
Ie = I  = Iwdw = mB sinq d q
 πa 2  a 2
Integrating from q = 0 to q = p/2
I r2 ωf
Using Ampere’s law, B(2 p r) = µ0 π /2
a2 I ∫ ω d ω = mB ∫ sin θ d θ
0 0
 µ I
B =  0 r …(2) ωf2
 2 a 2  I = −m B cos θ |0π /2 = m B
 2
B ∝ r (r < a) 1/ 2 1/ 2
 2mB   2 × 20  -1
B ωf =  = = 20 rad S
 I   10−1 

Chapter 5: Magnetism and

Matter
r
B∝

B∝

-2
Ans. 1. a. 4.8 × 10 Nm
1/
r

Ans. 2. b. less
r
a Ans. 3. a.

Figure shows a plot of the magnitude of B with The magnet align itself in North-South direction,
distance r from the centre of the wire. The direction when it is freely suspended because Earth behaves
of the field is tangential to the respective circular as a magnet.
loop (1 or 2) and given by the right-hand rule Ans. 4. d.
described earlier in this section.
The angle of dip is the angle between the axis of
This example possesses the required symmetry so the dip needle in the magnetic meridian and the
that Ampere’s law can be applied readily. horizontal direction.
µ0NI Vertical component of the
Ans. 16. (a) B=
2R Earth's magnetic field
tanθ =
Here, N = 100; I = 3.2 A, and R = 0.1 m. Hence, Horizontal co
omponent of the
Earth's magnetic field
4 π × 10−7 × 102 × 3.2 4 × 10−5 × 10
B= =
−1 −1
2 × 10 2 × 10 BV
= , when BV = BH, tan q = 1 ⇒ q = 45°
 (using p × 3.2 = 10) BH

= 2 × 10
-3
T
Lines joining points of zero dip are called aclinic
lines. Lines joining points of equal dip are called
The direction is given by the right-hand thumb rule.
isoclinic lines.
(b) The magnetic moment is given by Ans. 5. temperature
2 -2 2
m = NIA = NI p r = 100 × 3.2 × 3.14 × 10 = 10 Am
Ans. 6. permanent

The direction is once again given by the right-hand Ans. 7. (i) It can be seen that slop of curve for wire a is
thumb rule. greater than wire.

(c)      t = |m × B| Ans. (ii) Inside the wire

= m B sin q µ0I dB µ I
B(r ) = r⇒ = 0 r
Initially, q = 0. Thus, initial torque tI = 0. 2πR 2 dr 2πR 2
 Physics |  Class 12  | 11
I Ans. 12. As B = m0(M + H )
i.e., Slope ∝
2
∝ Current density
πR (B − µ0H )
Magnetisation, M =
µ0
So, current density in a wire a is less than in wire c.

Ans. (iii) Wire c has the greatest radius. µ0µr H − µ0H

then M = = (µr − 1)H 
µ0
Ans. (iv) If a direct current/flows along the length of an 
infinitely long straight thin walled pipe, the magnetic ( B = m0mrH)
field is zero at any point inside the pipe. Here,     mr = 500
and H = nI = 1000 × 2 = 200 Am-1
Ans. 8. Here, M = 0.65 J T -1, B = 0.25 T, q = 30°

\ M = (500 - 1)H = 499 × 2000
\ t = MB sin q = 0.65 × 0.25 × sin 30°
or M = 9.98 × 105 Am-1
1 Ans. 13. (i) Torque on a Bar Magnet in a Uniform Magnetic
= 0.65 × 0.25 × = 0.08125 Nm ≈ 0.081 Nm
2 Field: A uniform magnetic field B is represented by
Ans. 9. An electromagnet consists of a core made of equidistant parallel lines due to a bar magnet of
a ferromagnetic material placed inside a solenoid. length 2l and strength of each pole is M.
It behaves like a strong magnet when current → →
flows through the solenoid and effectively loses Torque, τ = MB sin θ = M × B
its magnetism when the current is switched off, → →
where as a permanent magnet is also made up of a where, q is the angle between M and B .
ferromagnetic material but it retains its magnetism Its SI unit is joule per tesla (JT -1).
at room temperature for a long time after being
(ii) Here, N = 15 turns, r = 12 cm, B = 0.5 T
magnetised one.
Since the coil is placed in uniform magnetic field
Ans. 10. Relative permeability of iron, mr = 6200 normal to the plane of the coil.
Magnetic susceptibility cm = mr - 1 = 6199 Hence, the angle between magnetic moment and
magnetic field direction is zero (i.e., q = 0°)
Ans. 11. (i) Magnetic Dipole Moment of a Revalving
\ t = MB sin q = MB sin 0° ⇒
t=0
Electron
Ans. 14. (a) The field H is dependent of, the material of
If an electron of charge e revolving with speed n in the core, and is
a circular path of radius r, then the magnetic dipole
H = nI = 1000 × 2.0 = 2 × 103 A/m.
moment of revolving electron is given by
(b) The magnetic field B is given by
e νr
M = B = mr m0 H
2
= 400 × 4p × 10-7 (N/A2) × 2 × 103 (A/m)
Angular momentum, L = mnr = 1.0 T
e (c) Magnetisation is given by

\ M = ⋅L
2me M = (B - m0 H )/m0
= (mr m0 H-m0 H )/m0 = (mr - 1)H = 399 × H
where, me = mass of electron

≅ 8 × 105 A/m

(ii) Magnetic Field due to a Magnetic Dipole (Bar (d) The magnetising current IM is the additional
current that needs to be passed through the
magnet)
windings of the solenoid in the absence of the core
(a) Magnetic field due to a magnetic dipole (bar which would give a B value as in the presence of
magnet) along its axis is given by the core. Thus B = mr n (I + Im). Using I = 2A, B = 1 T,
µ0 2M we get Im = 794 A.
B=
2πr 3 Ans. 15. Magnetic moment M of the magnetic dipole is
defined as the product of the pole strength (m) and
where, M = magnetic moment the magnetic length (2l).
m0 = Permeability of free space M = m × 2l = 2 ml
r = distance from the centre of magnet Magnetic field intensity due to magnetic dipole at a
(b) Magnetic field due to a magnetic dipole point on its axis:
m O m
(bar magnet) perpendicular to its axis is given by
µ0 M P
B= S 2l N B B
4π r 3 d
12 |
North pole of magnet (N ) B1
tan 45° =
µ0 ( + m ) Be
B=
4 π(d − l )2
\ B1 = Be = 0.42 × 10-4 T.
South pole of magnet (S ) At normal bisector
µ0( −m ) µ0 m
B= B1 =
4 π(d + l )2 4π r 3
1
Hence, resultant magnetic field at point P when µ0 m
2l << d:
\ = 0.42 × 10−4 T
4π r 3
1
µ0 2M
B=
5.25 × 10−2
4 πd 3 −7
or 10 × = 0.42 × 10−4 T
r13
where, M = m × 2l.

Magnetic field intensity due to magnetic dipole at a 3 10−7 × (5.25 × 10−2 ) 52.5
or r1 = = × 10−6
point on its equator: 0.42 × 10−4 0.42

B 1/ 3
 52.5 
θ P r1 =  × 10−2 m = (125)1/3 × 10-2 m
 0.42 
Bθ
-2
= 5 × 10 m = 5 cm.

(b) Let B2 be the magnetic field of magnet at its

B
axis, then
Be
r2
θ θ 45
m m B2
S O N
S O N B2
2I tan 45° = \ B2 = Be
Be
Say, 2l = length of the dipole, m = magnetic
strength of each pole, m0 = Magnetic permeability µ0 2m
But at axis of magnet, B2 =
of free space, then magnetic field at point P due to 4π r 3
2
N pole of magnet (direction N - P ) µ0 2m
+ µ0(m )
\ = 0.42 × 10−4
B= 4π r 3
2
4 π(d 2 + l 2 )

2 × 5.25 × 10−2
S pole of magnet (direction P - S) or 10−7 × = 0.42 × 10−4
r23
− µ0m
B=
4 π(d 2 + l 2 ) 2 × 5.25 × 10−2
or r23 = 10−7 ×
Hence, resultant at point P when 2l << d 0.42 × 10−4

µ0M 1/ 3
B=  2 × 52.5 
4 πd 3 or r2 =  × 10−2 m
 0.42 
where, M = m × 2l
1/3
Ans. 16. Given M = 5.25 × 10
-2
JT-1, Be = 0.42 G = 0.42 × = 5 × (2) × 10-2 m
-4
10 T. = 5 × 1.26 × 10-2 m
(a) Let B1 be the magnetic field of magnet at its
= 6.3 × 10-2 m = 6.3 cm.
normal bisector.
B Be
Chapter 6: ElectRomagnetic
45
Induction
B1
r1 Ans. 1. a. 0.02 Wb
1
Here, q = 60°, B = Wbm−2 , A = π (0.2)2
S O N π
 Physics |  Class 12  | 13
1 l
\ f = BA cos q
⇒ φ= × π(0.2)2 × cos 60° = µ0 4n 2A   = µ0n 2Al = L
π  4

2 1 Ans. 10. (i) To obtain a large deflection, he would take
= (0.2) × = 0.02 Wb
2
one or more of the following steps:
Ans. 2. c. Faraday’s first law of electromagnetic (a) he used a rod made of soft iron inside the coil C2,
induction. (b) connect the coil to a powerful battery, and
(c) Move the arrangement rapidly towards the test
Ans. 3. a.
coil C1.
As the coil rotates, the magnetic flux linked with
→ → (ii) He replaced the galvanometer by a small bulb,
the coil (being B ⋅ A ) will change and emf will be the kind one found in a small torch light. The relative
induced in the loop. motion between the two coils will cause the bulb
Ans. 4. b. to glow and thus demonstrate the presence of an
Mutual inductance is the phenomenon according induced current.
to which an opposing emf produce flux in a coil Ans. 11. Here, area of coil A = 0.1 m × 0.05 m = 5 × 10
-3
m2
as a result of change in current of magnetic flux Number of turns, N = 100
linked with a neighbouring coil. But when two coils
Initial flux linked with the coil
are inductively coupled, in addition to induced emf
-3 -4
produced due to mutual induction, also induced f1 = BA cos q = 0.1 × 5 × 10 cos 0° = 5 × 10 Wb

emf is produced in each of the two coil due to Final flux linked with the coil
self-induction. -3 -5
f2 = 0.05 × 5 × 10 cos 0° = 25 × 10 Wb

