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77 views67 pagesAP Lab Manual
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© © All Rights Reserved
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/ 67
Department of Applied Physies
LELEBLIEbEEVY
LAB MANUALS
= APPLIED PHYSICS LAB II
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o LISION
Consolidati
suid learning process covering all aspects of pur
Dhysiey that promotes research and dh
lopment leading to creation af new ha
inveations and discoveries fostering institute:
culture for betterment of all its stake holders
nd society at
Fe
MISSI
+ To establish global
ind industry standards of excellence by generating new
Knowledge in all the endeavors concerned to teaching, learning, research and
consultancy.
To develop clore linkages with industry to undertake collaborative projects so as to
enable young engineers to be a part of fast ch:
ising technological seenario,
* To help our students in developing human potentials, intellectual interests, ereative
abilities and be lifelong learners fo.mect the challenges of 1
national and global
environment and be (rue professional leaders.
* To stand up to the needs and expectations of our society by equipping and training
our students to be good eitizens, aware of their commitments and responsibilities, to
make this world a better place to live.
* To be a world class ccntre for education, research and inuovation in the various
upcoming fields of Applied Phiystes,
+ To focus om the development of euttin
ize technologies and to foster an
‘environment of scamlessness between academa and Industry,
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PEO 1: To educate professionals in the current and vib
PEO 2: To develop the professionals to understand and enrich with
PEO 3: To provide an environment for students tobe interested, mi
°
DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSI
CAL UNIVERSITY
“MNOLC
DELI
UG-APPLIED PHYSICS
Programme Educational Objectives (PEQs)
1 emerging areas of Applied Physics
1 knowledge of
Applied Physies to use as platform for various core engineering subjects.
vated to tackle the complex
problems and capable of selfleaming.
PEO 4: To equip students with integrity and ethical values so that they become responsible
Engincers
UG-Engincering Physics
Program Educational Object
PEO 1: To provide quality edueation in engineering physies 1o advanced areas of engineering
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and technology.
PEO 2: To produce world class skilled engineers, which meet the needs of industry, academia
and society
PEO 3: To mould as an engincer with knowledge, research and innovation, skills, judgement to
eo0eeO2300
bbe leaders along with humanistic values for the development of the society by
providing quality education,
PEO 4: The students will beable to work in team, competent enough to make an entrepreneur
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‘and also to pursue research and hight education,
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eooougoeoeaooua#a QCovaeaoone 00979 979097790977
HY COMMNHATS OF scree
icering knowledge: Apply the knovwledye of mnultisdiscip
12 probl
to the solution of complex enginec
ae, review research literature, and analyze
engineering
D sign ‘development of solutions: An ability 1o design system components oF processes that
tmicet the specified needs with appropiate consideration f
he public health and safety. and
the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations,
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge
Wi research
nicthods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthes
‘ofthe infirnnation to provide valid conclusions.
5S. Modern tool
age: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modem
cogincering including preiction and modeling to complex engin.
understanding of the limitations.
6. ‘The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess,
ng activities with an
sovidal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant
to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
sclutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowles ot
cd for sustainable development. ‘
thes: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities ant
‘nonms of the engineeri
9. Individual
1d teamwork: Fu
sense teams, and in multdisciplinary stings.
sununication: Communicate effectively on complex engincering activities with the
ible to compretiend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make effetive presentations, an give and
weive clear instructions.
ject management and finanee; Demonsrate
10. ©
‘engineering community and with society at large, such
"
owledge and understanding of the
A |
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CHOCOSOHOSCOHCOHOAOCOOOOD OOD DO7*44AAAHO-
SLELELEEIUCULTT
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PULL LLL LT.
‘a member and
J anapancnt proveyples aad apply these to ane’ oan
ire pregeetsanl m anultadiscaphnay et
ie the Howl for, and have the prepmtition an aby’
snalepotatert and lifelong Teaming 1 the broaaest eantest of technol
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Delhi Technological University _
B. Tech, (1" Year) Common to All Branches
List of Experiments
1, To determine the compressibility of a given liquid by Ultrasonic Diffraction
Method. .
. To determine the specific rotation of cane-sugar solution using Laurent’s
half shade Polarimeter.
To determine the wavelength of green & violet line of mercury light using
Spectrometer.
To determine the wavelength of sodium light by Newton's Ring.
5. To find the Numerical aperture of a given Optical Fiber.
To compare the wavelength of a laser source measured by diffraction
pattern from a single slit and a plane diffraction grating,
To determine the Hall co-efficient and hence find the density of charge
carriers in a semiconductor at room temperature by Hall effect
measurement.
To determine the Plank’s constant by photoelectric effect/light emitting
diode (LEO)
To determine the energy band gap of a semiconductor by four probe
method.
9.
10. To determine the ratio of charge to mass ratio (e/m) for an electron.
11. To determine the magnetic susceptibi
(MnCl, 41:0) by Quinck’s tube.
12.To determine the dispersive power of the material of a prism using
Spectrometer.
of hydrous manganese chloride
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EXFERIMENTNO.?
