RATHNAVEL SUBRAMANIAM COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE (AUTONOMOUS)

SULUR, COIMBATORE- 641 402

SCHOOL OF COMPUTER STUDIES (UG)
B.Sc. INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
IPV-4 ROUTING
Semester - VI
Batch: 2016-2019

Assignment-I (UNIT-I)

1. Exemplify the process of advertising routes with BGP with a neat sketch.
SOLUTION:
BGP exchanges routing information by using the same general process used by IGPs. To begin the
BGP process, one router must have knowledge of some IPv4 prefix. It then uses a BGP protocol
message (a BGP update message) to exchange the routing information with another router, With
BGP, the other router is called a BGP neighbor or BGP peer. The term autonomous system number
(ASN) plays a key role in BGP. With BGP, the term autonomous system (AS) refers to a network
that operates separately from other networks (that is, autonomously). BGP uses the ASN—the
number that identifies each AS—for many BGP features, including a part of the best path selection
process (to choose the best BGP route). The ASN is also used as part of a routing loop prevention
mechanism.

INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL BGP

2. Distinguish between eBGP and iBGP.

SOLUTION:
1. EBGP is peering between two different AS, whereas IBGP is between same AS (Autonomous
System).
2. Routes learned from eBGP peer will be advertised to other peers (BGP or IBGP); however, routes
learned from IBGP peer will not be advertised to other IBGP peers.
3. By default, EBGP peers are set with TTL = 1, which means neighbors are assumed to be directly
connected, which is not in the case of IBGP. We can change this behavior for EBGP by using
command “neighbor x.x.x.x ebgp-multihop <TTL>”. Multihop is the term used in EBGP only.
4. EBGP routes have administrative distance of 20, whereas IBGP has 200.
5. Next hop remains unchanged when route is advertised to IBGP peer; however, it is changed
when it is advertised to EBGP peer by default.
This default behavior of IBGP can be changed by the command “neighbor x.x.x.x next-hop-self”;
this changes the next hop, while advertising, as a local route.

BGP CONFIGURATION CONCEPTS

3. When BGP routers establish a neighbor (peer) relationship with a connected router, they
exchange information. What kind of information do they exchange?

SOLUTION:

VERIFYING EBGP NEIGHBORS

4. State the typical reasons for the BGP neighbor states.
SOLUTION:

5. If my BGP neighbor is stuck in idle or active state, what should I do?

SOLUTION:
If BGP peer is in idle state, then it could be due to physical connectivity failure or the neighbor is
not defined properly with respective AS. In connect state, BGP tries to establish a TCP session
over port number 179; if it fails to establish the connection, then it goes to active state, where it
tries again to establish a TCP connection. By using “debug ip bgp” and “debug ip tcp transactions”
commands, the exact cause of TCP connection failure is lack of the “update-source” or “ebgp-
multihop” command can also be a reason of neighbor active state.

Assignment-II (UNIT-II)

1. Classify the functions that are useful on a leased line that connects two devices provided by
PPP.

SOLUTION:

■ Definition of a header and trailer that allows delivery of a data frame over the link.

■ Support for both synchronous and asynchronous links.

■ A protocol Type field in the header, allowing multiple Layer 3 protocols to pass over the same
link.

■ Built-in authentication tools: Password Authentication Protocol (PAP) and Challenge Handshake
Authentication Protocol (CHAP).

■ Control protocols for each higher-layer protocol that rides over PPP, allowing easier integration
and support of those protocols.

PPP LCP FEATURES

2. Tabulate the PPP LCP features with its description.

3. Examine the concept of PPP Exec Configuration commands.

SOLUTION:

IMPLEMENTING MULTILINK PPP

4. Write down the commands that demonstrates the first step in configuring a new multilink
interface.

SOLUTION:
PPP CONTROL PROTOCOLS

5. Categorize the two main protocols that separates PPP control protocols.

SOLUTION:

+ Link Control Protocol (LCP): set up and negotiate control options on the Data Link Layer
(OSI Layer 2). After finishing setting up the link, it uses NCP.
+ Network control Protocol (NCP): negotiate optional configuration parameters and facilitate
for the Network Layer (OSI Layer 3). In other words, it makes sure IP and other protocols can
operate correctly on PPP link

Assignment-III (UNIT-III)

MARKING THE ETHERNET 802.1Q HEADER

1. Explain the concept of marking the Ethernet 802.1Q Header.

SOLUTION:

The 802.1Q header, in a field originally defined by the IEEE 802.1p standard. This
field sits in the third byte of the 4-byte 802.1Q header, as a 3-bit field, supplying eight possible
values to mark. It goes by two different names: Class of Service, or CoS, and Priority Code Point,
or PCP. The figure uses two slightly different shades of gray (in print) for the Ethernet header
and trailer fields versus the 802.1Q header, as a reminder: The 802.1Q header is not included in
all Ethernet frames. The 802.1Q header only exists when 802.1Q trunking is used on a link. As a
result, QoS tools can only make use of the CoS field for QoS features enabled on interfaces that
use trunking. For instance, if the PC on the left were to send data to a server somewhere off the
figure to the right, the DSCP field would exist for that entire trip. However, the CoS field would
exist over the two trunks only, and would be useful mainly on the four interfaces noted with the
arrow lines.
DEFINING TRUST BOUNDARIES

2. Explain the steps involved if defining Trust Boundaries.

SOLUTION:

The end-user device can mark the DSCP field, and even the CoS field if trunking is
used on the link. Would you, as the network engineer, trust those settings, and let your
networking devices trust and react to those markings for their various QoS actions? Most of us
would not, because anything the end user controls might be used inappropriately at times. For
instance, a PC user could know enough about DiffServ and DSCPs to know that most voice traffic
is marked with a DSCP called Expedited Forwarding (EF), which has a decimal value of 46. Voice
traffic gets great QoS treatment, so PC users could mark all their traffic as DSCP 46, hoping to
get great QoS treatment. The people creating a QoS plan for an enterprise have to choose
where to place the trust boundary for the network. The trust boundary refers to the point in the
path of a packet flowing through the network at which the networking devices can trust the
current QoS markings. That boundary typically sits in a device under the control of the IT staff.
For instance, a typical trust boundary could be set in the middle of the first ingress switch in the
network.The markings on the message as sent by the PC cannot be trusted. However, because
SW1 performed classification and marking as the packets entered the switch, the markings can
be trusted at that point.

DIFFSERV SUGGESTED MARKING VALUES

3. Explain in detail about DiffServ Suggested Marking Values.

SOLUTION:

Three sets of DSCP values as used in DiffServ.

Expedited Forwarding (EF)

DiffServ defines the Expedited Forwarding (EF) DSCP value—a single value—as
suggested for use for packets that need low latency (delay), low jitter, and low loss. The
Expedited Forwarding RFC (RFC 3246) defines the specific DSCP value (decimal 46) and an
equivalent text name (Expedited Forwarding). QoS configuration commands allow the use of the
decimal value or text name, but one purpose of having a text acronym to use is to make the
value more memorable, so many QoS configurations refer to the text names.
Assured Forwarding (AF)

The Assured Forwarding (AF) DiffServ RFC (2597) defines a set of 12 DSCP values
meant to be used in concert with each other. First, it defines the concept of four separate
queues in a queuing system. Additionally, it defines three levels of drop priority within each
queue for use with congestion avoidance tools. With four queues, and three drop priority classes
per queue, you need 12 different DSCP markings, one for each combination of queue and drop
priority.

Class Selector (CS)

The ToS byte was defined with a 3-bit IP Precedence (IPP) field. When DiffServ
redefined the ToS byte, it made sense to create eight DSCP values for backward compatibility
with IPP values. The Class Selector (CS) DSCP values are those settings. The main idea along
with the eight CS values, both in name and in decimal value. Basically, the DSCP values have the
same first 3 bits as the IPP field, and with binary 0s for the last 3 bits, as shown on the left side
of the figure. CSx represents the text names, where x is the matching IPP value (0 through 7).

QoS –PRACTICAL QUESTIONS

3. What 8-bit field exists in IP packet for QoS?

SOLUTION:

The IP datagram header contains an 8-bit field called ToS (Type of Service). The field
has been part of the IP header since the beginning, but it was rarely used until the recent
introduction of Differentiated Services (Diff-Serv).
Note:
+ CoS does not exists in an IP header. It appears in the header of a 802.1Q frame only. CoS is
used for QoS on a trunk link.
+ DSCP uses the first 6 bits of the TOS field.

4. Which QoS tool can you use to optimize voice traffic on a network that is primarily intended
for data traffic?

SOLUTION:

With Priority Queueing (PQ), traffic is classified into high, medium, normal, and low
priority queues. The high priority traffic is serviced first, then medium priority traffic, followed by
normal and low priority traffic. -> Therefore we can assign higher priority for voice traffic.