-4
Ans. 5. Weber = 2.5 × 10 Wb
Ans. 6. self inductance The magnitude of induced emf in the coil is
Ans. 7. (i) a. left N | ∆φ | N | φ2 − φ1 | 100 | 2.5 × 10−4 − 5 × 10−4 |
ε= = =
According to Lenz's the magnetic field created will ∆t t 0.05
oppose the increase in flux through the coil.
100 × 2.5 × 10−4
Ans. (ii) d. down = V = 0. 5 V
0.05
According to Lenz's law, the magnetic field created
Ans. 12. F = BA cos q
will oppose the increase in flux through the coil.
Given, A = 100 cm2 = 10-2 m2 and q = 90° - 70° = 20°
Ans. (iii) b. right
so that cos 20° = 0.94. Therefore,
Since the current is increasing the polarity should
\ F B = 0.1 Wb m-2 × 10-2 × m2 × 0.94 = 0.94 × 10-3 Wb.

be same so magnet should move towards right.
The coil has N = 100 turns. Hence, the flux through
Ans. (iv) a. left
the entire coil is
Since the current is decreasing the polarity should
be opposite so magnet should move towards left. N F = 100 × (0.94 × 10-3) = 0.094 Wb
when B is reduced to zero, N F is also reduced to
Ans. (v) c. DC Motor
zero,
DC motor works on Faraday's principle of
\ D (N F) = 0 - 0.094 = - 0.094 Wb
electromagnetism which states that a current
By Faraday’s law, the emf induced in the coil is
carrying conductor experiences a force when
placed in a magnetic field. ∆(N Φ ) 0.094 Wb
ε=− = = 94 V
∆t 10−3 s
Ans. 8. Magnetic field, B = 0.9

Length, l = 0.4 m The resistance of the coil is R = 10 W. Hence, the
speed, v = 7 m/s current induced in the coil is
\ Induced emf = Blv
ε 94 V
I= = = 9. 4 A
= 0.9 × 0.4 × 7 = 2.52 V R 10 Ω

2 The current persists only during the flux-change
Ans. 9. We know that, L = m0 n Al
(10-3 s). Hence, the charge passed through the coil
l is
n′ = 2n and l ′ =
4
q = I × Dt = 9.4 A × 10-3 s = 9.4 × 10-3 C.
2 l Ans. 13. Given, B = 100 T = 100 Wb/m
2
\ L ′ = µ0(2n ) A  

 4
r = 10 cm = 0.1 m
14 |
Magnetic flux Ans. 15. (i) As field due to current loop 1 at an axial point
2 -2 2
F1 = BA = B × p r = 100 Wb m × {3.14 × (0.1 m) } 1
= 3.14 Wb. 2
I1 R I2
On pulling the circular loop in square shape, the r
length of one side of the square,
2πr 2 × 3.14 × 0.1 m d
= = 0.157 m
4 4
2 2
µ0I 1R 2
\ Area of the square = (0.157 m) = 0.02465 m
B1 =
2(d 2 + R 2 )3/2

\ The magnetic flux linked with the square
  F2 = 100 × 0.02465 Flux linked with smaller loop 2 due to B1 is

     = 2.465 Wb µ0I 1R 2

φ2 = B1A2 = πr 2
2 2 3/ 2
Now, change in magnetic flux 2(d + R )

   DFB = F2 - F1 = 2.465 - 3.14 = - 0.675 Wb The coefficient of mutual inductance between the
This change takes place in 0.1 second. loops is

Hence, Average induced emf φ2 µ0R 2πr 2

M= =
I1 2(d 2 + R 2 )3/2
∆ΦB
− 0.675 Wb
ε=− =− = 6.75 V.
∆t 0. 1 s Flux linked with bigger loop 1 is
  
Ans. 14. (i) As we know, magnetic energy µ0R 2πr 2I 2
φ1 = MI 2 =
1 2 2(d 2 + R 2 )3/2
UB = LI
2 Substituting the given values, we get
2
1  B  4 π × 10−7 × (20 × 10−2 )2 × π × (0.3 × 10−2 )2 × 2
= L φ1 =
 (since B = m0nI, for a solenoid) 2[(15 × 10−2 )2 + (20 × 10−2 )2 ]3/2
2  µ0n 

2 φ1 = 9.1 × 10−11 weber
1  B 
= (µ0n 2Al )  
2  µ0n  N
 (ii) Here, = 10 turns per cm = 1000 turns per
l
1 2
= B Al metre
2µ 0
       A = 3 cm2 = 3 × 10-4 m2
(ii) The magnetic energy per unit volume dl 4 − 2
or       = = 10 As −1
dt 0. 2
UB
uB = (where V is volume that contains flux) dφ d d  N   N  dI
V  Also      ε = = (BA) = A  µ0 I  = Aµ0  
dt dt dt  l   l  dt
UB
=
Al dφ d d  N   N  dI
ε= = (BA) = A  µ0 I  = Aµ0  
dt dt dt  l   l  dt
B2           
= …(1)         = 3 × 10-4 × 4p ×10-7 × 1000 × 10
2µ0

        = 3.8 × 10-6 V
The relation for electrostatic energy stored per
Ans. 16. Let us first consider the forward motion from
unit volume in a parallel plate capacitor,
x = 0 to x = 2b
1
uE = ε E 2 …(2) The flux FB linked with the circuit SPQR is
2 0
FB = Blx 0≤x<b
In both the cases energy is proportional to the = Blb b ≤ x < 2b
square of the field strength. Equations (1) and (2) The induced emf is,
have been derived for special cases: a solenoid
d ΦB
and a parallel plate capacitor, respectively. But ε=−
dt
they are general and valid for any region of space
in which a magnetic field or/and an electric field = - Bln 0≤x<b
exist. =0 b ≤ x < 2b
 Physics |  Class 12  | 15

When the induced emf is non-zero, the current I is Chapter 7: Alternating Current
(in magnitude)
π
Bl ν Ans. 1. b. voltage leads the current by
I= 2
r
π
In an inductor voltage leads the current by or
Outward Inward 2

K L M L K π
current lags the voltage by .
2
Blb
Ans. 2. a. increases
Ans. 3. c.
The inductive reactance limits the amplitude of
Flux

current in a purely inductive circuit in the same

way as the resistance limits the current in a purely
resistive circuit.
ε0
i.e. , I0 =
XL
Blν The inductive reactance is directly proportional to
the inductance and the frequency of the circuit.
EMF

Ans. 4. d. Large eddy currents are produced in

non-laminated iron core of the transformer by the
induced emf, as the resistance of bulk iron core
–Blν is very small. By using thin iron sheets as core
the resistance is increased. Laminating the core
substantially reduces the eddy currents. Eddy
current heats up the core of the transformer. More
the eddy currents greater is the loss of energy and
the efficiency goes down.
B 2l 2ν Ans. 5. instantaneous
r Ans. 6. mutual induction
Force

Ans. 7. (i) c. Power

In an ideal transformer, there is no power loss. The
–B 2l 2 ν efficiency of an ideal transformer is
r
h = 1 (i.e., 100%)
i.e., input power = output power.
Ans. (ii) d. obtain desired AC voltage and current
–B 2l 2ν Transformer is used to obtain desired AC voltage
r and current.
Power

Ans. (iii) c. 110 AC V

VS NS
For a transformer, =
x= o b 2b b o VP NP

where, N denotes number of turns and V = voltage

The force required to keep the arm PQ in
constant motion is IlB. Its direction is to the left. VS 10

\ = or VS = 110 AC V
In magnitude 220 20

B 2l 2 ν Ans. (iv) a. current through its secondary is about four

F= 0≤x<b times that of the current through its primary
r In a transformer, the primary and secondary
= 0 b ≤ x < 2b currents are related by

The Joule heating loss is  Np 
Is =  I
PJ = I r

2  Ns  p

B 2l 2 ν2 and the voltages are related by
= 0≤x<b
r N 
Vs =  s  Vp
= 0 b ≤ x < 2b  N p 

One obtains similar expressions for the inward where, subscripts p and s refer to the primary and
motion from x = 2b to x = 0. secondary of the transformer.
16 |
Np XL = 2 pvL
Here, Vp = V , =4 = 2 × 3.14 × 50 × 25.48 × 10-3 W = 8 W
Ns
1

\ Is = 4Ip Xc =
2πvC
 1 V
and Vs =  4  V = 4
1
= = 4Ω
−6
2 × 3.14 × 50 × 796 × 10
Ans. (v) c. 90% Therefore,
The efficiency of the transformer is
Z = R 2 + (X L − X c )2 = 32 + (8 − 4 )2
Output power (Pout )
η= × 100
Input power (Pin ) =5W

XC − X L
Here, Pout = 100 W, Pin = (220 V) (0.5 A) = 110 W (ii) Phase difference, f = tan−1
R
100 W
\ η=
× 100 ≈ 90%
110 W  4 − 8
= tan−1  = − 53.1°
 3 
Ans. 8. At resonance in LCR circuit, the impedance
becomes ohmic resistance. Since f is negative, the current in the circuit lags
the voltage across the source.
Ans. 9. Output power = 140 W
(iii) The power dissipated in the circuit is
Input power = 240 × 0.7 = 168 W
P = I 2 R
output power
Efficiency = × 100 Im 1  283 
input power Now, I = =   = 40 A
2 2 5 
140
= × 100 = 83.3% Therefore, P = (40 A)2 × 3 W = 4800 W
168
Ans. 14. Let q0 be the initial charge on a capacitor. Let
Ans. 10. Mechanical energy is converted into electrical the charged capacitor be connected to an inductor
energy by an AC generator. of inductance L. This LC circuit will sustain an
oscillation with frequency
Ans. 11. (i) The frequency at which the resonance
occurs is  1 
ω  = 2πv = 
1 1  LC 
ω0 = =
LC 25.48 × 10 −3
× 796 × 10−6 At an instant t, charge q on the capacitor and the

current i are given by:
= 222.1 rad/s q(t) = q0 cos wt
ω0 221.1 I(t) = - q0 w sin wt
vr = = Hz = 35.4 Hz
2π 2 × 3.14 Energy stored in the capacitor at time t is
(ii) The impedance Z at resonant condition is equal 2
1 1 q 2 q0
UE = C V 2 = = cos2 (ωt )
to the resistance: 2 2 C 2 C