iw
1 determine the specsfi tion
ny
ss Hallowe
pobumeter
Mus:
le Polarimeter, spirit level, Sorin Lamp, Hola
fue. Hoang Hany, weight box, balance,
cules, beeen
wduated yar
LuwoRY:
Molanmeter 4© atv instrument whieh is used to measure the optical rotation produced ry
ically active substance I consist
of two Nicol prisms capable of roxatins, abe
snow avis It 1s also provided with hollow tube fur filling the solution of epticatt
dnstance
Thsceypermental arrangement is shown if figure, S is source of monochromatic light placed
is fovusat convex fens L The beam, rendered parallel by lens L, falls on ealled platszet
Patter ps
g Muomh polarizer P the light become plane polarized. The polarized light
passes though a half-shale device H (called Laurent plate) and then through a tube 7
tive solution, The transmitted light passes through another Nico! ©
‘tate about the direction of propagation of fight as axis and its rotation <2 be
spt
aduated in degree, with the help of a Vernier
A+
ubstanee 64 al Solution
apt 1 atk
ee te pet He ecaby tania yt Toe ale usu which te ph
0 NL the thuekniess ot tine medi
Cn Wavete seat vet ool tenn
Hew
Hause
Hiei peeatead ob go eat
(2) concentaton ot hss station
we
pint
Sper ine sotaitens
44 the rotation pronticed by ee
(10 em) fangs
he lng conta | of He active ml bon
tie leq
‘© ofthe solution. Theretion«
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o
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A Rotate te
rument of Applied Phy:
S-worde
th 9, the an pte
al temperature °C for a wavel
Where S represents the specific tat
fof rotation Hoe the length of the sofntion iv em, through whieh the 7
in pn
Fhe active sul
‘Sun cs the convemtati
which the plane of polari ead hy thes epic 3
sul withthe help ofa Polarimeter, whem th
‘na solution, itis known as a saceharimeter
quantity of
Ties prop berserem e (sania) and (y-axis) i a straight line
ch lass 20 gin of sugar and carefully dissolve it in water wy me
won “Lis saves 20% solution of sugar.
+ constant of circular scale is found. The Polarmeter is plicad so that
sre 1. Sront of sodium lamp, After looking through the telescope the po
cil so that the two halves of half shade device a
carly in foots,
ter tube and fill it wath distilled water.
ce that thete 18 wo ay bubble
Heaps aye hee
eerewed. Pl
the tube in is positon unsi
th
Vokmienter
eet A ull de Held ot sew is completely and unitouty dark re both
Aral, sue evqetly dank tw dus pasta seve will he ant
Hp change an antensaty of He
Hratoes wth ty rotation om eur side, Rel the
Position of analyzer om the eucutie
seal pravudesd tor the puspore. A tthe
How through 1X0" wil again proxtu:
extn tion (Fe equally dauk postin
Reco
Mecout this pasition ot analyror ake on thy
f2 for Further use,
cireutar
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ution,
5. Remove the tube, empty it rinse At with solution and then fill completely sath
Ives of
removing all air bubbles. Clean the ends nd put the tube in position, The 1
{he Feld wll appear unequal datk, Rotate the analyzer till the wa halves ane exally dash
and note the reading, The difference in re: ptation 0
DOOD Et
© Rotate the analyzer through 180° to prouduce extinction again and eeadd the
. difference gives the rotation produced, Get a sceond position of extinction by
7 rotation of 180° and take mean for the 1:0 produced
. 7. Now, to 50 ce of solution add 50 ce of water and mix thoroughly. This sives a 10"
3 Solumon Take teadings with it and then mix 50 ce of dis slim wn 50) 6 te
Tis gives a 5% solution, Take readings with this also, Repeat with 2 :
> solution,
5 OBSERVATIONS:
> Least Count of Analyzer LC
z Room Temperature t = °c
y Length of the Polarimeter Tube “ em
\ Wavelength of Sodium Light “2
\ ra ind Ansle of Rota
5 Concentration Polarimeter Reading
of Sugar a :
; sane Anticlockwise
’ | esrtin | VSR fTsR=csR | cSRiin | vsR
degrees) + VSR LC | dogroes)
> {in doyroes) j
|
) |
i '
' | | |
| j
1
I . | \
{
E
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Department of Applicd Physics
Cateutations: De of from Table A
Cone. ot | Clockwise | Anticlockwiso | Moan | Rotation | Ofer 42.24
Bu | al *a" “bt + bz
am | Pinata | Phat 0 | (4 |g aging.
Solution | .
fer iis tin (indogrees) | {indegroos)) (in
| degrees) dograes) |
| \
° |
0.20 Oye Gye Go
0.10 | Oey Co
0.05
0.025 Be ce-ee |
NMean@
words
th of polarimeter tube in cm
Lae value of Ofc mao
5 for the observations made.
AO which 1s 0 strainht tine,
LF oan thee jeraphh bet
Fite lope OF
Ss UTM) WE stapes
Wy tene Fr fength of Polarmeter tab acu
wsaplucally fon the obervations nae
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Temperature) and = A graphically.
‘The specific rotation of sugar solution is at °C (Room Temperate
A oumerically. =
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The Polarimeter tube and glass windows should be well cleaned.
2. Care should be taken in weighing stigar and measuring the quantity of wat
3. The sugar solution should be well mixed so as to have uniform concentrstioa
4. Care should be taken that there is no air bubble when the tube is (Med wath gust
5. Note the temperature of the room and also the wavetength ofthe li
ul then go on dilating
6 Start with a concentrated solution
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ictermine whe wavelonpih of yew tne of mercury WH A213 Pane
ALM; 10
di Tinetion
sercury vapour Ia
pectramneter, Plane tansmission satin
yy spectra ines can be cateulate the
ED The wavelengils 2 of
(a by saith
6» anple of dffiaction fora paniculor spectral line of wavelength ?-
PROCEDURE
1, Setting
‘conditions are satisfies!
Take a spectrometer sand sel it 50 thatthe follor
sed in order to reveive parallel rays.
1) The colimator is to be adjusted in order to Send parallel rays.
¢) The grating should be normal to the incident light beam. .
yarallel to the line of grating.
lition (c). turn the telescope in order
a) The telescope should be focur
wo receive the
dy ‘The slit should be
‘Yo ensure the normal incidence cond
diroct imape of slit and coincide it with {he c1OsS wire. Note the reading of both the
fa vernver bee 4. Rotate the telescope tiraayshe 948" Under this
tbe are
ier Lact the reading, of
axis of telescope and eollimat
sractanwens the, veanier weil rend #90 awl he
sdvevlan, Beta the prin cae (noe gai Fe) bout the gmaun axis of the
reflevted nage of the fit in hg Held af view oF
espe
Jn, Under this
an onder to obtain the
oss wire, Note this
ke af 49® wath the incident beam, Now tm
iwstrunen
teleceupe Coincade the tinagre af sit wath the
condition the plane of rating, will be
Jeof 45! a onder to put it perperaticutar to the inenlent beam,
hy eating non
Page 1
B.Téch(Common to all)/ AP-10: 1/1 semester
Nv
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“
~s
>
Fig Seating dittractioa grateng normal to the tncitions Eghe
2 Measurement of angle of diffraction for different spectra! [izes
1. On rotating the telescope on either side of the dec image, spectrum will be charset
in different order 2s showin in Fig. 2. It can be seen that violet color spectral Ene ill bare
smaller angle of diffraction 2s compared to red
2. Tem the telescopic to one side say left of the dcx image enincide the cromwie th
fhe green line of the mercury appearing at the eareme left in second order. Mote the
readings of the both verniess.
