EECE 210

Electric
Circuits
Chapter 2- Circuit Elements
Main Topics
• Circuits Elements
• Voltage and Current Sources
• Electrical Resistance (Ohm’s Law)
• Construction of a Circuit Model
• Kirchhoff’s Laws
• Analysis of a Circuit Containing Dependent
Source
 Circuit
Elements
• It is important to differentiate between the
physical device itself and the mathematical model
which is used to analyze its behavior in a circuit.
• The expression “circuit element” is used to refer to
the mathematical model of the physical device
• All simple circuit elements can be classified
according to the relationship of current through
the element to the voltage across the element.
Five Ideal Basic Circuit Elements

Resistor

Inductor
Voltage source Current source

Active elements

Capacitor
Passive elements
Voltage and Current Sources
• An electrical source is a device that convert non-electric energy to
electric energy or vice versa

• Examples of electrical sources:

• Mains electricity
• Cells
• Batteries (two or more cells connected together)
• A discharging battery converts chemical energy to electric
energy
• A battery being charged converts electric energy to
chemical energy
• Electrical sources can either deliver or absorb electric power,
generally maintaining either voltage or current
• Ideal voltage source
• Ideal current source
Voltage and Current Sources
• Ideal Voltage and Current sources are active elements which generate
electrical energy

• Ideal voltage source: a circuit element that maintains a prescribed voltage

across its terminals regardless of the current flowing in those terminals

• Ideal current source: a circuit element that maintains a prescribed current

through its terminals regardless of the voltage across those terminals

• Voltage and Current sources can be:

• Independent: of other voltages/currents in the circuit
• Dependent: on other voltages/currents in
the circuit (controlled sources)
Independent Power Sources
• An Independent Power Source
establishes a voltage or current in
a circuit without relying on
voltages or currents elsewhere in
the circuit.
• The value of the voltage or
current supplied is specified by
the value of the independent
source alone.
Combining Current and Voltage Sources in a Circuit

• Voltage Sources set the voltage between two nodes

• Current Sources set the current flowing through
 Independent Source Combinations

✔ ✔ ✗
• Current sources in series or voltage
sources in parallel are forbidden
Except if the sources are pointing in
the same direction and have the
same values
• Similar concepts apply for dependent
sources

✗ ✔
Independent Source Combinations- Continued
• Connection of Voltage Sources • Connection of Current Sources
Dependent Power Sources
• A dependent source establishes a voltage or
current whose value depends on the value of a
voltage or current elsewhere in the circuit.
• The value of a dependent source can not be
established on its own because it is determined
by the value of the voltage or current on which
it depends.
• Four kinds of controlled sources,
current-‐controlledcurrent source, CCCS
The circuit symbols for:
voltage-‐controlled current source, VCCS a) An ideal dependent voltage-controlled voltage source
voltage-‐controlled voltage source, VCVS b) An ideal dependent current-controlled voltage source
c) An ideal dependent voltage-controlled current source
current-‐controlledvoltage source, CCVS d) An ideal dependent current-controlled current source
 Power Source Combinations

✗ ✔
See which Combinations
are valid, and which are not

✔ ✗
 Solved Problem #1
• For the circuit shown,
– a) What value of vg is required in
order for the interconnection to be valid?
– b) For this value of vg, what is the power
associated with the 8 A source?

• Solution
• For a), we have
vg = ib/4 = −8/4 = −2(V)
• For b), we have
p = 8vg = 8 × (−2) = −16(W)
Electrical Resistance

• Electrical Resistance is the capacity of materials to impede

the flow of current or the flow of electric charge
• During the movement of electrons in wires, some
amount of electric energy is converted to thermal
energy and dissipated in the form of heat
• Electrical Resistance gives rise to undesirable energy
losses through copper wires interconnections
• Useful Resistance based devices: some applications
take advantage of electric resistance heating in devices
such as stoves, toasters, irons, and space heaters
Electrical Resistance
• The circuit element used to model the behavior of Electrical
Resistance is the resistor.
• The linear resistor is the simplest passive element. Its symbol and
characteristic are as following:
Electrical Resistance
• Resistance is denoted by the variable R
• Resistance is measured in the unit ohms (Ω)
• An Ideal Resistor always has a constant value and conditions
• Reciprocal of resistance called conductance (G=1/R siemens)