Z = R = 3 W Energy stored in the inductor at time t is
The rms current at resonance is 1 2
UM = LI
V V  283  1 2
= = = = 66.7 A
Z R  2  3
1
= L q02 ω2 sin2 (ωt )
The power dissipated at resonance is 2
2 2
P = I × R = (66.7) × 3 = 13.35 kW
q02
Ans. 12. = sin2 (ωt ) ( ω = 1 / LC )
2C
Soft iron-core 
Sum of energies
q02
(cos2 ωt + sin2 ωt )
Secondary

UE + UM =
Secondary
Primary
Primary

2C

q02
=
2C
This sum is constant in time as q0 and C, both are
Ans. 13. (i) To find the impedance of the circuit, we first time-independent. Note that it is equal to the initial
calculate XL and XC. energy of the capacitor.
 Physics |  Class 12  | 17
Ans. 15. (i) We know that P = i V cos f where cos f is
Therefore, the current in the circuit is
the power factor. To supply a given power at a given V 220 V
I= = = 0.755 A
voltage, if cos f is small, we have to increase current Z 291.5 Ω

accordingly. But this will lead to large power loss
2 (b) since the current is the same throughout the
(I R) in transmission.
circuit, we have
(ii) Suppose in a circuit, current I lags the voltage by
VR = IR = (0.755 A) (200 W) = 151 V

an angle f. Then power factor cos f = R/Z.
VC = IXC = (0.755 A) (212.3 W) = 160.3 V

We can improve the power factor (tending to 1)
The algebraic sum of the two voltages, VR and VC
by making Z tend to R. Let us understand, with
is 311.3 V which is more than the source voltage
the help of a phasor diagram how this can be
of 220 V. How to resolve this paradox? As you
achieved. Let us resolve I into two components. Ip
along have learnt in the text, the two voltages are not in
the same phase. Therefore, they cannot be added
V
like ordinary numbers. The two voltages are out
I of phase by ninety degrees. Therefore, the total
Ip of these voltages must be obtained using the
Pythagorean theorem:

VR +C = VR2 + VC2

= 220 V
φ
Thus, if the phase difference between two voltages
is properly taken into account, the total voltage
Iq Iq
O across the resistor and the capacitor is equal to the
the applied voltage V and Iq perpendicular to the voltage of the source.
applied voltage. Iq is called the wattless component
since corresponding to this component of current, Chapter 8: Electromagnetic
there is no power loss. Ip is known as the power Waves
component because it is in phase with the voltage
and corresponds to power loss in the circuit. Ans. 1. c. Both a and b
It’s clear from this analysis that if we want to Ans. 2. b. X-rays
improve power factor, we must completely
Ans. 3. c.
neutralise the lagging wattless current Iq by an
The electromagnetic wave contains sinusoidally
equal leading wattless current Iq. This can be done
time varying electric and magnetic field which
by connecting a capacitor of appropriate value in act perpendicular to each other as well as at right
parallel so that Iq and I′q cancel each other and P is angle to the direction of propagation of waves,
effectively Ip V. so electromagnetic waves are transverse in
(iii) Given, cos f = 0.5 nature. Electromagnetic wave propagate in the
cos f = cos 60° perpendicular direction to both fields.

\ f = 60° Ans. 4. c.
Thus, the phase difference between voltage and One should use porcelain vessels and not metal
current of the circuit is 60°. containers in a microwave oven because of the
danger of getting a shock from accumulated electric
Ans. 16. Given
charges. Metal may also melt from heating.
-6
R = 200 W, C = m 15.0 mF = 15.0 × 10
F
Ans. 5. ampere
V = 220 V, n = 50 Hz

Ans. 6. γ-rays
(a) In order to calculate the current, we need the
impedance of the circuit. It is Ans. 7. (i) d. Radio waves
Ans. (ii) c. Cathode rays
Z = R 2 + X c2 = R 2 + (2πνC )−2
Ans. (iii) c. γ-rays
2 −6 −2
= (200 Ω ) + (2 × 3.14 × 50 × 15.0 × 10 F ) Ans. (iv) a. Microwaves, infrared rays, ultraviolet rays,

gamma rays.
= (200 Ω )2 + (212.3 Ω )2
Ans. 8. Displacement current arises due to varying
= 291.67 W electromotive force.
18 |
Ans. 9. Maxwell’s equations are as follows Ez = 60 sin (0.5 × 103x + 1.5 × 1011 t) V/m

→ →
Q Ans. 14. Given,
(i) ∫ E .d A = ε0
(Gauss’s law of electricity)
 Electric field along y-axis.
→ →
    E = 9.3 V/m
(ii) ∫ B .d A = 0  (Gauss’s law of magnetism)
We know, velocity of light
→ → d φB 8
c = 3 × 10 m/s
(iii) ∫ E .d I =−
dt
 (Faraday’s law)
E
Velocity of light, c =
→ → d φE B
(iv) ∫ B .d I = µ0iC + µ0ε0
dt E 9 .3

⇒    B= = = 3.1 × 10−8 T
 (Ampere-Maxwell law) c 3 × 108
Ans. 10. Microwaves are produced by oscillating current Magnetic induction (B) along z-axis
-8
in vacuum tubes like klystrons, magnetrons, etc. = 3.1 × 10 T

Uses of Microwaves:
Ans. 15.
(i) In RADAR communication.
Gamma rays Radio waves
(ii) In analysis of molecular and atomic structure or Origin
in microwave oven for cooking food. Nuclear decay Lighting
Ans. 11. The magnitude of B is From hottest and From broadcast radio
E most energetic towers, cell phones
B=
c objects in the and radars.
universe, such
6 .3 V / m
= = 2.1 × 10−8 T as neutron stars,
3 × 108 m/ s
pulsars, supernova,
To find the direction, we note that E is along explosions and
y-direction and the wave propagates along x-axis. regions around
Therefore, B should be in a direction perpendicular black holes.
to buth x- and y-axis. Using vector algebra, E × B Main In radio therapy, In fixed and mobile
  Applications sterilisation and radio communication.
should be along x-direction. Since, ( + j) × ( + k ) = i , B
disinfection. radar and other
is along the z-direction.
navigation systems.
-8
Thus, B = 2.1 × 10 kT communication
Ans. 12. Given that, satellites, computer
8 −1 
E = 3.1 NC-1 × cos[(1.8 rad m-1)y + (5.4 × 10 rad s )t ] i
networks.

…(1) Ans. 16. The bulb, as a point source, radiates light in

Comparing (i) with the equation E = E0 cos (ky + wt) all directions uniformly. At a distance of 3 m, the
We get, k = 1.8 rad m-1, surface area of the surrounding sphere is
-1 8
E0 = 3.1 N C , c = 3 × 10 m s , w = 5.4 × 10 rad s
-1 8 -1
A = 4pr2 = 4p(3)2 = 113 m2
2π 2 × 22 The intensity I at this distance is
Now, λ = = = 3.5 m
k 1.8 × 7 Power 100 W × 2.5%
I= =
Ans. 13. (a) Comparing the given equation with Area 113 m2

  x t 
By = B0 sin 2π  +   = 0.022 W/m2
  λ T   Half of this intensity is provided by the electric field
2π and half by the magnetic field.
We get, λ = m = 1.26 cm.
0.5 × 103
1
1
2
1 2
I = ε0E rms
2
C ( )
and = v = (1.5 × 1011 ) / 2π = 23.9 GHz
T 1
-7 8 1
= (0.022 W /m2 )
(b) E0 = B0c = 2 × 10 T × 3 × 10 m/s = 6 × 10 V/m 2
The electric field component is perpendicular to 0.022
the direction of propagation and the direction E rms = V/m
(8.85 × 10−12 )(3 × 108 )
of magnetic field. Therefore, the electric field
component along the z-axis is obtained as = 2.9 V/m
 Physics |  Class 12  | 19
The value of E found above is the root mean square on the phenomenon of total internal reflection at
value of the electric field. Since the electric field in core-clade interface.
a light beam is sinusoidal, the peak electric field, E0 The refractive index of the material of the cladding
is is less than that of core, hence light striking at core-
E0 = 2Erms = 2 × 2.9 V/m cladding interface gets totally internally reflected.

Ans. 4. a.
= 4.07 V/m
Secondary rainbow is a result of four-step process,

Thus, you see that the electric field strength of which are as follows
the light that you use for reading is fairly large.
(i) Refraction at the first surface of raindrop.
compare it with electric field strength of TV of FM
waves, which is of the order of a few microvolts per (ii) Two total internal reflection from the second
metre. surface of raindrop.
Now, let us calculate the strength of the magnetic (iii) Again refraction from the first surface of
field. It is raindrop from where the light finally emerges out.
Thus, the intensity of light is reduced at the second
E rms 2. 9
Brms = = = 9.6 × 10-9 T reflection and hence the secondary rainbow is
c 3 × 108ms −1
fainter than the primary rainbow.
Again, since the field in the light beam is sinusoidal, Ans. 5. invert image
-8
the peak magnetic field is B0 = 2 Brms = 1.4 × 10 T. Ans. 6. converging

Not that although the energy in the magnetic 1  1 1 
Ans. 7. (i) (c) = (µ − 1)  − 
field is equal to the energy in the electric field, the f R R 
 1 2
magnetic field strength is evidently very weak.
For equiconvex lens, R1 = R, R2 = - R
Ans. 17. (i) The waves produced by accelerated charged
1  3   2 1
particles, in which there are sinusoidal variations of = −1 =
20  2   R  R
electric and magnetic field vectors at right angles to
R = 20 cm
each other as well as at right angles to the direction Ans. (ii) (a) When a lens is immersed in a medium whose
of propagation of wave, are called electromagnetic refractive index is greater than that of the lens, its
waves or EM waves. EM waves are transverse in nature changes. Here the lens changes its nature
when immersed in water it means its refractive
nature. index is less than that of water.
(ii) (a) The EM waves suitable for RADAR system is Ans. (iii) (a) According to lens maker’s formula
microwaves. 1  1 1 
= (n − 1)  − 
These waves are produced by special vacuum f  R1 R2 

tubes, namely klystrons, magnetrons and Gunn
 1 1  1
diodes.  − =
R
 1 R 2 f (n − 1)
(b) Infrared waves are used to treat muscular
strain. These waves are produced by hot bodies 1 µg  1 1 
and vibration of molecules and atoms. Ans. (iv) (d) = − 1  − 
fm  µm   R1 R2 