1. Retaie the telescope in the seme direction 2nd coincide it with the widia bre of the
Pitt dl -
Fig.2 Grating diffraction
12
ee ee eee SSCS SST LESCSCCS
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Order of | Colour ] Verner
Spectewn Seate | Tangideeth
ci raaze |
Tosal Resting | 3 =
(en) Reading YO ME SOS | degree)
re MS WS ste | ‘
ra (deri i
Mec __
‘ ‘ \
asters uneecten”
Frain element, (a1 1) em .
i? Where, Ms the number of ruling per ineh an the grating, ‘
For frst under a I, wavelenpll of spevira tuscan becaleutsted by, |
a1 b)sind
q @ ‘ene (athysind
2 fon preen =
2. fon violet
B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-101/1* semester
” i
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Department of Applied Physics, ‘ a
For second order 1 =2, wavelength of special lines is given by:
+b)sind
2
2 for green =
2 for violet =
Average value of 2 for green and violet color can be calculated by taking averaae of 7 for
both the orders,
RESULT: '
‘The wavelengths of the various spectral lines of mercury spectrum calculated by
‘gating are given below
Colour of the | Observed (Standard Percentage error
spectral line wavelength (A) wavelength (A)
Violet ~ (4358 ———j———
Green! 4916 -
Yellow e 5770 —
Red é Gx L 7
PRECAUTIONS AND SOURCES OF ERRORS:
1. All adjustments of the spectrometer must be correctly made.
2. Slit should be as narrow as possible.
3. Grating should be set normal tothe incident light, i
4, Ruled surface of the grating should face the telescope.
5. Both the veriers should be reat
Ss
|
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EXPERIMENT NO...
ABE | mmr Newton rags formed ty the imine af peeduced by 2 He be Finn
Soe Ne wre Sue igh
AEEARATES. Pure comes tom plane glam plac sof Lamp, tmvelieg micr-soe
SES. macrofvmg lnws & optical smmnpement or Newtan”s Sop
SOEMITA USED: The maveienps of tee gtr & give by
fect OW Somes offe-ah, ee
D, = Gomme of, sae
5 © midies of corvanere of the spherical ster of the plano-convex lent
Stance berwem tae less of the seerumenr
‘chess of the lens a: the contre
Formative of Newton Risgs:
The term Tiewsa's rings” refers to 2 phenomeson that occurs when a curved picce
attr 2 camvex tems, is pt in contact with a fiat piece of glass. The curved glass sis
fix plats. creating 2 fil of air bermcen them whom thickness is increasing largcr
beogh cf Sx curve. When whyte light is directed into the curved glass. a series uf ve.
circles. like a bull's eye appears
B.Tech{Common to all) AP-101/1* semester
12/62
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hy Jens. As the lens becomes more distant from the flat glass beneath
)) and closer together
he ings Heeome thinner
Formuta Used:
The wavelength of monochromatic light which produces these rings is given by:
pa CieeOh) 5
= oh
ama as
sont Din)
‘amk
Where. R= Radius of curvature of the surface of convex lens in contact with vlass plate
1
Dam? Diameter of ntm™ bright ring,
Da = Diameter of m™ bright ring
If, Setup and Procedure:
1. Clean the plate G and lens 1. thoroughly and put the lens over the plate with the curved
surface below 15 making angle with G (sce fig 1),
“2, Switch in the monochromatic fight source, This sends a parallel beam of light. This beam of
light pets reslected by plate 18 falls on tens L
took dow vertically from abowe the ens and sce whether the een
is well illuminated, On
ough the mitoseope 8 9p wih rings around it ca he seen on papery focusing
look
the microscope.
epesessTTG LS
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Department of, Applied Phystcs eS
4. Cree moent rings are in foeUs, rotate the eyepiece such that out of the Hwe perPenadicular enw
‘wires one as ity Hength parallel 19 the dieection of travel nf the microscope Hot this crs
‘wire also passes through the center of the ring system
ing (18, the 20" de
1 dark ring). On me side of
Po) mean
& i Me center, Set the crosswire tangential to one ting ay shown in fig 2. Note down the
g mionscope reading. fig 2
ee i
«gt = |
Lg ‘ |
=e
Figure 2
(Make sure that you correctly read the least countof the vernier in mm units)
6. Mor the microscope to make the crosswire tangential to the next ring nearer to the center
tg 2 ‘and note the reading. Continue with this purpose till you pass through the genter, Take
a readings for an cqual number of rings on the both sides of the center. :
wz 7. Remove the plano convex lens and find the radius of curvature of the conven surface in
contact with the glass plate accurately using the spherometer. The formula for the ealevtation
9 4 of Radius of curvature is,
R=(1'/6h) +(H/2)
where, 1 = distance between two legs uf spherometer
af convex surface of lens
LA) Determination uf teust count of the microscope
n af the main scale . em
Value of one smallest divi
42. Number of divisions on the vernier scule
4 Leastcount of the microscope 7 cin
w
14/62
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Ae (Op! Ou!) /4 N00)
%
De (Dye! = Ou! 1408
& b Sinvitarly eateutate A for diferent readines
‘ Graphical enteutations
” pt the graph between BD," & no. oF the tings (a) est fit ine ise dean
ap
°
ime!
tg-
meta
Measure the slope of that Line which is
eal
Be
@ a Stope = 2
@. qe Winn =P)
@: “sve
4 — _ slope
@t ~e
= The Numerically Calculated value for his __A.