Also with PQ, higher priority traffic can starve the lower priority queues of bandwidth. No
bandwidth guarantees are possible -> It is still good because this network is mostly used for
data traffic so voice traffic amount is small.

With First In First Out (FIFO) or Weighted Fair Queueing (WFQ), there is no priority servicing so
they are not suitable here.

Weighted Random Early Detection (WRED) is just a congestion avoidance mechanism. WRED
measures the size of the queues depending on the Precedence value and starts dropping packets
when the queue is between the minimum threshold and the maximum threshold -> It does not
have priority servicing either.

5. Which feature can you implement to reserve bandwidth for VoIP calls across the call path?

SOLUTION:

The Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP) protocol allows applications to reserve

bandwidth for their data flows. It is used by a host, on the behalf of an application data flow, to
request a specific amount of bandwidth from the network. RSVP is also used by the routers to
forward bandwidth reservation requests.

Assignment-IV (UNIT-IV)

1. Explain in detail about Congestion Management (Queuing).

SOLUTION:

All networking devices use queues. Network devices receive messages, make a
forwarding decision, and then send the message—but sometimes the outgoing interface is busy.
So, the device keeps the outgoing message in a queue, waiting for the outgoing interface to be
available—simple enough. The term congestion management (found in the QoS exam topics)
refers to the QoS toolset for managing the queues that hold packets while they wait their turn to
exit an interface (and in other cases in which a router holds packets waiting for some resource).
But congestion management refers to more than one idea, so you have to look inside devices to
think about how they work. For instance. The router of course makes a forwarding decision, and
it needs to be ready to queue packets for transmission once the outgoing interface is available.
At the same time, the router may take a variety of other actions as well ingress ACL, ingress NAT
(on the inside interface), egress ACLs after the forwarding decision is made, and so on.

output queuing, one aspect of congestion management, in which the device holds messages
until the output interface is available. The queuing system may use a single output queue, with a
first-in, first-out (FIFO) scheduler. (In other words, it’s like ordering lunch at the sandwich shop
that has a single ordering line.)

LOW LATENCY QUEUING

2. Explain the process of Low Latency Queuing in detail.

SOLUTION:
 LLQ, tells the scheduler to treat one or more queues as special priority queues. The
LLQ scheduler always takes the next message from one of these special priority queues. Problem
solved: very little delay for packets in that queue, resulting in very little jitter as well. Plus the
queue never has time to fill up, so there are no drops due to the queue filling up. Using LLQ, or
a priority queue, provides the needed low delay, jitter, and loss for the traffic in that queue.
However, think about those other queues. Do you see the problem? What happens if the speed
of the interface is X bits/second, but more than X bits/second come into the voice queue? The
scheduler never services the other queues (called queue starvation).

POLICING

3. Where to use policing explain with a neat sketch?

SOLUTION:

Policing makes sense only in certain cases, and as a general tool, it can be best used
at the edge between two networks. For instance, consider a typical point-to-point metro
Ethernet WAN connection between two enterprise routers, R1 and R2. Usually, the enterprise
network engineers just view the WAN as a cloud, with Ethernet interfaces on the routers,
Policers can discard excess traffic, but they can also re-mark packets as well. Think again about
what an SP does with an ingress policer. They are discarding their customer’s messages. So, the
SP might want to make a compromise that works better.

The SP could mark the messages with a new marking value, with this strategy:

1. Re-mark packets that exceed the policing rate, but let them into the SP’s network.

2. If other SP network devices are experiencing congestion when they process the packet, the
different marking means that device can discard the packet. However…

3. …if no other SP network devices are experiencing congestion when forwarding that re-marked
packet, it gets through the SP network anyway.
SHAPING

4. Explain in detail about shaping with a neat diagram.

SOLUTION:

The shaper slows messages down by queuing the messages. The shaper then
services the shaping queues, but not based on when the physical interface is available. Instead,
the shaper schedules messages from the shaping queues based on the shaping rate. Following
the left-to-right flow in the figure, for a router, the packet is routed out an interface; the shaper
queues packets so that the sending rate through the shaper does not exceed the shaping rate;
and then output queuing works as normal, if needed. A shaper’s time interval refers to its
internal logic and how a shaper averages, over time, sending at a particular rate. A shaper
basically sends as fast as it can, and then waits; sends and waits; sends and waits. For instance,
the policing and shaping example in this section suggests shaping at 200 Mbps on a router that
has a 1000-Mbps (1-Gbps) outgoing interface. In that case, the shaper would result in the
interface sending data 20 percent of the time, and being silent 80 percent of the time.