 
! The given lens would behave as concave when fm
Infrared rays are also called the heat rays. becomes negative, for which mm > mg.
Ans. 8. It is due to the refraction of sunlight as it travels
(c) X-rays are used as a diagnostic tools in medicine.
through different layers of the earth’s atmosphere.
These rays are produced when high energy
electrons are stopped suddenly on a metal surface Refraction of light by these layers can make the
of high atomic number. sum appear flattened or distorted. The rays of light
from the upper part and lower part of the periphery
Chapter 9: Ray optics and of the sum bend unequally on travelling through
Optical instruments earth’s atmosphere, making the sun appears oval in
shape.
Ans. 1. d. the eye is not able to decrease the focal length
beyond a limit. Ans. 9. Given, u = - f
1 1 1
Ans. 2. c. refraction of light.
\ From lens formula, − =
v u f
Ans. 3. b.
In optical fibre communication, propagation of signal 1 1 1 1

⇒ + = ⇒ =0
through optical fibre takes place, which is based v f f v
20 |
1 h2 −v
⇒ v= = infinity i.e.,
= −2 =
0 h1 u

Ans. 10. u = - 100 cm, v = ? R = + 20 cm, n1 = 1, and v

⇒ u=
or v = 2u
n2 = 1.5. 2

We know that, Now, using mirror formula

1 1 1 1 1 1
n2 n1 n2 − n1 + = ⇒ + =
− = v u f 2u u −10
v u R
1+2 1  R

\
1.5
+
1
=
0.5 =− ∵f = 2 
v 100 20 2u 10 
3 1 −10 × 3
or v = +100 cm =− ⇒ u= = - 15 cm
2u 10 2
The image is formed at a distance of 100 cm from
v = 2 × u = 2 × - 15 = - 30 cm
the glass surface, in the direction of incident light.
Hence, the object distance and image distance are
Ans. 11. (i) Focal length of spherical mirror does not get - 15 cm and - 30 cm respectively in front of the
affected with the increase of wavelength. mirror.
(ii) Using lens maker’s formula, 1 1 1
(ii) According to mirror formula i.e., + =
1  1 1  v u f
= (µ − 1)  − 
f  R1 R2  1 1 1
= −
v f u
fw (q µ g − 1)
\ f = ( µ − 1)
uf
⇒ v =
q w g u −f
fw 1.5 − 1 0.5 × 1.33 × 20 And we know, the value of u and f for a convex mirror

= =
20 (1.5 / 1.33 − 1) 0.17 are always negative and positive respectively. So,

the value of v will always be positive it means
fw = 78.2 cm convex mirror always forms a virtual image.
Ans. 12. (i) Here, we have f = + 12 cm, R1 = + 10 cm, Ans. 14. Image formed by the first lens
R2 = - 15 cm. 1 1 1
− =
Refractive index of air is taken as unity. v 1 u1 f1

We use the lens formula and the sign convention 1 1 1
has to be applied for f, R1 and R2. − =
v 1 − 30 10

Substituting the values, we have or v1 = 15 cm
1  1 1  The image formed by the first lens serves as the
= (n − 1)  − 
12  10 −15 object for the second. This is at a distance of (15 - 5)

This gives n = 1.5 cm = 10 cm to the right of the second lens. Though
(ii) As we know, the image is real, it serves as a virtual object for the
second lens, which means that the rays appear to
C 1
Refractive index, µ = = come from it for the second lens.
V sinIc
1 1 1
− =
\ V = C sinic = 3 × 108 × sin 30°
v 2 10 −10

1
= 3 × 108 × or v2 = ∞
2
The virtual image is formed at an infinite distance
= 1.5 × 108 ms-1 to the left of the second lens. This acts as an object
Ans. 13. (i) According to question for the third lens.
1 1 1
− =
h v 3 u3 f3

1 1 1
or = +
uv ∞ 30
or v3 = 30 cm
Given, magnification (m) = - 2, R = - 20 cm The final image is formed 30 cm to the right of the
f = - 10 cm third lens.
 Physics |  Class 12  | 21
Ans. 15. Differences between telescope and microscope
B
Rarer
are given as below: medium
(Air)
Characteristics Telescope Microscope Water-air
O1 r O2 r´ O3 D O4 interface
Position of At infinity Near objective at IC
I´ N i > IC
object a distance lying I N Totally
N
between fo and reflected ray
Denser Partially
2fo medium reflected rays
(Water)
Position of Focal plane Beyond 2fo A C
image of objective when fo is the Total Internal Reflection
focal length of Let us consider the condition when the angle of
objective. incidence is equal to critical angle, iC .

For microscope sin IC n2
By Snell’s law, =
fo = 1.25 cm, fe = 5 cm
sin 90° n1

When final image forms at infinity, then

where, n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of
magnification produced by eye lens is given by medium 1 and medium 2 respectively. Let n12 be
L D L 25 the refractive index of medium 1 with respect to
M=− ⋅ ⇒ − 30 = − × medium 2. Then,
fo fe 1.25 5
1
sinIC =
30 × 1.25 n12
L= ⇒ L = 7.50 cm
5
 1 

For objective lens IC = sin−1  
 n12 
vo = L = 7.5 cm
Thus, we have obtained the required relation.
fo = 1.25 cm, uo = ?
(ii) Let us consider the lenses one by one.
Applying lens formula The first lens forms an image of the given object.
1 1 1 1 1 1 Here, object distance, u = - 30 cm
= − ⇒ = −
fo vo uo 1.25 7.5 uo Focal length, f = + 10 cm

Using the lens formula,
1 1 1 1.25 − 7.5 6.25
= − = =− 3 / 2 1 (3 / 2) − 1
uo 7.5 1.25 7.5 × 1.25 7.5 × 1.25 − =
v ∞ 10

7.5 × 1.25 3 / 2 1 (3 / 2) − 1
⇒ uo = −
  or − =
6.25 v ∞ 10
= - 1.5 cm v = 15 cm
The object must be at a distance of 1.5 cm from
+10 cm –10 cm +30 cm
objective lens. O
Ans. 16. (i) The conditions for total internal reflection
are:
I1
(a) light must be trying to travel from optically
denser medium to optically light medium. 30 cm 5 cm 10 cm

(b) the angle of incidence must be greater than a The image I1 formed by the first lens acts as an
object for the second lens.
certain angle known as critical angle.
Here, object distance, u = + 10 cm

Derivation: Suppose light is travelling from medium
Focal length, f = - 10 cm
1 to medium 2. When light strikes the surface
Using lens formula,
separating the media, some of it refracts and 1 1 1 1 1 1
= − or = −
some of it reflects. If we keep increasing the angle f v u −10 v 10
of incidence, the refracted ray becomes parallel   v = ∞
to the surface. This value of angle of incidence is Let us now consider the third lens. It is a converging
known as the critical angle. If we increase the angle lens as it has a positive focal point. An object at
of incidence, even further, we will have a reflected infinity would have its image at the focal point
(either of the focal points as the object is in either
ray and no refracted ray. Thus, we will have total direction).
internal reflection.
22 |
Hence, the final image is formed at 30 cm from the
third lens at either side. N
I
Ans. 17. (i) Derivation of lens maker’s formula. n1
n2
r
I
For paraxial rays, q1 and q2 are small.
O α β C θ
M
R
Therefore, n2 sin q2 = n1 sin q2 (Snell’s law)
u v
Reduces to
sin I I n2
= = Ray diagram showing real image formation as per
sin r r n1
description
  \ I × n1 = r × n2 q1 = a + b
(a + b)n1 = (b – g)n2 q2 = b - g
 NM NM   NM NM  \ g=b-q
n1  + = − n . R = 20 cm, n2 = 1.5, n1 = 1, u = -100 cm
OM MC   MC MI  2

n2 (n2 − n1 ) n1
 1 1  1 1 = +
 +  n2 =  −  n2 v R u
− u R + R u
   
0. 5 1 1.5
= − =
n2 n1 (n2 − n1 ) 20 cm 100 cm 100 cm
− =
v u R
⇒ v = 100 cm, a real image on the other side,
Applying above relations to refraction through a
100 cm away from the surface.
lens:
I
n1 n1 Chapter 10: Wave optics
n2
Ans. 1. a. phase
O I′ I Ans. 2. c. Converging spherical
A convex lens is a converging lens. As the wave
    
1 2 passes through the lens, the get converged towards
For surface 1, the focus. So the wavefront will be of the shape
n1 − n2 n2 n1 of converging spherical surfaces as the wave is
= − …(i) refracted from the lens.
R2 v' v
           Ans. 3. a.
For surface 2, When the speed of light is independent of direction,
n2 − n1 n1 n2 the secondary waves are spherical.
= − …(ii)
R1 v u' Ans. 4. c.
           
Adding eqs. (i) and (ii), All bright interference bands have same intensity
but all bands do not receive same light from two
 1 1  1 1
(n2 − n1 )  −  = n1  −  sources.
R R 
 1 2 v u  Ans. 5. Superposition principle
For            m = ∞, v = f, Ans. 6. angular separation
n1  1 1  λD
\        = (n2 − n1 )  −  Ans. 7. (i) As Z=
f   2d
 R1 R2 
∆x Z
1  n2  1 1  At S4 : =
= − 1  −  d D

f  n1   
          R1 R2 
λD d λ
⇒ ∆x = =
T! P 2d d 2
The focal length of a lens is minimum when it is λD
placed in vacuum. When it is taken in some other Z=
Ans. (ii) 
d
medium focal length increases.
λD d
Dx at S4 : ∆x = =λ
(ii) Finding position of image formed by convex d d
spherical glass surface Hence, maxima at S4 as well as S3.
 Physics |  Class 12  | 23
Resultant intensity at S4, I = 4I0 λ 5500 × 10−10m
1/2 1/2 2 \ sin q1 = = = 0.25
Imax [(4I0 ) + 4(4I0 ) ] e 22.0 × 10−7 m
\ = =∞
Imin [(4I0 ) 1/2 1/2 2
− (4I0 ) ] Similarly, the angular position of the second
Ans. (iii) When the screen is placed perpendicular to the minimum is given by
line joining the sources, the fringes will be concentric 2λ
circles. sin q2 = = 2 × 0.25 = 0.5
e
Ans. (iv) Here, A1 = 3A, A2 = 2A and f = 60°
Ans. 12. Given, b1 = 7.2 × 10-3 m
The resultant amplitude at a point is
b2 = 8.1 × 10-3 m
R= A12 + A22 + 2A1A2 cos φ and l1 = 630 × 10-9 m