Iculated value for is___— A
@*
‘ The Graphically Cal
J value for & for Sextium light sa93 A.
«
9 £ The actual
9 2 1% Lirror is
gt
“
0
2
D, width decreases. In order
the following precautions should
PRECAUTIONS:
Notice that as yee ger ney
meusureme
rom te ventral dark spot the Je
of the diameter’ of the rings
he errors
st semester
Biech{common toall)/AP-101
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‘ Department of Applied Physies
S: :
Las IMENT NO.
AIM; To find the Numerical Aperture of a given Optical fier.
APLARUTUS: He-Ne: Laser, Microscopie Objective, Optical Fiber and Multuneter
THEORY: Optical fibers are fine transparent sass or plastic fibers which can propagate
lught They work under the principle of total intemal reflection from diametncally opposite
walls In this way light ean’be taken anywhere because fibers have enough flexiility “This
bpropemy makes them suitable for data communication, design of fine endaseo
‘Au ogeopes ele, An optic fiber consists of a core that is surrounded by a claddiay hich 1.
normally made of ‘siltea glass or plastic. Ihe core transmits an optical signal while ~
the cladding guides the light within the core. Since light is guided through the fibee i 1
sometimes called an optical wave guide. The basie construction of an optic fiber is shown in
figure (0).
In order to understand the propagation
,
Consider a light ray (i) entering the core at
point A, travelling through the core
reaches the core cladding boundary at py:
As long as the light ray intersects the core
cladding boundary at small angles. te cay wall
be reflected back in wy the core
to travel on to pdint C where the process of
tefl won a takes ph
ce. Total interval retlection vocurs,
only ssh mn the critical angle. Ia ray enters
a ope
fiber «steep angle (ii), when thiy my imerseets- the cote
cladding boundary, the angle of intersection 1% Wo lage So, reflection back vn to the co
does not tuke plies
the lyght say vs lost in the cladding, ‘This means that to be guide!
Uhrough an optical fibre, » hg my must enter the core with am angle Less that pt
4. called the acceptance angle
i the flue, A tny which enters the fiber with
e wall be fost us the elakdiny,
geeater than the accep
Tyiammon aly ARTEL] conen
GHEVEUEELELELBLLEELELEES
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Faure 2 Propagation of light in an optical fibre
Numencal aperture is a basic characteristic of an optical fiber. It represents the size 6
0,, the ray und
teflection at core cladding interface.
{In short, length of fiber, ideally a ray launched at angle O atthe input ent should cous
wot at the same angle O from output end. Therefore the far field at the output end will ats
appear as « cone of semi angle 0, emanating from the fiber end.
Nes only partial
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Department of Applied Physics
PROCEDURE:
Take the background reading in the multimeter
1
2 Lag fiom the laser is coupled into the given fiber by using microscope 6!
3. ‘The output end ofthe fiber is placed in front of phato detector
4A pinhole detector is mounted on the rotational stage such thatthe pinhole 1
horvzontal level, asthe fiber end,
S Without disturbing the input coupling, the fiber's spot is scanned in suitable step at
ular reading of the rotation stage an
cach angular position of the detector. The
fed. At least 20 reading should be thew
cof multimeter (in milli volts) is ree
so that a proper graph ean be drawn,
Background reading can be taken forall detector positions afer switching aff the light
source. Subtract this background reading from the observed value to get the a:
reading,
7. Plot a graph, showing actual reading in voltage along y-axis and angular posits
the detector along x-axis. A typical graph will appear as shown in the fiyure belo
* From the graph, find out the angle 20, corresponding to the 95%
sioxismum detector reading and hence obtain 0,
4. Find NA=Sin 0
Y
i ’ 8
3
fos _
/ .
x
4, .
nee uy =
Auge (0) -
B.Tech(Common to all)/ AP-101/1 semester
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ORSERVA NO:
Table for Numerical Aperture
Detector
amy)
(mV)
Reading | Actual read
[8.0 | Amgutar Deflection
(degrees) (detector Reading: Background
| Resting)
|
|
|
Sal
ot pol
RESULT: Numerical Aperture (NA) of a given optical fiber is
PRECAUTIONS:
| The optical fibre provided should be handled carefully so as to prevent cracks
‘Mounting and coupling should be done carefully
3. Optical source should be properly aligned with the cable,
(Care should be taken so that laser light should not directly fall into the
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rtment of Applied Physics
PNG
w6
sonrce measured hy diffraction pattern from a
To compare the wavetenpily af a laser
single shit and a plane diffraction grating,
APPARATUS: He-Ne tases, itfiaction pratng screen anaphpaper). seal, st
THEORY:
Diffraction pattern for a single slit
n of wavelength 2 is diffracted by a narrow rect
ren by
Wren monochromatic radi
wy dee nvinima is formed at an angle 0,
asin O.= nh ws
whee, ais the width of the slit and
sind, =
D
X68 the distance of the a” minima from the centre of the central maxima,
Dis the distance of sereen: from the slit (see fiz.)
