Chapter-1: Introduction to Metal Cutting Machine Tools

Machine tools are devices for cutting materials (mostly metals), to impart them the required shape. They
have an in-built arrangement that facilitates the use of various types of detachable cutting tools that can be
changed to suit the task at hand, and removed for replacement or resharpening, after wear. The cut-off
material obtained is usually in the form of chips. This is the material peeled off the workpiece by the tool.
It can be continuous like a ribbon or in broken chips.

1.1 Classification of Machine Tools:

• Machine tools can be classified according to size: light duty (weighing less than 1 tonne), medium
duty (1 to 10 tonnes), and heavy duty (above 10 tonnes).
• Some people prefer classification according to the method of actuation: manually operated, semi-
automatic, and fully automated.
• Another method of classification segregates machine tools according to purpose: general purpose
machine tools, which can be used for a wide variety of operations, on a range of sizes of
workpieces, and special purpose machine tools, for specific operations, on a limited range of
workpiece sizes and shapes.
• Another method classifies machine tools according to the types of motions used for removing
material. Rotary cutting machines rotate workpiece (turning lathes, capstans, turrets, autos), or
the cutting tool (drill, milling cutter, grinding wheel), or both (cylindrical grinder). Linear cutting
machines remove material by moving the tool (shaping, slotting), or the workpiece (planning,
surface grinding), in a straight line. In both the types of machine tools, linear motion is used for
moving (feeding) the workpiece or the tool, to mate (engage) them for material removal.
• Feed classification can further subdivide machine tools as: The axial feed machines such as
drilling machines that move the workpiece/ tool, parallel to the axis of the machine spindle, and
the transverse feed machines, such as face milling machines that move the workpiece or tool, in
a direction that is at right angle to the m/c spindle axis. Combined feed machines, such as centre
lathes and boring machines, can use both types of feeds.

1.2 General Requirements of Machine Tools:

Any machine tool should satisfy the following requirements:

1. High productivity
2. Ability to provide the required accuracy of shape and size and also necessary surface finish.
3. Simplicity of design
4. Safety and convenience of controls
5. Good appearance
6. Low cost of manufacturing and operation

We shall discuss how these requirements are met in the design of machine tools.
1.2.1 High Productivity:
Productivity of a metal cutting machine tool is given by the expression,

1
𝑄=( ).𝑛
𝑡𝑐 + 𝑡𝑛𝑜
where 𝑡𝑐 = machining time
𝑡𝑛𝑜 = non-productive time that includes job handling time, tool handling time, time of idle travel prior
to commencement of cut, time of idle travel for guiding the tool to home position after completion of
cut, set up time, inspection time and time spent on unscheduled delays,
n = factor that accounts for stoppages for maintenance as well as unscheduled stoppages on account of
breakdowns.
Based on above equation, the productivity of metal cutting can be improved by following methods:

(i) Cutting down machining time: This is possible if high cutting speeds and feed rates are
available on the machine tool in accordance with the latest developments in cutting tool
materials and design. At the design stage itself, the machine tool must be provided with a
margin to accommodate future developments so that it does not become obsolete in a short
period of time. The application of stepless mechanical, hydraulic and electrical drives also
helps in reducing machining time as the optimum cutting speed can be accurately set without
reducing its value to the nearest available rpm on the machine tool with a stepped drive.
Machining time can also be reduced by making provision for simultaneous multiple cuts and
use of coolants.
(ii) Cutting down non-productive time: clamping and unclamping time, and mechanising and
automating machine tool controls. During the last few decades, developments in machine
tool design have been largely directed at reducing the non-productive time through
automation. Hard automation in the form of automatic machines, mechanised industrialised
nations, the consumers became more discerning and since the 70s the demand pattern has
changed from mass produced goods to batch produced and custom-built goods. This
triggered a change in the manufacturing philosophy from one of hard automation to soft
automation that is manifested today in the increasing proliferation of numerically controlled
and computer numerically.
(iii) Machining with more than one tool simultaneously: This principle is employed in multiple-
spindle lathes, drilling machines, etc.
(iv) Improving the reliability of the machine tools to avoid break downs and adopt proper
maintenance policy to prevent unscheduled stoppages and delays.