Dλ
= (3A)2 + (2A)2 + 2 × 3A × 2A × cos60°  Fringe width, β =
d
2 2 2
= 9A + 4 A + 6A = A 19 where, l = wavelength,
λ   D = separation between slits and screen
Ans. 8. As, angular width, θ = Here, q is independent
d and d = separation between two slits.
of separation between slit and screen. Angular ⇒ b1/b2 = l1/l2( D and d are same)
separation continues to be the same. Wavelength of another source of laser light
Ans. 9. When a wavefront strikes to the corner of
β2
an obstacle, light wave bends around the corner λ2 = × λ1
because every point on wavefront again behaves β1

like a lights source and emit secondary wavelets
in all directions (Huygens’ wave theory) including 8.1 × 10−3
= × 630 × 10−9m
the region of geometrical shadow. This explains 7.2 × 10−3
diffraction.
or l2 = 708.75 × 10-9 m
Ans. 10. Let the width of each slit be a.
\  l2 = 708.75 mm
The separation between m maxima in a double slit
experiment, Ans. 13. (i) Two independent monochromatic sources
λD of light can not produce a sustained interference
ym = m pattern because their relative phases are changing
d
where, D = Distance between screen and slit, randomly. When d is negligibly small fringe width b
d = Separation between slits. is proportional to 1/d may become too large. Even a
Angular separation between m maxima, single fringe may occupy the screen.
λm Hence the pattern can not be detected.
θm = ym / D =
d         (ii) For fringes to be seen s/S ≤ l/d
Now, Angular separation between n bright fringes,
Condition should be satisfied. where, S = size of
λn the source and d = distance of the source from the
θn = ....(1)
d plane of two slits. As, the source slit width increase,
The angular width of central maximum in the the fringe pattern get less and less sharp. When the
diffraction pattern due to single slit, source slit is so wide, then above condition is not
λ satisfied and the interference pattern disappears.
2θ1 = 2 ....(2)
a
The interference pattern due to different colour
where, a = width of single-slit components of white light overlap. The central
From eqs. (1) and (2), we get
bright fringes for different colours are at the same
nλ λ
=2 position. Therefore, the centre fringes are white.
d a
And on the either side of the central fringe i.e.,
\ a = 2d/n central maxima, coloured bands will appear.
Ans. 11. In fraunhofer diffraction at a slit of width e, the The fringe closed on either side of central white
directions of minima on either side of the central
fringes is red and the farthest will be blue. After a
maximum are given by
few fringes, no clear fringes pattern is seen.
e sin q = ± ml, m = 1, 2, 3
Ans. 14. (i) Due to redistribution of light energy because
For the angular position of the first minimum on
one side of central maximum, we have of interference of light which undergo constructive
e sin q1 = l and destructive interference at different points.
24 |
(ii) White light has different components with where, n is integer except n = 0
different wavelength and hence all components Screen
undergo constructive interference at the central Slit P
position to give white maximum but around L2
L1
it the position of destructive interference for y
A θ
one component is overlapped by constructive
θ
component of other colour. Hence, coloured fringes C θ
are observed around the central maximum. a O
N
(iii) For sustained interference, the source must θ
be coherent and should emit the light of same B
frequency. Plane
wavefront
In this problem, one hole is covered with red and D       
other with blue, which has different frequency. so
The wavelets from points A and B will have a path
no interference takes place.
difference equal to BN.
Ans. 15. When plane wavefront coming from distant
From the right-angled ∆ANB, we have
source illuminates the slit of size (= d ), each other
BN = AB sin q
point within the slit becomes the source of secondary
or BN = a sin q
wavelets, and these wavelets superpose on each
other to generate the maxima and minima on the Suppose that the point P on the screen is at such a
distance from the centre of the screen that BN = l
screen path difference between the rays, directing to
and the angle θ = q1.
the point P on the screen can be given as:
λ = a sin q1
To P λ
or sin θ1 =
a
A θ
Such a point on the screen will be the position of
first secondary minimum.
From θ
source
a To C For nth minimum at point P,
M T
θ nλ
sin θn = …(1)
B a
In ∆ABT If yn is the distance of the nth minimum from the
BT ∆ centre of the screen and D is the distance between
sin θ = =
AB a the slit and the screen, then from right-angled

∆COP, we have
Path difference, ∆ = a sin q

OP
Condition of Minima: If slit AB is divided into the tan θn =
CO
equal halves (or in even parts) each of size d/2,
for every point in part AM, there is a point in part or
yn …(2)
tan θn =
MB that contribute the secondary wavelets out D
of phase (i.e., 180°). So, net contribution from two
In case qn is small
halves becomes zero and hence intensity falls to
zero for path difference sin qn = tan qn
∆ = nl Therefore, from the eqs. (1) and (2), we have
∴ a sin θ = nl yn nλ
=
where n is integer except n = 0. D a
Condition of Maxima: If slit AB is divided into nλD
three equal parts (or in odd parts). First two-third or yn = …(3)
a
of the slit having a path difference λ/2 between 
them cancel each other, and only the remaining The width of the secondary maxima,
one-third of the slit contributes to the intensity at the β = yn − yn − 1
point between two minima, so for path difference
 1 nD λ (n − 1)D λ D λ
∆ = n +  λ = − =
 2 a a a

 Since β is independent of n, all the secondary
1
We have, a sin θ =  n + λ maxima are of same width β. The central maxima
 2 
extends upto the distance y1 (the distance of first
 Physics |  Class 12  | 25
-
secondary minima) on both sides of the centre of    = 8 × 10 7 m
the screen.    = 8000 Å (infrared)
Therefore, the width of the central maxima, b0 = 2y1
8000
From eq. (3) setting n = 1, we have For m = 2, λ 2 = Å
2
Dλ
y1 =    = 4000 Å (visible)
a
8000Å
2D λ For m = 3, λ 3 =
Therefore, β0 = …(4) 3
a 
   = 2666 Å (ultraviolet)
It follows that β0 = 2β i.e., the central maxima is
8000Å
twice as wide as any other secondary maxima or For m = 4, λ 4 =
4
minima.
   = 2000 Å (ultraviolet)
!
Divide derivation into steps and then proceed. 11. Dual Nature of radiation
and matter
Ans. 16. (i) Interference of Light Waves: When two light
waves of same frequency travel simultaneously in Ans. 1. d. All of these
the same direction then, due to their superposition, Ans. 2. b. The photocurrent increases with the intensity
the resultant intensity of light of light.
L M N
B Ans. 3. d. 
The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons
S1
D varies linearly with the frequency of incident
radiation, but is independent of its intensity. The
S B number of photoelectrons emitted per second is
S2 directly proportional to the intensity of incident
D radiation.
Ans. 4. a.
B
Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation
at any point in space is different from the sum of of A.
intensities of the two waves. At some points the
Ans. 5. Stopping potential
resultant intensity is maximum while at some
Ans. 6. neutral.
other points it is minimum (nearly darkness). The
re-distribution of light intensity due to the super Ans. 7. (i) a. Emax = hn - f
position of two light waves is called interference of Ans. (ii) b. Stopping potential is the measurement of
light'. maximum kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons
The interference is said to be 'constructive' at points and kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons is
where the resultant intensity is maximum and linearly related with the frequency of incident
'destructive' at points where the resultant intensity light corresponding (i.e., corresponding to shortest
is minimum of zero.
wavelength, K.E. is maximum).
T! P Stopping potential is indepedent of intensity.
Phase difference for destructive interference is odd Ans. (iii) a. According to Einstein’s photoelectric equation,
[i.e., (2n + 1) p] and for constructive interference is hc hc
even [i.e., 2pn]. eV0 = −
λ λ0

(ii) The distance of bright fringes from the central
As l0 is constant, so when l is decreased, stopping

maximum on the screen is given by
potential (V0) increases.
Dλ
x =m , m = 0, 1, 2 Ans. (iv) b. KE1 = hn - f
d
KE2 = nhn - f - n(hn - f) + (n - 1)f
Where m = 0 corresponds to the central maximum. KE2 = nKE1 + (n - 1)f
xd KE2 > nKE1
λ=
mD Ans. 8. As we know,
−3 −3
(10 m ) × (2 × 10 m ) p = mn = 0.12 kg × 20 m s-1 = 2.40 kg m s-1
For m = 1, λ 1 =
1 × (2.5m ) \ de-Broglie wavelength,
26 |
h 6.63 × 10−34 J s 6.63 × 10−34 × 3 × 108  640.2 − 427.2  9
l = = = 2.76 × 10−34 m
p 2.40 kg m s −1
=  427.2 × 640.2  × 10
   1.6 × 10−19
Ans. 9. Stopping potential remains unchanged, if the
distance between the light source and cathode is 12.43 × 10−7 × (213) × 109
= = 0.96V
doubled.    427.2 × 640.2
Ans. 10. (i) Energy of photon, \ V0′ = 0.96 + 0.54 = 1.5 V.
-34
E = hn = 6.6 × 10 × 6 × 1014 Ans. 13. Graph of variation of photoelectric current
-
  = 3.96 × 10 19 J with the intensity of incident radiation on a
(ii) Number of photons, photosentive surface is given as alongside.
P P 2 × 10−3 y
n= = = ≅ 5 × 1015
E hν 6.6 × 10−34 × 6 × 1014