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of Applied Phy
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Wihe sates of a, 1 anid sq(fie 12.3, ), wavelength af the laser light can tc
culated
cctamgalar auljustabte slit
Blace a rot
Har adjustable slit (in closed position means sete shit wath) 1 front of
‘pen the shit (ke. increase the slit width) by rota
ancl simultaneously see the diffraetion patter formed on 1
§ Adjust the slit width to get the sharp diffrac
+ Measure the distance of the first order diffraction
Scrural spot. This is the value of x,, Also, measure the width of th
sistance “of sereen fiom the slit (D). Substinute these value
p the circular wots nf th
the centre ef the
(ay and the
in equate 03)
for n=1 and calculate y,
$. Repeat the above process for second and thind order di
and x3 and then calculate the values of 3g and dy
& Take the mean of these 3. values; this willbe the value of the wavelength of th
fight
iffraction minima and firsd x
OBSERVATION:
“)
Distnce ofthe sereen (Graph paper) from the sit (=
SANa | Order of minima (u) Position of w Wavelength (\) |
, 7 )
jt | :
Page 2
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Department of Applied Physics
th 2.
wv is formed at an angle Me
rang, then" onler principle may
(at by sin, 1d my
lement wifich 1s equal
wxere (aH) rat
(web) o
whore (N= Number of fines per mn)
Thus,
sind, ig “6
aso ,
aN
If laser light is incident on the diffraction grating and diffaction pattern 1s ubtoined
scceen (usually a graph paper), as shown in the fig (2)
we, we have:
Fron
‘Substituting wn equation (4) we et
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7 Lment of Applied Physics :
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Kota
VMlave a diffsetion rating i fom ftv Laser eam sth 9 si feation pater -
OBSERVATIONS:
-
wu)
wi)
i
|
fe SU!
Fe 's(common to al)
(Order of Diffraction
es
botanist on eaph
fro the grating
The contal maxima (br
stones of fist omer (1) diffi
Also measure the distance f
Calculate sin = 7a
Pat this value in equation (6) for n= 1 and calculate the value of
Repeat the shove process for second, third, fourth order diffraction syst anol ft
Os. ins, snd and then ealeulate 2.3.2
Take the mean of these 2 values, T te the value of the wav
ight.
1 spn from the centre af the central spot (Ys) .
ye ene (x)
the pw
Number of lines ruled per inch on the grating (N) = ___¢say, 15000
Grating element (a + b) = 2.54/N cm. =.
Distance from the grating (o the sereen (x) =
(1) he was He-Ne laser sa
single stitay eK
of He-Ne laser sanee mn
A
wel by diffiaetion paicty Hoan a
ea by dattiaction jester
wel by above wo aiethods 9.
~(VD
/ AP-101/1" semester.
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STERevrenees
Depariment of Applied Physics
EXPERIMENT NO.4 }
STUDY OF HALL
EXPERIMEN — HEE 100
sTRODUCTIC
tn 1879 physivest E11 Hall observed that when un electrical current passes through & sample placed in 2 magnetic field. 2
potenti proportional to the current and to the magnetic field is developed across the material in a direction perpendiculst to
both the current and to the magnetic field [1.] This effect is known as the Hall effect, And is the basis of many practical
applications and devices such as magnetic field messurement, and position snd motion detectors.
With the messarement he made, Hall was able to determine for the tine the sign of charge carriers in a conductor. Even today
Hall effec: measurement continug 10 be a useful technique for characterizing the electrical transport properties of metals and
semiconductor,
THEORY:
Static magnaic field has no effect on charges unless they are in motion. When the charges flow, « magnetic
field direct perpendicular 10 the direction of Now produces a mutually perpendicular force on the charges. When this
hhappens. clecirons and holes will be separated by opposite forces. They will in turn produce an clectic field (Ex)
which depends om the cross product of the magnetic intensity, H, and the current density. J. the situation is demonsiaied
in Fig |
Bhs RUTH a
Where R is called the Hall coefficiem,
Now, let us consider # bar of semiconductor, having dimension, x.y and z. let J is directed slong X and H along 2
them Eh will e atong Y, as in Fig. 2,
Then we could write
wily,
Ro
vH
‘Where Vs is the Hall voltage appearing between the two surfaces perpendicular to y and 1 = Iyz
Pemderdedddd
-
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sully 2 simple
same eri veh
sng hat cattiers of both types are present
@
b)
pplied, Fe. the Hall ceeffiguent
chon of the applied magnetic Conie@ieraly. interpretation of the Hall solizpe is not
dite, Mowever, i ix easy to cateulate this (Hall) voltage if it te assumed that af carriers have the
1. We will do this in two steps (a) by nssuming. that carers of cmly one type are present. (b) by
ONE TYPE OF CARRIER :
Metals and degenerate (doped) semiconductors are the examples of this type where one carrier
dominates.
‘The magnetic force on th = |
¢ Ey, where v is she dri velocity of |
Vx fee
From simple reasoning, the current density J is the charge q multiplied by the number of carriers |
traversing unit area in unit time, which is equivalent 10 the carrier density multiplied by the drift
velocity ie J=qnv. = =
By putting these values in equation (2)
& vei 1
Ree o
From this equation, it is clear that the sign of Hall Coefficient depend upon the sign of the , this means, in
1 p-type specimen the R would be positive, while in n-type it would be negative. Also for a fined
magnetic field and input current, the Hall Voltage is proponionsl to Wn or its resistivity. When one carrier
dominates, the conductivity of the material iso = ny.
Where jis the mobility of the charges carriers.
Thus wo Ro “
Equation (4) provides an experimental measurement of mobility; R is expressed in cm" coulomb thus 1 is
‘expressed in units, or em, volt" Sec"
TWO TYPE OF CARRIERS +
Ininsic and lightly doped semiconductors are the examples of In such eases, the quant
interpretation of Hall coefficient is more dificult since both type of carters contribute to the Hall field. It is
‘Tso clear that forthe" santeelectle fled, the Hall voltage of p~caricts will be-opposite sign from the
:
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ed average i the
n of Hall coefficient and wei
cartier. As a. result, both mobilities enter inte any cafe
result”? Le.
ad Benen
R — o
oy
5 testa Pinte fy Adan © Meliss (Academie Press) PGT
Where pu and ya are the mobilities of holes and electrons: pond m are the carrer densities of les and slesion
correctly reduces to equation (3) when only one type of eariers is present **
we_not consianls but function of temperature (T) the Hall evetMicient given by
ge sign, Im general jig > py 90 that inversion may
‘of ‘p-type semiconductors
Since the mobilities yy and 4h
a. (5) is also a function of T and it may become zero. even hi
happen only if p % nz thus Hall coefMicient inversion is characteristic only
jes and their relative concentration.
|At the point of zero Hall coefficient, itis possible to determine the ratio of mobi
Thus we see thatthe Hall coeficen, ia conjunction with resistivity messuremens, can provide information om Satie
eae ne ee ines puri, conezniaian end other valucs. must Be noid, however, that mobiles cbisined OM
ser tcer memnormens, y= Re do net always agree with directly measured values. The reason feing thy care
aa eed in energy, and tore with higher velociles will be devisted to a greater extent fora ven (eld. AS I
we know varies wiih carrier velocity.