Resistivity length

R=
A
Cross-sectional Area
 Resistor Ratings
• Color coded markings to indicate the value
of the Resistor
• Power rating of the resistor depends on the
physical dimensions of the resistor
Ohm’s Law
• When a current flows in a resistor, a voltage drop
across the resistor will be induced according to
Ohm’s Law
• Algebraic relationship between voltage and current
for a resistor such as V = RI
• v = the voltage in volts
• I = the current in amperes
• R = the resistance in ohms
• Electric Power Basic equation P = VI = Ri2 = v2 /R
Left: in the direction of the voltage drop
❑ Square of I or V ➔ independent of reference values across the resistor
Right: in the direction of the voltage
• Power is always consumed in Resistors rise across the resistor
Other Forms of Ohm’s Law
• Current is in the direction of the voltage drop across
the resistor

• Current is in the direction of the voltage rise across

the resistor

• Conductance: the reciprocal of the resistance, which

is symbolized by the letter G, and is measured in
Siemens (S)
Important Notes
▪ Regardless of the voltage polarity and the direction of
the current, the power across a Resistor will always
be positive and therefore a Resistor will always
absorb power from the circuit (P= 𝑅𝑖 2 OR P=𝑉 2 /R)
▪ The Interconnecting wires are assumed to be ideal
and do not have any resistance and therefore the full
power supply voltage (voltage difference) will be
imposed across the load terminals
▪ A circuit is said to be solved when voltages across
and current in every element are determined.
▪ Ohm’s Law is an important relationship to solve a
circuit BUT it is not usually enough.
▪ Additional tools are to be added to our toolbox to
enable us to solve more circuits.
Example: Applying Ohm’s Law
• If vg = 1 kV and ig = 5 mA, what is the value of R and
the power absorbed by the resistor

• R= 200kΩ
• P= 5W
Circuit Terminology
• An electric circuit node is the junction of two or more
circuit elements
• Path is a set of one or more adjoining circuit elements
that may be traversed in succession without passing
through the same node more than once
• If initial and final nodes are the same, the path is
closed and becomes a loop
Power in Different Forms
Left:
P = vi = (iR)i = i2R
P = vi = v(v/R) = v2/R
Right:
P = −vi = −(−iR)i = i2R
P = −vi = −v(−v/R) = v2/R

• The equations for Left and right are identical

• Regardless of voltage polarity and current direction, the power at the
terminals of a Resistor is positive. A Resistor absorbs power from the circuit.
• What’s the expression of power if we use conductance, rather than
resistance? Answer: Substitute R by 1/G
17
Examples- Ohm’s Law & Basic Power Calculations
Voltage Current Calculations Power Dissipated by the Resistor

Va = 1x8= 8 Volts Pa= 8 Watts

Ib = 50x0.2= 10 Amps Pb= 500 Watts

Vc = (-1)(20)= - 20 Volts Pc= 20 Watts

Id = - 50/25= -2 Amps Pd=100 Watts

Solved Problem #2
Solution of Problem #2
• For a), we have
R = vg/ig = 1 kV / 0.005 A = 200 kΩ
p = vgig = 1000 V × 0.005 A = 5 W
• For b), we have
vg＝p/ig = 3 W / 0.075 A = 40 V
R = vg/ig = 40 V / 0.075 A = 533.3 Ω
Power absorbed= Power delivered= 3 W
• For c), we have
ig = (p/R)0.5= (0.48 W / 300 Ω)0.5 = 0.04 A = 40mA
vg = (pR)0.5= (0.48 W × 300 Ω)0.5 = 12 V
Circuit Model
• An ideal switch offers no resistance to the current when it is in the
ON state and offers infinite resistance to current when it is in the OFF
state.
• Open circuit (Infinite Resistance) OR short circuit (Zero Resistance)

The arrangement of
flashlight components

Circuit model of a flashlight

Solved Problem #3
• The voltage and current are measured at the terminals of the
device illustrated in (a), and the values of vt and it are
tabulated in (b). Construct a circuit model of the device inside
the box.
Solution of Problem #3

• Plotting the voltage as a function of the In terms of Ohm's law, the

current yields the graph shown in (a). device inside the box behaves
like a 4 Ω resistor.
• The equation of the line in this figure
illustrates that the terminal voltage is
directly proportional to the terminal
current, vt=4it.
Kirchhoff’s Laws
iC