Photoelectric
Ans. 11. For a given material, there exists a certain

current
minimum frequency of the incident radiation below
which no emission of photoelectrons take place. This
frequency is called cut-off frequency or thrushold
frequency of that material.
O x
Given that,
Intensity of incident
threshold frequency of metal = n
radiation
and frequency of light = 2n
By using Einstein’s equation, Given that, l = 3300 × 10-10 m,
1 fNa = 2.75 eV, fMo = 4.175 eV.
h(2ν − ν ) = mv 12 …(1)
2  Then energy of the laser beam is
Similarly for light,
hc 6.6 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
1 E= = = 3.75 eV
h (5ν − ν ) = mv 22 …(2) λ 3300 × 10−10 × 1.6 × 10−19
2 
Since, E < fMo therefore there will be no emission of
From eqs. (1) and (2)
photoelectrons for molybdenum (Mo).
1
mv 12 2 Bringing the source nearer will cause to emit more
h(2ν − ν ) 2 ν v1
= = = photoelectrons as intensity on the plate will incease.
h(5ν − ν ) 1 4ν v 2
mv 22 2
2 Ans. 14. (a) For the cut-off or threshold frequency, the
v1 1 1 energy hn0 of the incident radiation must be equal
\ v = 4 = 2 to work function f0, so that
2
φ0 2.14 eV
Hence, v1 : v2 = 1 : 2 n0 = =
h 6.63 × 10−34 J s
Ans. 12. In first case when source of radiation is neon
lamp.
2.14 × 1.6 × 10−19 J
l = 640.2 nm = 640.2 × 10-9 m, V0 = 0.54 V = = 5.16 × 14 Hz
6.63 × 10−34 J s
From Einstein’s photoelectric equation
Thus, for frequencies less than this threshold
hc
eV0 = −W …(1) frequency, no photoelectrons are ejected.
λ  (b) Photocurrent reduces to zero, when maximum
hc kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons equals
\ e × 0.54 = −W …(2)
the potential energy eV0 by the retarding potential
640.2 × 10−9

V0. Einstein’s Photoelectric equation is
In second case when iron source is the source of
radiation, i.e., l′ = 427.2 nm = 427.2 × 10-9 m, let V0′ hc
eV0 = hn - f0 = − φ0
be the new stopping potential, then Eq. (1) gives λ

hc or l = hc/(eV0 + f0)
eV0′ = −W …(3)
427.2 × 10 −9 (6.63 × 10−34 Js) × (3 × 108 m/s)
 =
(0.60 eV + 2.14 ev)
Subtracting Eq. (2) from Eq. (3), we get
 1 1  19.89 × 10−26 J m
e(V0′ − 0.54) = hc  − =
 427.2 × 10−9 640.2 × 10−9  (2.74 eV)

hc  1 1  19.89 × 10−26 J m
or   V0′ − 0.54 = − × 109 l= = 454 nm
e  427.2 640.2  2.74 × 1.6 × 10−19 J
 Physics |  Class 12  | 27
−9 (ii) According to photon picture of radiation, photons
Ans. 15. Given, λ = 412.5 nm = 412.5 × 10 m
are discrete packets of energy and energy depends
hc on frequency (E = hn). Hence the emission of
∴ E=
λ photoelectrons do not take place, till the frequency
of incident light is above the value. As the energy
6.62 × 10−34 × 3 × 108 depends on frequency so by increasing the frequency,
= eV = 3.01 eV.

412.5 × 10−9 × 1.6 × 10−19 kinetic energy of photoelectron increases.

From the given table, work function (f) of the 12. Atoms
following metals are given as:
Ans. 1. d. Angular momentum
Na → 1.92 eV
Ans. 2. b. Balmer
K → 2.15 eV Ans. 3. d. Bohr’s second postulate states that the

Ca → 3.20 eV stationary orbits are those for which the angular

momentum is some integral multiple of h/2p, i.e.,
Mo → 4.17 eV h
As the given energy is greater than the work L=n
                 2π
function of Na and K only, hence these metals show
where n is an integer called quantum number. But
photoelectric emission.
linear momentum is not quantised.
Ans. 16. (i) Three features of photoelectric effect, which
Ans. 4. (b) When the atom gets appropriate energy from
cannot be explained by the wave theory of light, are:
outside, then this electron rise to some higher
(a) Maximum kinetic energy of emitted electrons is
indenpendent of the intensity of incident light. energy level. Now it can return either directly to the
(b) There exists a ‘threshold frequency’ for each lower energy level or come to the lowest energy
photosensitive material. level after passing through other lower energy
(c) ‘Photoelectric effect’ is instantaneous in nature. level hence all possible transitions take place in the
Einstein’s photoelectric equation, source and many lines are seen in the spectrum.
KEmax = hn - f1 Ans. 5. infrared
[Alternatively: eV0 - hn - f0] can be used to explain Ans. 6. hydrogenic
these features as follows.
v
(a) Einstein’s equation shows that Kmax ∝ n. However, Ans. 7. (i) Angular speed, ω =
Kmax does not depend on the intensity of light. r
1
φ0 Further, v ∝ and r ∝ n3
(b) Einstein’s equations shows that for ν < , K max n
h
1
becomes negative, i.e, there cannot be any Hence, ω ∝
 φ0  n3
photoemission for n < ν0  where, ν0 = h  . \ Angular speed of the electron in the nth orbit of
 
Bohr’s hydrogen atom is inversely proportional to
(c) The free electrons in the metal, that completely
n3.
absorb the energy of the incident photons, get
emitted instantaneously. Ans. (ii) Change in the angular momentum of electron
(ii) (a) Slop of the graph between V0 and n (from 3h
=
Einstein’s equation) equals (h/e). Hence, it does not 2 π
depend on the nature of the material.
(b) Emitted electrons have greater energy for Ans. (iii) The energy of nth Bohr orbit in hydrogen atom
material M1. This is because f0 (= hno) has a lower is
value for material M1. 13.6
En = − eV
Ans. 17. (i) When light is incident on a metal surface, n2
it spread evenly all over the metal surface and For lowest orbit, n = 1
\ E1 = - 13.6 eV
it can not explain the instantaneous emission
Thus, the lowest Bohr orbit in hydrogen atom has
of photoelectrons. According to wave nature of the least energy.
radiation it is continuous and follow the principle of Ans. (iv) The angular momentum of the electron can
superposition hence it can not explain the existence only be an integral multiple of h/2p.
11
of threshold frequency. Wave nature can not explain Ans. 8. Given, r = 1.5 × 10 m
the fact that kinetic energy of the emitted electrons n = 3 × 104 ms-1
is independent of intensity of radiation and depends   m = 6 × 1024 kg
on frequency. \ According to Bohr’s model
28 |
nh For shortest wavelength in Balmer series, the
  mnr = spectral series is given by
2π
n1 = 2, n2 = ∞
2πm νr
or   n = 1  1 1 
h ⇒ = R 2 − 2
λ 2 ∞ 
2 × 22 × 6 × 1024 × 3 × 104 × 1.5 × 1011
=
7 × 6.6 × 10−34 1 1 1 R 4
⇒ =R× ⇒ = ⇒l =
λ 4 λ 4    R
= 2.57 × 1074
Ans. 9. The radius of atom whose principal quantum 4 7 -1
l = [ R = 1.097 × 10 m ]
2 1.097 × 107 
number is n is given by r = n r0
where, r0 = radius of innermost electron orbit for ⇒  l = 3.64 × 10-7 m.
-11
hydrogen atom and r0 = 5.3 × 10 m The lines of Balmer series are found in the visible
For second excited state, n = 3
part of the spectrum.
2 -11
\ r = 3 × r0 = 9 × 5.3 × 10
-10 Ans. 13. From Rutherford atom model
r = 4.77 × 10 m
m ν2 1 Ze 2

Ans. 10. Total energy of the electron in hydrogen atom is = ⋅

r 4 πε0 r 2
-13.6 eV = - 13.6 × 1.6 × 10
-19
J = -2.2 × 10-18 J.

e2 1 Ze 2
\ E =− = −2.2 × 10−18 J ⇒ mn2 = ⋅ …(1)
8πε0r 4 πε0 r

v
This gives the orbital radius
e2 (9 × 109 N m2 / C2 )(1.6 × 10−19 C)2 e−
r =− =−
8πε0E (2) ( −2.2 × 10−18 J)
r
  = 5.3 × 10-11 m.
The velocity of the revolving electron with +Ze
m = 9.1 × 10-31 kg.
e
v= = 2.2 × 106 m/s.
4 πε0mr
Potential energy between two charges
1 Ze 2
Ans. 11. The velocity of electron, nn = 1 q1q2 1 ( + Ze )( −e )
n 2hε0 U = =
4 πε0 r 4 πε0 r
-19
Here, Z = 1, e = 1.6 × 10 C,
e0 = 8.85 × 10-12 NC2m-2, 1 Ze 2
=− …(2)
h = 6.62 × 10-34 J-s and n = 2 4 πε0 r

 (in 1st excited state) Total energy of the electron,
1 × (1.6 × 10−19 )2 E = PE + KE
⇒ n2 =
2 × 2 × (6.62 × 10−34 ) × (8.85 × 10−12 )
1 Ze 2 1
= 1.09 × 106 m/s =− ⋅ + m ν2 …(3)
4 πε0 r 2

n h ε0
2 2

Radius of orbit, r2 = From equation (1) and (3)

πme 2
Here, m = 9.1 × 10-31 kg 1 Ze 2 1 1 Ze 2
  E = − ⋅ + × ⋅
(2)2 × (6.62 × 10−34 )2 × (8.85 × 10−12 ) 4 πε0 r 2 4 πε0 r
⇒ r2 =
3.14 × (9.1 × 10−31 ) × (1.6 × 10−199 )2 1 1 Ze 2 1 Ze 2
=− × ⋅ =− ⋅
= 212 × 10-10 m 2 4 πε0 r 8πε0 r
 
Time period or orbital period,
Negative sign indicates that the electron remains
2πr2 2 × 3.14 × 2.12 × 10−10
T = = = 1.22 × 10-15 s bound with the nucleus (or electron-nucleus form
ν2 1.09 × 106
an attractive system).
Ans. 12. Since, we know that for Balmer series,
Ans. 14. The Schematic arragement of Geiger-Marsdon
1  1 1
= R  2 − 2  , n2 = 3, 4, 5. ..... Experiment (also known as Rutherford Scattering
λ 2 n2 
Experiment) is shown in fig.
 Physics |  Class 12  | 29
Lead bricks Gold foil Zns screen (iii) Suppose the distance of closest approach of
the a-particle to the nucleus is r0. At this distance,
Beam of whole of the kinetic energy (K) of the particle will be
Source α-particles Most converted into the potential energy (U). Hence,
of
φ of
α-particles α-particles 1 (Z e )(2 e )
K =U =
4 πε0 r0