Al MEASUREMENT.
1, Insingleerystal material the resistivity may vary smoothly from point vo point. In fact tis generally the case.
The Mestlon i the amount of the amount of this variation rather than its presence. Ofics, Honeysr- it
sed thet it fs constant within some percentage and when the variation does in fact all
High reinance of retin action appears fry ofien in cecil conacts to semiconductors and in fact is
‘one the major problem.
oldered probe conacts, though very much desirable may disturb the cunent flow (shorting ea part of he
seid Reidering recy tothe body of the sample. can affect the sample propeis due wo est and
ation unless cae is taken. These problems can be avoided by using pressure contacts an in the prescnt
3
Pb doled bbe dL ddd dd dol sits s yad
b
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tach of this type ob cenmaets es that they may be morsy, Hi: prebiens cane how
Both Lay (3) and La,($) have been derived om the as not te, bu
‘exact calkation movtfics the results oltained hete by a factor of 0 _
the current dough the sample should not be large enourh to. cause eating, A further precaution js nee
te prcveat“injvtng fle” from affecting the measurement. Even good contacts 10 getmarium fo) exam
zed by keeping the voliage drop at the contacts low. If the sur
flow in the etystal is low, these injected carriers will recom
rminy have this effect, This ean be mini
rear the contacts is rough and the elect
before reaching the measuring probes
Since Hal coeficien is independent of current, itis posible to determine whether or not sry of these eft
fre imerfering by measuring the Hall coefficient at different values of current
MENT OF
ENTAL CONSID) with 1 UI
“The voliage appearing. between the Hall Probes is not generally, the Hall voltage alone. There, yO
Trvaromepnete and themomaynetic effets (Nearest effect, Rhighledue effect and Esingshausen effect) Wh
ven produce voliapes between the Hall Probes. In addition, IR drop due to probe misalignmens (zero mag
il) and thermoelectric vollage due to vransverse thermal gradient may be present. AN these exct
insted by the method at averaging four readings.
‘The Eitingshausen effect is negl ‘8 high thermal conductivity is primarily duc
lattice conductivity of in which the thermoelectric power is small,
When the voltage between the Hall Probes is measured for both directions of current only the Hall vont
seein crop reverse, ‘Therefore, the average of these readings eliminates the influence of the, other fT
Frher, when Hall Voltage is measured for bother the directions of the magnetic field, the IR drop docs 1
reverse and may therefore be eliminated.
‘The Hall Probe must be rotated in the field unitl the position of maximum voltage is reached. This is ¢
pion when direction of current in the probe and magnetic field would be perpendicular to each ether.
The resistance of the sample changes when the magnetic field is tumed on. This phenomena called magnet
Tetence is due to the fact that the drift velocity of all carriers is not the same, with magnetic ficld on, ¢
Hell vollage compensates exactly the Lorentz force for currirs with average velocity. Slower carters wi
ver compenssted and fasier-ones under compensated, resulting in trajectories that are not along the appli
Quiernal field, This resulls in effective decrease of the man free path and hence an Increase in resistivity.
‘There, while taking readings with a varying magnetic field at a particular current value, it is necessary th
Cunent valve should be adjusted, every time, The problem can be eliminated by using a constant curre
ower supply, which would keep the current constant irespective of the resistance of the sample.
In pencra, the resistance of the sample Is very high and the Hall Voltages are very low. This meens th
racially there is hardly any current nol more than few micro amperes. Therefore, the Hall Voges show
nly be messured with a high input impedance (2 1M) devices such as electrometer, electronic Millivolete
‘or good potentiometers preferably with lamp and scale arrangements.
[Although the dimensions of the crystal do not appear in the formula except the thickness, but the theot
Sssumer tha all the carters are moving only lengthwise. Practically it has been found that a closer to ide
Situation may be obtained if the length may be taken three times the width of the erystl.
UIRE!
(@) Hall Probe (Ge Crystal) (Por N type)
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>
>
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Pp
P
>
b
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Pp
p
(by) Hall Probe nag)
Digital Molt EMect Set, Model ~ DHE = 21
Tnctiemagoet, Mexlel” EMU 38, EMU SO OR EMU = 75:
Constant Current Power Supply, Model CC ASCE. S001 CC ISHPCE «75
Dipiat tc. Mak BGM 100
(HALL PROBE Ge Crs +
Ge" Single Crystal with foor spring type pressure contacts of pure silver is mounted or #
our leads are provided for connections with meacuring devices
sitip.
Contacts Spring type
Mall Voltage 0.1 1 Volt / 100 mA / Kitogauss
‘Thickness of Ge Crystal 04-05, mm.
Resiati = 10,ohm em,
is provided in the test report of the Hall Probe (Ge) supplied with
ing the Hall Coefficient from this experiment and using the given value of
resistivity can also get valuable information about carrier density and carrier mobilities. A typical example
js provided in the appendix. A minor draw back of this arrangement is that it may require zero adjustment from
time to time. This type of probes are specially designed und recommended for Hall Effect Experiment.
‘The exact value of thickness and 1
the ser-up. The student afier eal
(>) HALL PROBE dndivm Arsenide) :
Indium arsenite Crystal (Rectangular) is mounted on a phenolic strip with four soldered contacts for
‘connections with measuring devices. The erysal is covered by a protective layer of paint. The whole system is
rounted in a pen-type ease for further protection.
Contacts Soldered.
Hall Voltage: 8=10mV/100mA/KG.