1.2.2 Accuracy: The accuracy of a machine tool depends upon its geometrical and kinematic accuracy
and its ability to retain this accuracy during operation. Accordingly, the ability of a machine tool to
consistently methods:

(i) Improving the geometrical accuracy of the machine tool: This is mainly determined by the
accuracy of guiding elements, such as guideways, power screws, etc. It is also essential to
ensure uniform, jerk free movement of the traversing member of the machine tool.
(ii) Improving the kinematic accuracy of the machine tool: The kinematic accuracy determines
the relationship between velocities of two or more forming motions and it depends upon the
length of kinematic trains and the accuracy of manufacture and assembly of components.
Obviously, the kinematic accuracy of a machine tool can be improved by using as short
kinematic trains as possible, and manufacturing and assembling the components with a high
degree of accuracy.
(iii) Increasing the static and dynamic stiffness of machine-tool structures: The greater is the static
stiffness of the machine-tool structure, the smaller will be its deformation due to the cutting
forces and hence the higher will be the accuracy of machining. A high dynamic stiffness
reduces the vibrations during
(iv) Providing accurate devices for measuring distance of travel: This concerns the accuracy of
manufacture of dials, scales, verniers, optical systems, etc. The accuracy of measuring
instruments is of paramount importance in machine tools with automatic size control during
machining, e.g., automatic machines, machine tools with adaptive controls, etc.
(v) Arranging the machine tool units in such a manner that the thermal deformations during the
machining operation result in the least possible change in the relative position between the
tool and the workpiece. machines.

1.2.3 Simplicity of Design:

Simplicity of design of machine tools determines the ease of its manufacture and operation. The design
of machine tools can be simplified by using standard parts and subassemblies as far as possible. The
complexity of design of a machine tool depends to a large extent upon the degree of its ‘universality’.
Thus, a general-purpose machine tool is, as a rule, more complex than a special-purpose machine tool
doing the similar work. The design of machine tools, therefore, be simplified by putting restrictions on its
range of application, e.g., on the type of different operations that may be carried out, or on the size of
parts which may be machined, etc.

1.2.4 Safety and Convenience of Controls:

Safety of controls is achieved by taking, among others, the following measures:
(i) Shielding the rotating and moving parts of the machine tool with hoods.
(ii) Protecting the worker from chips, abrasive dust and coolant by means of screens, shields,
etc.
(iii) Providing reliable clamping for the tool and workpiece.
(iv) Precluding the possibility of accidental pressing of push buttons and handles.
(v) Providing reliable earthing of the machine.
(vi) Providing devices for safe handling of heavy workpieces.
(vii) Providing blocking devices which preclude simultaneous engagement of conflicting
transmission.
(viii) Providing travel limiting devices for traversing machine tool members and also devices for
overload protection.

The convenience of machine-tool controls is intimately linked with their safety. Convenient controls will
protect the worker from excessive fatigue and thus contribute towards safety. The convenience of controls
also determines to a large extent the quality of the workers’ performance. Machine tool controls should
be simplified and made convenient for a which few guidelines are given below:

1. The control system should be rationally selected and should be automated to as large an extent
as possible.
2. The control system should be designed by giving due consideration to ergonomic principles.

1.2.5 Appearance:
Good appearance of machine tool influences the mood of workers favourably and thus facilitates better
operation. It is generally conceded that a machine tool that is simple in design and safe is also good in
appearance, although factors, external finish, colours, etc do substantially contribute to the overall
aesthetic quality of the machine tool. For instance, painting of machine tools in grey-green or green-blue
colours impart a bright and pleasing appearance to the shop. Nowadays, painting of machines in different
colours according to the production purpose is becoming popular, e.g., transportation facilities within the
shop are painted yellow with black stripes, etc.

1.2.6 Low Cost of Manufacturing and Operation:

The cost of manufacturing a machine tool is determined by the complexity of its design. Therefore, factors
that help in simplifying the machine tool design also contribute towards lowering its manufacturing cost.
The cost can also be brought down by reducing the amount of metal required in manufacturing the
machine tool. This is achieved by using stronger materials and more precise design calculations pertaining
to the strength and rigidity of parts to keep the safety margins as low as possible. For instance, considerable
saving of metal can be achieved by using welded steel structures instead of cast iron for heavy parts, such
as beds, columns, bases, etc. It should also be noted that a reduction of the weight and dimensions of the
machine tool also makes transportation and installation of the machine tool easier and cheaper, thus
indirectly contributing to a further reduction of the overall cost.