− 10−4 m thick)
(∼
1 2Z e2
or r0 =
Detector 4 πε0 K

Only a small fraction of number of a-particles Substituting the values:

rebound back. This shows that the number of 2 × 47 × (1.6 × 10−19 )2
a-particles undergoing head on collision is very r0 = (9.0 × 109 ) ×
6.4 × 10−13
small. The conclusion is that the entire positive
charge of atom is concentrated in a small volume = 3.4 × 10-14 m.
called the nucleus. Ans. 16. (i) Average deflection of a-particle is about the
At the distance of head on approach, the entire kinetic same in both models.
energy of a-particle is converted into electrostatic (ii) Probability of backward scattering of a-particles
potential energy. This distance of head on approach predicted by Thomson’s model is much less in
gives an upper limit of the size of nucleus (denoted Thomson’s model.
(iii) It predicts that the scattering of a-particles is
by r0) and is given by
due to single collision of a-particle with the nucleus
Nucleus
of atom. As the number of target atoms increases
linearly with increase of thickness, so the number
of particles scattered increases with the number of
atoms and hence increases linearly with thickness t.
ro
(iv) In Thomson’s model, a single collision causes
very little deflection. The observed scattering
angle can be explained only if we consider multiple
scattering, so it is completely wrong to ignore
1 (Ze )(2e ) multiple scattering in Thomson’s model.
Ek = On the other hand in Rutherford’s model most of
4 πε0 r0
scattering is due to a single collision because the
1 2Ze 2 whole positive charge is assumed to be concentrated
⇒ r0 =
4 πε0 E k in a small nucleus, multiple scattering effects can
-14 be ignored to a first approximation.
This is about 10 m.
Ans. 17. The key idea here is that throughout the scattering
Ans. 15. (i) The charge on the a-particle is q = 2e and the process, the total mechanical energy of the system
6
accelerating potential difference is V = 2 × 10 volt. consisting of an a-particle and a gold nucleus is
Hence, the kinetic energy of the particle is
conserved. The system’s initial mechanical energy
K = qV = (2 × 1.6 × 10-19 C) × (2 × 106 V) is EI , before the particle and nucleus interact, and
-13
= 6.4 × 10 J it is equal to its mechanical energy Ef when the
(ii) The positive charge on the silver nucleus is Ze, a-particle momentarily stops. The initial energy Ei is
where Z = 47. Therefore, the potential energy of just the kinetic energy K of the incoming a-particle.
the a-particle at a distance r = 5 × 10-14 m from the The final energy Ef is just the electric potential
nucleus is energy U of the system.
1 (Z e )(2 e ) Let d be the centre-to-centre distance between the
U=
4 πε0 r a-particle and the gold nucleus when the a-particle

is at its stopping point. Then we can write the
(9.0 × 109Nm2 C−2 ) × (2 × 47) × (1.6 × 10−19 C)2 conservation of energy Ei = Ef as
=
5 × 10−14 m 1 (2e )(Ze ) 2Ze 2
  
K = =
= 4.3 × 10 -13
J. 4 πε0 d 4 πε0d
-13

Thus, 4.3 × 10 J of kinetic energy is converted Thus the distance of closest approach d is given by
into potential energy. Hence, the kinetic energy of 2Ze 2
-14 d =
the a-particle at a distance of 5 × 10 m from the 4 πε0K
nucleus is The maximum kinetic energy found in a-particles of
-13 -13 -13
6.4 × 10 J - 4.3 × 10 J = 2.1 × 10 J. natural origin is 7.7 MeV or 1.2 × 10-12 J. Since 1/4pe0
30 |
= 9.0 × 109 N m2/C2. Therefore with e = 1.6 × 10-19 C, 3mp
3 × 1.007825 × 1.66 × 10−27
we have, ρ= =
22 4 πR03
(2)(9.0 × 109 Nm2 / C2 )(1.6 × 10−19 C)2 Z 4× × (1.1 × 10−15 )3
d = 7
1.2 × 10−12 J   = 2.98 × 1017 kg m-3
-16
  = 3.84 × 10 Z m Mass Amp
The atomic number of foil material gold is Z = 79, Ans. (iii) (d) Density = =
Volume 4
π(R0A1/3 )
so that d (Au) = 3.0 × 10-14 m = 30 fm. (1 fm (i.e., fermi) 3
-15
= 10 m.) mp
=
The radius of gold nucleus is, therefore, less than 4 3
-14 πR
3.0 × 10 m. This is not in very good agreement 3 0
with the observed result as the actual radius of gold
where, mp = 1.6 × 10-27 kg3
nucleus is 6 fm. The cause of discrepancy is that the
distance of closest approach is considerably larger = 2.3 × 1017 kg m-3, which is a constant
than the sum of the radii of the gold nucleus and the Ans. (iv) (d) Here, A1 = 27, A2 = 125, R1 = 3.6 fm
a-particle. Thus, the a-particle reverses its motion 1/3 1/3
R2 A   125  5
without ever actually touching the gold nucleus. As, =  2 = =
R1  A1   27  3
13. Nuclei
5 5
Ans. 1. a. 9 × 1013 J \ R2 = R = × 3.6 = 6 fm
3 1 3
2
Using, E = mc
-3 -1 Ans. 8. Energy, E = 10-3 × (3 × 108)2 J
Given, m = 1 g = 1 × 10 kg, c = 3 × 108 ms
  E = 10-3 × 9 × 1016 = 9 × 1013 J
\    E = 10-3 × 9 × 1016 = 9 × 1013
Thus, if one gram of matter is converted to energy,
Ans. 2. d. Cadmium there is a release of enormous amount of energy.
Ans. 3. a.
Ans. 9. mFe = 55.85, u = 9.27 × 10-26 kg
As we know
mass
Radius of nucleus, R = R0 A
1/3 Nuclear density =
volume
4 3
and Volume of nucleus, V = πR A
3 0 9.27 × 10−26 1
= ×
considering mass of photon = mass of neutron = m     (4 π / 3) (1.2 × 10−15 )3 56
and mass of nucleus M = mA
17
= 2.29 × 10 kg m
-3

Mass mA
\ Density = = The density of matter in neutron stars (an
Volume 4 3
πR A astrophysical object) is comparable to this density.
3 0
This shows that matter in these objects has been
m
= compressed to such an extent that they resemble a
4 3
πR big nucleus.
3 0
Ans. 10. The number of nuclei undergoing the decay
Thus, the density is independent of mass number.
per unit time, at any instant, is proportional to the
Ans. 4. b.
total number of nuclei present in the sample at that
Nuclear force is a powerful attractive force acts instant. This is the law of radioactive decay.
as long as the distance between particles is within
10-15 m. This force is charge independent. But as No
distance increases, the effect of nuclear force
rapidly falls. Electrons are distributed far away. The
distance is beyond the range of the nuclear force. N
Hence, nuclear force has no effect on electrons. No N = No e−λt
Ans. 5. mass 2
Ans. 6. Nuclear fusion.
-15
No
Ans. 7. (i) (d) Here R = 3 × 10 m 4
Nuclear mass = 16 amu = 16 × 1.66 × 10-27 kg
No
Nuclear mass 16 × 1.66 × 10−27 16
ρnu = =
Nuclear volume 4 T1/2 2T1/2 3T1/2 4T1/2
π(3 × 10−15 )3
3 t
= 2.359 × 1017 kg m-3 ≅ 2.4 ×1017 kg m-31
No
Number of undecayed nuclei at t = 2T1/2 and is
Ans. (ii) (a) Density, 4
 Physics |  Class 12  | 31
N0 1
1
1
t = 4T1/2, it is = .  3 3
16 Hence, R0A 3 =  (mA)3
 4 πρ 
Ans. 11. Nuclear Chain Reaction: When a uranium
( 92U
235
) nucleus is bombarded by a slow neutron, Cubing both sides

the nucleus is split into two nearly equal fragments 3

R03A = mA
along with emission of energy and two or three fast    4 πρ
neutrons. Under favourable condition, the emitted 3m
or ρ=
neutrons fission other nearfy uranium nuclei in 4 πR03
the same manner, causing further emission of
Hence, nuclear density r, over a wide range of nuclei
energy and more neutrons (Fig.). Thus, a chain of
is constant and independent of mass number A.
nuclear fissions is established which continues until
whole of the uranium is consumed. This process is Ans. 14. (a) The alpha decay of
238
92
U is given by
known as ‘nuclear chain reaction’. Since, in the chain A A−4
Z X →Z − 2 Y + 24He . The energy released in this
reaction the number of nuclei undergoing fission
2
increases very fast and about 200 MeV energy is process is given by Q = (mU - mTh - mHe) C
emitted per fission, the energy produced takes a Substituting the atomic masses as given in the data,
tremendous magnitude very soon. we find
Q = (238.05079 - 234.04363 - 4.00260) u × c2
  = (0.00456 u)c2
  = (- 0.00456 u) (931.5 MeV/u)
  = 4.25 MeV

(ii) If
238
92
U spontaneously emits a proton, the decay

process would be 238

92
U→ Pa + 11H
237
91

The Q for this process to happen is

= [mU - mPa - mH] c2
Ans. 12. Energy released = ∆m × 931 Mev = (238.05079 - 237.05121 - 1.00783) u × c2
∆m = 4m (11 H) - m (24 He) = (- 0.00825 u) c2

energy released (Q) = [4m (11 H) − m (24 He)] × 931 MeV = - (0.00825 u) (931.5 MeV/u)
= - 7.68 MeV
 = [4 × 1.007825 - 4.002603] × 931 MeV
Thus, the Q of the process is negative and therefore
  = 26.72 MeV.
it cannot proceed spontaneously. We will have to
Ans. 13. Mass of nucleus,
M = Volume of nucleus × Nuclear density supply in energy of 7.68 MeV to a 238
92
U nucleus to
M=V×r make it emit a proton.
4
M = πR 3ρ Ans. 15. (i) Graph of potential energy of a pair of
3 (R = radius of the nucleus)
nucleons as a function of their separation is given in
3 3M
R = the figure.
4 πρ
W0
1
1
Potential energy (MeV)