‘The value of the thickness and resistivity of the sample given for these probes are not very reliable as these wre
‘not given for a specific probe and may vary from probe as is usually the case with all semiconductor Yevices.
‘These are essentially meant to be used as transducers.
DIGITAL HALL EFFECT SET-UP, MODEL - DIE -21.
‘The set-up consists of an electronic Digital Millivometer and a constant current power supply. The Hall Voltage and
probe current can be read on digital panel meter through the selector switch.
«) [METER :
‘AMD Converter ICL.- 107 have been uted N_has high accuracy ih auto 2201 less han 10 pV, zero dif les
than 1 yVFC, input bias curent of 10 pA and roll overeat of less han ane coun. Since the use of kemalreFvenee
‘caunes the éeqradation in performance due oInieral beating. an external reference hasbeen ued. This elicit ANH
‘more concerien io ein Hall sperimert, beemae the Inpat of ether polarity ean be mstoured
SPECIFICATIONS
Range
Resolution
Accuruey £0.1%6oF vending £1 Digi
Impedance 1,Mohm,
Special Features ‘Aulo 2210 and polarity indicator.
Overlond Indiewor Sign of ¥ onthe lef and blanking of ether digits
(>) CONSTANT CURRENT POWER SUPPLY:
‘This power supply specially desipned for Hall
‘evevssive cutee, The ha
wit duc 10
Wo 8 RSE!
s
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@
se ponvonanenar, Ue supp his te
Tree DC Source Hie eusent ismeusun By the di
SPRCIMCATIONS coe
Corret Range (0-20 mayor eg poi Hal Probe
Revlon oa
Arrerop 13% ofthe eating +1 Dist
Loe Reputation aie for Oto fal od.
Tine Regulation 3% for Uh changes.
ELECTROMAGNET, MODEL. EMU-78 |
Fick tates sous 45% Gin a gp af IO. gap seta vatoh |
vr 3 tm |
Tele Pieces Te AATah tet Normally at feed poke pecs are supped with the magne:
Engineering Cols Tavenh al hap resstne of 10, hms. Apnrow |
Tener Require 5 OSS Amps: Centinovsly variable |
ELECTROMAGNET, MODEL-~ EMU - 50. |
et Intensity © 15K Gauss st 10, mm singep Te sir-spis continual vari |
Pole Pieces Fae cai ee normaly a het pole ices are untied withthe magne.
Enpiarring Coils Jeb cul sod rs ressance of show! 3.0. ect |
Foren Require ont am |
ELECTROMAGNET, MODEL-EMU~ 38.
Field Intensity $.0 K Gauss at 10, mm air -gop. The at-gap is adjustable from 0-60 mm.
Pole Pieces ‘3S.mm fat faced poe.
Engineering Ci ‘Two each col has resisiance of about 4.0, ohm.
Power Require 0-2.5Amps.
CONSTANT CURRENT POWER SUPPLY, MODEL-CC~75.
“ATIONS ;
arrest Smoothly adjustable from O10 $ Amp
Regulation (Line) +£0.1% for 10% mains varlation,
Regulation (Load) : +£0.1% fr load resistance variation from 0 to full led
Metering + 3¥ADigh, 7 segment panel meter.
Protection : Bleclemieally protected against overloading & short circuiting
taper : 220Vol 10%, SOHl2
P ET POW Li NCC: 75
BCC-75, Bipolar power supplies are micro controlled based highly regulated constant current sources , speciall
{esigned for Electromagnets . The BCC- 75 Power Supply maintain tight control over the entire output range
including zero output . This achieved without reversal contactor or relays , which are not suitable for this purpost
because they produce , unintended field spikes , and other discontinuities , as result field hysteresis or other
biases are avoided in experimental da
Features: :
+ Bulltin spikes. surge noise end transient suppressor
‘Dipolar variable constant output
(ver Load and shot circuit protection
‘Low ripples
High regilation :
+ Advance technology ®
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+ Output tscvomollable by pus buttons provided on panel
Specification
0° #8 Anipi Tuya sietovvattter provided
Rene than 408% for +10 vatiation in Mains
LED Meter (Two ras. one for current and othe for %)
ander
wy. Spikes sue
Tully ywotcctedelectunically against shor it
vrfent: in aditnn inn sult fuse and maine circuit Brahe in pat
anon : me SO
) u VER SUPPLY, MODEL -CC~ 50.
0-4, Amp.
Regulation (Line) 40.1% for 10% variation in mains.
Regulation (Lond) +£0.1% no load to full load.
Electronically protected against overload or short cire
3% Digit, 7 segment LCD Digital Panel Meter.
Protected
© ‘ E WER SUPPLY, MODEL-CC-35.
0-25, Amp.
£0.1% for No load to full load.
£0.1% for + 10% mains variation..
Electronically protected against overload or shor circuiting.
Metering 3% Digit, 7 segment LCD Digital Pane! Meter.
Range : 220V 4 10% 50 Hz
DIGITAL GAUSS METER, MODEL-DGM- 100,
Specifications
Range 0-2,K Gauss and 0-20k Gauss,
Resolution 1 Gauss at 0-2 K Gauss Range.
‘Accoracy £ 0.5%.
Display 3% Digit, 7 segment LED.
Detector Hall Probe with an Imported Hall Element.
Input 220 Volt, 50 Hz.
Special : Indicates the direction of the magnetic field.
PROCEDURE ;
1. Connect the widihwise contacts wires of the Hall Probe to the terminals marked “Voltage” and lengihwise contacts
to terminals marked “Current”.
2. Switch ‘ON" the Hall Effect Set-Up and adjustment current (say few mA).
3 Switch over the display 10 voliage side. There may be some voltage reading even outside the magnetic field.
This fs due to imperfect alignment of the four contacts of the Hall Probes and is generally known as the
Zero field Potential". In ease its value Is comparable to the Hall Voltage it should be adjusted to a minimum
possible for Hall Probe “Ge only, In all cates, thls error should be subiracted fiom the Hall Voltage
8.