• Two Kirchhoff’s laws based on iA iB

conservation of charge and
conservation of energy: N
• Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) iD

• Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)

– v3 +

• KCL: The algebraic sum of all the + +

v2
currents at any node in a circuit v4
–
equals zero –
+q

• KVL: The algebraic sum of all the + +

voltages around any closed path in a v1
– –
v5

circuit equals zero

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
• KCL: The algebraic sum of all the currents at any node in a circuit equals zero
• An algebraic sign corresponding to a reference direction is assigned to every current at the node
• Assigning a positive sign to current leaving a node and a negative sign to current entering a node

Using Kirchhoff's current law (KCL) at every node

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
• KVL: The algebraic sum of all the voltages around any closed path in a circuit
equals zero

Path a: -V1+V2+V4-Vb-V3=0
Path b: -Va+V3+V5=0
Path c: Vb-V4-Vc-V6-V5= 0
Path d:-Va-V1+V2-Vc+V7-Vd=0

Designation used:
Voltage Drop is +VE
Voltage Rise is -VE
 Kirchhoff’s Laws Illustrations
KVL

Circuit model for the flashlight

KCL
Kirchhoff’s KVL and KCL @glance

• Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL): The algebraic sum of all the currents at any node
in a circuit equals zero.

• Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL): The algebraic sum of all the voltages around any
closed path in a circuit equals zero.

• Reference direction is important

• KCL: Assign a positive sign to a current leaving a node requires assigning a
negative sign to a current entering a node, or vice versa.
• KVL: As we trace a closed path, assign a negative sign to a voltage rise
requires assigning a positive sign to a voltage drop, or vice versa.
Combining Kirchhoff’s laws and Ohm’s Law
• Use Ohm's law and Kirchhoff’s laws to find the value of R in the circuit.
vR

iR i1 i2
v2

Kirchhoff’s laws: Ohm's law:

vR + 120 – 200 = 0 R = vR / iR
120 – v2 = 0 24 i1 = 120
iR – i1 – i2 = 0 8 i2 = v2
Solving the resulting equation leads to R = 4 Ω
Analysis of a Circuit Containing Dependent Sources

Direction of circuit currents are all set.

current in the 20 Ohm resistor : using KCL we get: 𝑖0 = 𝑖Δ + 5𝑖Δ = 6𝑖Δ
using KVL in the left-side loop (a-b-c) we get: −500 + 5 𝑖Δ + 20 6𝑖Δ = 0
125 𝑖Δ = 500 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑖Δ = 4 𝐴, 𝑖0 = 24𝐴, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣0 = 20 ∗ 24 = 480 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
Circuit Solution Using KCL and KVL

Assume the shown direction of the current

in the 50 Ohm resistor
+ -
Using KCL leads at central node leads to +
𝑖50 = 𝑖0 + 6
Using KVL on the left loop leads to -
−120 + 10 𝑖0 + 50 6 + 𝑖0 = 0
60 𝑖0 = −300 + 120 = −180
Solving for 𝑖0 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
𝑖0 = −3 𝐴 and by substituting we get
𝑖50 = 3 𝐴 and 𝑣50 = 150 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
Solved Problem #4 – Basic Power Calculations
𝑖0 = −3 𝐴 ,
𝑖50 = 3 𝐴 and + -
𝑣50 = 150 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 +

-
For the current source: P= -IV= -(6)(150)=- 900 W
(delivered)
For the voltage source: P = -(-3)(120)=360 W
(absorbed)
For the 50 Ω resistor: P=(150)(3) = 450 Watts (Dissipated)
For the 10 Ω resistor: P=RI*2=(10)(9) = 90 Watts (Dissipated)
 Solved Problem #5- More Circuits

a) Use of Kirchhoff's laws and Ohm's law to find the voltage vo as shown in the Figure.
b) Show that the total power developed in the circuit equals the total power dissipated.

By using Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL), we have

Then, by using Ohm’s law, we have

Electrical Safety
Chapter Review- What We have Learned
• Ideal voltage/current sources
• Independent/dependent sources
• Resistor
• Ohm’s law
• Kirchhoff’s voltage/current law