 3 3
R =  M3 +100
 4 πρ  ....(1)
If m = Mass of one nucleon
0
M = mA, where A = mass number (Z + N) r (fm)
Putting the value of M in eq. (1), we get
1 –100
1 0 r0 1 2 3
 3 3
R =  (mA)3
 4 πρ  Repulsive Attractive
We know that (ii) As in a nuclear process, the number of electrons
1
and protons remains the same on both side of
R = R0A 3
reaction.
32 |
Hence, atomic mass, 1 +235 = a + 94 + 2(1) therefore certain mass defect occurs which converts
⇒ a = 140 into energy as per Einstein’s mass-energy relation.
and atomic number, Thus, energy is released during nuclear fusion.
0 + 92 = 54 + b + 2(0) e.g. H1 + H1 → H2 + e + + ν + 0.42 MeV
1 1 1
⇒ b = 38
2
Ans. 16. d. The variation of binding energy per nucleon Also, 1H + 1H2 → 1H3 + 1H1 + 4.03 MeV
versus mass number is shown in figure.
(ii) The sum of masses of nuclei of product element
Fe is less than the sum of masses of reactants and
8.6
hence, loss of mass takes place during the reaction.
8 This difference of mass of product elements and
reactant gets converted into energy and liberated in
the form of heat.
Bn 20
Here, the sum of masses of 10Ne and 2He4 is less
MeV
than the sum of two 6C12 and conversion of this mass
20 56 180 defect is used to produce energy.
A
14. Semiconductor Electronics: Ma-
The binding energy curve indicates that binding
energy for nucleon of heavy nuclei is less than terials, Devices and Simple Circuits
that of middle nuclei. Clearly a heavy nucleus Ans. 1. (d) 0 K
breaks into two lighter nuclei then binding At 0 K temperature semiconductor behaves as
energy per nucleon will increase and energy an insulator, because at very low temperature
will be released in the process. This process is electrons cannot jump from the valence band to
called nuclear fission. Nuclear fission reaction is conduction band.
235
92
U +01 n → 141
56
Ba + 92
36
Kr + 3(01 n ) + 200MeV Ans. 2. c. As the output voltage obtained in a half wave
rectifier circuit has a single variation in one cycle of
(slow neutron)
ac voltage, hence the fundamental frequency in the
Ans. 17. (i) (a) Nuclear Fission: The phenomenon of
ripple of output voltage would be = 50 Hz.
splitting of heavy nuclei (mass number > 120) into
Ans. 3. a. Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and
smaller nuclei of nearly equal masses is known as
Reason (R) is the correct explanation of Assertion
nuclear fission.
(A).
In nuclear fission, the sum of the masses of the
product is less than the sum of masses of the Ans. 4. b. Intrinsic + Pentavalent ⇒   n-type
reactants. This difference of mass gets converted semiconductor impurity semiconductor
2
into energy E = mc and hence sample amount of (Neutral) (Neutral) (Neutral)
energy is released in a nuclear fission.
Ans. 5. electrons.
e.g. 235 1
→ 141 92
+ 3 01 n + Q
92 U + 0n 56Ba + 36 Kr Ans. 6. As we know,

nenh = nI
2
Masses of reactant = 235.0439 amu + 1.0087 amu
  = 236.0526 amu
nI2
Masses of product = 140.9139 + 91.8973 + 3.0261 \   nh =
ne
= 235.8373 amu
Mass defect = 236.0526 - 235.8373 = 0.2153 amu (6 × 108 )2
= = 4 × 104 per m3
 1 amu ≡ 931 MeV 9 × 1012
⇒ Energy released = 0.2153 × 931 Ans. 7. (i) In insulator, energy band gap is > 3 eV.
= 200 MeV nearly
Ans. (ii) In conductor, separation between conduction
235 .
92 U
Thus, energy is liberated in nuclear fission if and valence bands is zero and in insulator, it is
greater than 1 eV. Hence in semiconductor the
(b) Nuclear Fusion The phenomenon of conversion separation between conductin and valence band is
of two lighter nuclei into a single heavy nucleus is 1 eV.
called nuclear fusion. Ans. (iii) According to band theory the forbidden gap in
Since, the mass of the heavier product nucleus is conductors Eg ≈ 0, in insulators Eg > 3 eV and in
less than the sum of masses of reactant nuclei and semiconductors Eg < 3 eV.
 Physics |  Class 12  | 33
Ans. (iv) Ans. 11.
Fictitious battery
Junction VB
Acceptor ion Donor ion electron

Hole

Ans. 8. The fractional change due to incident light on

p-type n-type
minority charge carriers in reverse bias is much
The two process involved in the formation of p-n

more than that over the majority charge carriers in junction.
forward bias. So, photodiodes are used to measure (a) Diffusion (b) Drift.
the intensity in reverse bias condition. Holes and electrons diffuse from p to n and n to p
Ans. 9. If input frequency is 50 Hz, respectively.
The majority charge carrier drifts under the
then output frequency = 2 × 50 = 100 Hz
influence of applied electric field such that
Ans. 10. The diagram of illuminated p -n junction solar (a) holes along applied E and
cell is given below. (b) electron opposite of E
I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell: Ans. 12. The 4 bonding electrons of C, Si or Ge lie,
respectively, in the second, third and fourth orbit.
Hence, energy required to take out an electron
from these atoms (i.e., ionisation energy Eg) will be
- - Depletion least for Ge, followed by Si and highest for C. Hence,
layer number of Free electrons for conduction in Ge and
- -
Si are significant but negligibly small for C.
- - Ans. 13. Full Wave Rectifier: For full wave rectifier we
use two junction diodes. The circuit diagram for full
Processes involved due to generation of emf in a wave rectifier using two junction diodes is shown in
solar cell are given below figure.
Input A.C. signal

P1 S1 D1 N
(a) When light photon reach the junction, the excited
P
electrons from the valence band to conduction band RL
B A
creating equal number of holes and electrons. S Output

(b) These electron hole pairs move in opposite P2 S2 P D2 N

direction due to junction field. Their movement Suppose during first half cycle of input ac signal the
in opposite direction creates potential difference terminal S1 is positive relative to S and S2 is negative
(photo-voltage). relative to S, then diode D1 is forward biased and
diode D2 is reverse biased. Therefore current flows
(c) When load is connected in the external circuit,
in diode D1 and not in diode D2. The direction of
current starts flowing through it due to photo-
current I1 due to diode D1 in load resistance RL is
voltage. directed from A to B. In next half cycle, the terminal
I-V characteristics of solar cell: S1 is negative relative to S and S2 is positive relative
to S. Then diode D1 is reverse biased and diode D2 is
I
forward biased. Therefore current flows in diode II
Open Circuit
and there is no current in diode D1. The direction of
Voltage
Voc current D2 due to diode D2 in load resistance is again
V from A to B. Thus for input a.c. signal the output
Short Circuit
Voltage current is a continuous series of unidirectional
I sc
pulses. This output current may be converted in
fairly steady current by the use of suitable filters.
 34 |
bias to be almost independent of applied potential.
Input At the critical voltage, avalanche break down takes
2T Time
wave form T place which results in a sudden flow of large
current.
(ii) At the critical voltage, the holes in the n-side and
conduction electrons in the p-side are accelerated
due to the reverse-bias voltage. These minority
Output wave carriers acquire sufficient kinetic energy from the
form of full 2T Time
T electric field and collide with valence electrons.
wave rectifier
Thus, the bond is finally broken and the valence
electrons move into the conduction band resulting
Ans. 14. In the circuit, if D1 is open and D2 is short, then
in enormous flow of electrons and thus result
equivalent circuit will be
in formation of hole-electron pairs. Thus, there
3
is a sudden increase in the current at the critical
voltage. Zener diode is the semiconductor device
3
which operates under the reverse bias in the
breakdown region.
Ans. 16. (i) During the formation of p-n junction, the two
10V 2.5 processes that take place are diffusion and drift of
3  D2 is reverse biased and D1 conducts. charge carriers.
Hence, equivalent circuit will be In an n-type semiconductor, the concentration of
3 3 electrons is more than that of holes. Similarly,
in a p-type semiconductor, the concentration of
holes is more than that of electrons. Formation of
depletion region during formation of p-n junction
10V 2.5 10V 2.5 and due to the concentration gradient across p
and n-sides, holes diffuse from p-side to n- side
10 10
\ Current, I = = = 1.818 A (p → n) and electrons diffuse from n -side to p-side
3 + 2.5 5.5
(n → p). The diffused charge carriers combine with
Ans. 15. (a) The V-I characteristics of p-n junction diode their counterparts in the immediate vicinity of the
is as follows: junction and neutralise each other.
+I(mA) Thus, near the junction, positive charge is built on
n-side and negative charge on p-side.
Forward
Current Electron diffusion
Electron drift

p n
−V +V
Reverse Forward
Bias Bias
Depletion region
Hole diffusion
Hole drift
Reverse
Current Process of p-n junction formation
I(∝A) This sets up potential difference across the junction
and an internal electric field Ei directed from n-side
(i) Under the reverse bias condition, the holes of
to p-side. The equilibrium is established when the
p-side are attracted towards the negative terminal
field EI becomes strong enough to stop further
of the battery and the electrons of the n-side are
diffusion of the majority charge carriers (however,
attracted towards the positive terminal of the it helps the minority charge carriers to drift across
battery. This increases the depletion layer and the the junction).
potential barrier. However, the minority charge The region on either side of the junction which
carriers are drifted across the junction production becomes depleted (free) from the mobile charge
a small current. At any temperature, the number carriers is called depletion region or depletion
of minority carriers is constant and very small so layer. The potential difference developed across
there is the small current at any applied potential. the depletion region is called the potential
This is the reason for the current under reverse barrier.
 Physics |  Class 12  | 35
Ans. 17. In semiconductors: Valence band and conduction
band are separated by a small energy gap.
Electron energy
Conduction band
Ev In insulators: They are separated by a large energy
Ec Eg ≅ 0 gap.
(b) In conductors: Large number of free electrons
Valence band
are available in conduction band.
Conductor In semiconductors: A very small number of
Conduction bond
electrons are available for electrical conduction.
Electron energy

Ec
In insulators: Conduction band is almost empty i.e.,
Ec < 3 eV
no electron is available for conduction.
Ev
Effect of Temperature:
Valence bond
(i) In conductors: At high temperature, the collision
of electrons become more frequent with the atoms/
Semiconductor
molecules at lattice site in the metals as a result the
conductivity decreases (or resistivity increases).
Electron energy

Ec
(ii) In semiconductors: As the temperature of the
Eg > 3 eV
semiconducting material increases, more electrons
Ev hole pairs becomes available in the conduction
band and valance band, and hence the conductivity
increases or the resistivity decreases.
Insulator (iii) In insulators: The energy band between
Distinguishing features conduction band and valance band is very large, so
(a) In conductors: Valence band and conduction it is unsurpassable for small temperature rise. So,
band overlap each other. there is no change in their behaviour.