4 Now place the probe in the magnetic field as shown in Fig.3 and switch on the electromagnet power suppl
and adjust the current to any desived value, Rotnie the Hall Prob
field, Hall voltage will be maximum in this adjustment. .
‘become perpendicular to ms
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S Measure the magnetic field by the Gauss Meter
ALC
culate Hall coefficient
1 From the graph Hall Voltage Vs. Magnetic ficht,cal
3 Determine the typeof mary charge eaves, Te. whether the erystal in ype oF p-ype
Caleulate charge carrier density from the relation.
1 1
nq Rq
4. Cafculate earier mobility, using. the formula
be (ot py) = Ro
using the specified value of resistivity (W/o)
Probe Method). Typical calculations are shown
Seas Hatt vetage tig tothe dicts eM cunt and
pamiculat vale of cament and mapneic il
6 Memine the all Netage aa heaping the magn
Memore the Hall Voltage as a finct fold heeping. a suitable value of Curren 3s coi
i
by some other method |
ven by the supplier ot obtained
appendix.
QUESTIONS _:
1. What is Hall Effect ?
2 What are n—type and p-type semiconductors ?
3. What is the effect of temperature on Hall coeffici
4 Do the holes actually move 7
5S. Why the resistance of the sample magnetic field ?
& Why a high input impedance device is generally needed to measure the Hall voltae.
§ MAD the Hall Volige should be measured for both the directions of cuentas well as of magnetic Feld
REFERENCES :
1. Hall, E. H., “On a new action of the magnet on electronic currents”
287-297 91879). The original paper by hall which describes the effect. An interest
2. Preston, D.W. and E.R. Dietz, The art of experimental Physics, John Wiley & Sons 91991),
discussion ofthe Hall effect in semiconductors.
fers college, Philadelphia (1976). Chapter 1 give
3. Ashcroft, Nell W., and N. David Mermin, solid state Physic, Saund
arccainry theory ofthe hal effect. Chapter 3 discusss the failures ofthe free electron model, Chapters 12 and 18
the hall effect in the height field ow temperature limit for metals.
Hard, Colin Mc: The hall effect in metals and Alloys, Plenum press, New York (1972). A thorough overview of the
effect in metals, Predates the quantum hall effect.
5. Silsbee, Rober H., ang Jorg Drager, Simulations
{and computer simulations illustrate many important concepts In sol
‘computer in the lab.
6. Ziman. JM. Principles ofthe theory of solids, Cambridge university Press (1969). An excellent, readable and cles
covering much ofthe same material as Ascroft and Mermin.
7. Fundamentals. of semiconductor Devices, J. Lindmayer and C.Y. Wrigley, Af
New Delhi.
8. Introduction to Solid State Physics, C,Kitel; John Wiley and Sons tne. N.Y. (1971) 4
9, Hall Effect and Relatcd Phenomena, E.M. Putley, Butterworths, London (1960).
ient of lightly doped semiconductors.
. American Joumal of Mathematics, 2, No. 3,
historical read.
pages 303-315, Exe
{for solid state physics, Cambridge University Press 91997). The
lid state physics. The simulations are available
ted East-West Press Pvt.
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(© scanned wt onENScnner 4) CARRIER MOMILILY
Tor dege
iconductor ie
Cartier Mobility pt = Re
‘Thos we see thi
fon carrier dens
Measorement i.
1. CONSTANT Magnetic Field .....
33.X 10? X 01
= 3300 em? volt sec”
Hall Coefficient in conjunction with resist
‘and other valu
Re do not always agree wi
when one carricr dominates.
OBSERVATION TABLE
Gauss,
ly mieasurement can provide valuable informati-
Ne must be noted however. that mobilities obtained feom Hall Eff
directly measured values, The reason is explained in the booklet
f FORWARDED. REVERSE
TA} Vimvy Tomy Vinv)
Current (mA) Volts (mV) Current (mA) Volts (mV)
2. CURRENT CONSTANT.
Current Mil Volt
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ALPENDIX
le eelevianon for Hott Coefficient: Carver Density: and Mobility taking Hol! Prob as sone
SAMPLE DETA
Sample 2 °Ge" Crystal n= type.
Thickness (2): $x 107 em voy ,
Resistivity (p) ohm cmor ohm= = == V.coulomb’'. see
10 Volt coulomb! 1 dQ
sec em. a
Conductivity (a): 0.1 eoulomb volt-I see—1 m=!
EXPERIN :
Corrent 5 8x10? Amp.
Magactic Field (H) = 1000, G.
Hall Voltage (V.)_: $3 x 10” Volt
@ EFFI :
We know from equation 2 of the text.
1H
53 X 10? X 5X 107
8x 10? x 10
33 X 10° voltcmamp" G!
or = 33 X 10% X 10° cm’ coulomb
= 33 X 10? cm? coulomb"
We know from equation 3 of the text.
1
1
R= — 3a= ——
nq Rq
'
33. X 10° X 1.6 X 10”
= 19X10" em
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EXPERINL
Determination of Plank's Constant by Photoclectric Effect
Theory:
We was observed as carly as 1905 that most metals under influence of radiation, cit
electrons. This phenomenon was termed as photoclectrie emi ‘The detailed study of it
hown,
1, That the emission process depends strongly on frequency of tadiation.
2. For cach metal there exists a critical frequency such that light of lower frequency is
unable to liberate electrons, while light of higher frequency always does.
3. The emission of electron occurs within a very short time interval after arrival of the
radiation and member of electrons is strictly proportional to the intensity of this
radiation.
‘The experimental facts given above are among the strongest evidence that the
electromagnetic field is quantified and the ficld consists of quanta of energy E= hy where v is
the fiequency of the radiation and his the Planck’s constant, These quanta are called photons.
Further it is assumed that electrons are bound inside the metal surface with an energy
eb, where § is called work fimetion. It then follows that if the frequency of the light is such
that
hy> eb
it will be possible to eject photoelectron, while if hv