1.3 Methods of production of surfaces and paths by work tool combinatorial formative
motions
Machine Tools produce desired geometrical surfaces on solid bodies (preformed blanks) and for that
they are basically comprised of;
• Devices for firmly holding the tool and work
• Drives for providing power and motions to the tool and work
• Kinematic system to transmit motion and power from the sources to the tool-work
 • Automation and control systems
• Structural body to support and accommodate those systems with sufficient strength and rigidity.
For material removal by machining, the work and the tool need relative movements and those
motions and required power are derived from the power source(s) and transmitted through the kinematic
system(s) comprised of a number and type of mechanisms.
(i) Concept of Generatrix and Directrix
• Generation of flat surface
The principle is shown in Fig. 1.1 where on a flat plain a straight line called Generatrix (G) is traversed
in a perpendicular direction called Directrix (D) resulting a flat surface.
• Generation of cylindrical surfaces

The principles of production of various cylindrical surfaces (of revolution) are shown in Fig. 1.2,
where,
⎯ A long straight cylindrical surface is obtained by a circle (G) being traversed in the direction
(D) parallel to the axis as shown in Fig. 1.2(a)
⎯ A cylindrical surface of short length is obtained by traversing a straight line (G) along a
circular path (D) as indicated in Fig. 1.2(b)
⎯ Form cylindrical surfaces by rotating a curved line (G) in a circular path (D) as indicated in
Fig. 1.2 (c and d).

Fig.1.1 Generation of Flat surfaces by Generatrix and Directrix

Fig.1.2 Generation of Cylindrical Surfaces (of revolution)

(ii) Tool – work motions

The lines representing the Generatrix and Directrix are usually produced by the locus of a point
moving in two different directions and are actually obtained by the motions of the tool-tip (point) relative
to the work surface. Hence, for machining flat or curved surfaces the machine tools need relative tool
work motions, which are categorized in following two groups:
• Formative motions namely
⎯ Cutting motion (CM)
⎯ Feed motion (FM)
• Auxiliary motions such as
⎯ Indexing motion
⎯ Additional feed motion
⎯ Relieving motion

The Generatrix and Directrix, tool and the work and their motions generally remain
interconnected and in different way for different machining work. Such interconnections are typically
shown in Fig. 1.3 for straight turning and in Fig. 1.4 for shaping.
 Fig.1.3 Principle of turning (cylindrical surface)
The connections in case of straight longitudinal turning shown in Fig. 1.3 (a) are:
Generatrix (G) – Cutting motion (CM) – Work (W)
Directrix (D) – Feed motion (FM) – Tool (T)

Fig.1.4 Principle of producing flat surface in Shaping Machine

In case of making flat surface in a shaping machine as shown in Fig. 2.4 the connections are:
G – CM – T
D – FM – W
which indicates that in shaping flat surfaces the Generatrix is provided by the cutting motion imparted to
the cutting tool and the Directrix is provided by the feed motion of the work.
Flat surfaces are also produced by planning machines, mainly for large jobs, where the cutting motion is
imparted to the work and feed motion to the tool and the connections will be:
G – CM – Work
D – FM – Tool
The Generatrix and Directrix can be obtained in four ways:
• Tracing (Tr) – where the continuous line is attained as a trace of path of a moving point as
shown in Fig. 1.3 and Fig. 1.4.
• Forming (F) – where the Generatrix is simply the profile of the cutting edge as indicated in Fig.
1.2 (c and d)
• Tangent Tracing (TTr) – where the Directrix is taken as the tangent to the series of paths
traced by the cutting edges as indicated in Fig. 1.5.
• Generation (G): Here the G or D is obtained as an envelope being tangent to the instantaneous
positions of a line or surface which is rolling on another surface. Gear teeth generation by
hobbing or gear shaping is the example as can be seen in Fig. 1.6.

Fig. 1.5 typically shows the tool-work motions and the corresponding Generatrix (G) and Directrix (D)
while producing flat surface by a plain or slab milling cutter in a conventional horizontal arbour type
milling machine. The G and D are connected here with the tool work motions as
G–x–T–F
D – FM – W – T.Tr
 CM – T
Here G and D are independent of the cutting motion and the G is the line of contact between the
milling cutter and the flat work surface. The present cutter being of roller shape, G has been a straight
line and the surface produced has also been flat. Form milling cutters will produce similar formed
surfaces as shown in Fig. 1.7 where the ‘G’ is the tool-form.

Fig.1.5 Directrix formed by tangent tracing in plain milling

Fig 1.6 Generatrix (or Directrix) in Gear teeth cutting by generation

Fig 1.7 Tool-work motion and G & D in form milling

For making holes in drilling machines, both the cutting motions and feed motions are imparted to the
cutting tool i.e., the drill bit whereas the workpiece remains stationary. This is shown in Fig. 1.8. The G
and D are linked with the tool-work in the way:
G-CM-T-Tr
D – FM – W – Tr
 Fig.1.8 Tool-work motion and G & D in Drilling

Boring Machines are mostly used for enlargement and finishing of existing cylindrical holes. Boring
machines are of two types:
1. Vertical Boring Machines-low and medium duty and high precision, e.g., Jig Boring
Machines
2. Horizontal axis boring Machine- Medium or heavy duty
In respect of tool-work motion and G and D, vertical boring and drilling are same. In horizontal boring
machine, feed motion is imparted to work to provide directrix by tracing.

(iii) Machine tool drives:

For Desired tool work motion with power, machine tools are driven by electric motors and
use of some mechanisms like belt-pulley, gears etc. In some machine tools, the tool-work motions
are provided by hydraulic drive also. Machine tools essentially need wide ranges of cutting speed
and feed rate to enable
• machining different jobs (materials and size)
• Using different cutting tools (material, geometry and size)
• Various machining operations like high speed turning to low speed thread cutting
in lathes
• Degree of surface finish
Machine tool drives may be
• Stepped drive
• Stepless drive
Stepped drives are very common in conventional machine tools where a discrete number
of speeds and feeds are available and preferably in G.P. (Geometric Progression) series. Whereas
the modern CNC machine tools are provided with stepless drives enabling optimum selection and
flexibly automatic control of the speeds and feeds.

Stepped drive is attained by using gear boxes or cone pulley (old method) along with the
power source. Stepless drive is accomplished usually by
• Variable speed AC or DC motors
• Stepper or servomotors
• Hydraulic power pack

1.4 Features of construction and operations of Basic Machine Tools

1.4.1 Centre lathes
-construction: Fig. 1.9 shows the general configuration of centre lathe. Its major parts are:
• Head stock: it holds the blank and through that power and rotation are transmitted to the
job at different speeds
 • Tailstock: supports longer blanks and often accommodates tools like drills, reamers
etc for hole making.
• Carriage: accommodates the tool holder which in turn holds the moving tools B
• Bed:
▪ headstock is fixed and tailstock is clamped on it. Tailstock has a provision
to slide and facilitate operations at different locations
▪ carriage travels on the bed
• Columns: on which the bed is fixed
• Work-tool holding devices

Fig.1.9 Schematic view of centre Lathe

Fig 1.10 Some common operations done on centre lathes

1.4.2 Shaping Machines
Fig. 1.11 shows the general configuration of shaping machine. Its major parts are:
• Ram: it holds and imparts cutting motion to the tool through reciprocation
• Bed: it holds and imparts feed motions to the job (blank)
• Housing with base: the basic structure and also accommodate the drive mechanisms
 Fig. 1.11 Schematic view of Shaping machine
1.4.3 Planing Machine

The general configuration is schematically shown in Fig. 1.12. This machine tool also does the
same operations like shaping machine but the major differences are:
• In planing the job reciprocates for cutting motion and the tool moves slowly for the
feed motions unlike in shaping machine.
• Planing machines are usually very large in size and used for large jobs and heavy
duty work.

Fig 1.12 Schematic view of planning machine

1.4.4 Drilling machine
Fig. 1.13 shows general configuration of drilling machine, column drill in particular. The
salient parts are:
▪ Column with base: it is the basic structure to hold the other parts
▪ Drilling head: this box type structure accommodates the power drive and
the speed and feed gear boxes.
▪ Spindle: holds the drill and transmits rotation and axial translation to the
tool for providing cutting motion and feed motion – both to the drill.

Drilling machines are available in varying size and configuration such as pillar drill, column drill,
radial drill, micro-drill etc. but in working principle all are more or less the same.

Drilling machines are used:

• Mainly for drilling (originating or enlarging cylindrical holes)
• Occasionally for boring, counter boring, counter sinking etc.
• Also for cutting internal threads in parts like nuts using suitable attachment.

Fig. 1.13 Schematic view of Drilling Machine

1.4.5 Milling Machine

The general configuration of knee type conventional milling machine with horizontal arbour is
shown in Fig. 1.14. Its major parts are
• Milling arbour: to hold and rotate the cutter
• Ram: to support the arbour
• Machine table: on which job and job holding devices are mounted to provide
the feed motions to the job.
• Power drive with Speed and gear boxes: to provide power and motions to the
tool-work
• Bed: which moves vertically upward and downward and accommodates the
various drive mechanisms
• Column with base: main structural body to support other parts.

Fig. 1.14 Schematic view of Milling Machine

Milling machines are also quite versatile and can do several operations like
• making flat surfaces
• grooving, slitting and parting
• helical grooving
• forming 2-D and 3-D contoured surfaces
•
Fig. 1.15 shows some of the aforesaid milling operations.
Fig.1.15 Some common milling operations