A graph of the shaping time interval concept, assuming a time interval of 1 second. To average
200 million bits/second, the shaper would allow 200 million bits to exit its shaping queues and
exit the interface each second. Because the interface transmits bits at 1 Gbps, it takes just .2
seconds, or 200 ms, to send all 200 million bits. Then the shaper must wait for the rest of the
time interval, another 800 ms, before beginning the next time interval.
TCP WINDOWING BASICS

5. Explain in detail about TCP Windowing Basics.

SOLUTION:

TCP uses a flow control mechanism called windowing. Each TCP receiver grants a
window to the sender. The window, which is a number, defines the number of bytes the sender
can send over the TCP connection before receiving a TCP acknowledgement for at least some of
those bytes. More exactly, the window size is the number of unacknowledged bytes that the
sender can send before the sender must simply stop and wait. The TCP window mechanism
gives the receiver control of the sender’s rate of sending data. Each new segment sent by the
receiver back to the sender grants a new window, which can be smaller or larger than the
previous window. By raising and lowering the window, the receiver can make the sender wait
more or wait less.

Each TCP connection has two senders and two receivers; that is, each host sends and receives
data. For this discussion, focus on one direction, with one host as the sender and the other as
the receiver. If calling one host the “sender” and one the “receiver,” note that the receiver then
acknowledges data in TCP segments sent back to the sender by the receiver.

Assignment-V (UNIT-V)

THE NEED FOR REDUNDANCY IN NETWORKS

1. Explain in detail about the need for redundancy in networks.

SOLUTION:

Networks need redundant links to improve the availability of the network. Eventually,
something in the network will fail. A router power supply might fail, or a cable might break, or a
switch might lose power. Depending on the design of the network, the failure of a single
component might mean an outage that affects at least some part of the user population.
Network engineers refer to any one component that, if it fails, brings down that part of the
network as a single point of failure. For instance, in Figure 20-1, the LANs appear to have some
redundancy, whereas the WAN does not. If most of the traffic flows between sites, many single
points of failure exist.
■ Adds redundant devices and links

■ Implements any necessary functions that take advantage of the redundant device or link

HSRP CONCEPTS

2. Exemplify the process of HSRP concepts with a neat diagram.

SOLUTION:

HSRP operates with an active/standby model (also more generally called

active/passive). HSRP allows two (or more) routers to cooperate, all being willing to act as the
default router. However, at any one time, only one router actively supports the end-user traffic.
The packets sent by hosts to their default router flow to that one active router. Then, the other
routers, with an HSRP standby state, sit there patiently waiting to take over should the active
HSRP router have a problem. The HSRP active router implements a virtual IP address and matching
virtual MAC address. This virtual IP address exists as part of the HSRP configuration, which is an
additional configuration item compared to the usual ip address interface subcommand. This
virtual IP address is in the same subnet as the interface IP address, but it is a different IP address.
The router then automatically creates the virtual MAC address. All the cooperating HSRP routers
know these virtual addresses, but only the HSRP active router uses these addresses at any one
point in time. Hosts refer to the virtual IP address as their default router address, instead of any
one router’s interface IP address. For instance, in Figure 20-5, R1 and R2 use HSRP. The HSRP
virtual IP address is 10.1.1.1, with the virtual MAC address referenced as VMAC1 for simplicity’s
sake.
HSRP FAILOVER

3. Explain the process HSRP Failover in detail.

SOLUTION:

HSRP on each router has some work to do to make the network function. The two
routers need HSRP configuration, including the virtual IP address. The two routers send HSRP
messages to each other to negotiate and decide which router should currently be active, and
which should be standby. Then, the two routers continue to send messages to each other so
that the standby router knows when the active router fails so that it can take over as the new
active router. When R1, the HSRP active router, fails. R1 quits using the virtual IP and MAC
address, while R2, the new active router, starts using these addresses. The hosts do not need to
change their default router settings at all, with traffic now flowing to R2 instead of R1.

When the failover happens, some changes do happen, but none of those changes happen on the
hosts. The host keeps the same default router setting, set to the virtual IP address (10.1.1.1 in
this case). The host’s ARP table does not have to change either, with the HSRP virtual MAC
being listed as the MAC address of the virtual router.

When the failover occurs, changes happen on both the routers and the LAN switches. Clearly,
the new active router has to be ready to receive packets (encapsulated inside frames) using the
virtual IP and MAC addresses. However, the LAN switches, hidden in the last few figures,
formerly sent frames destined for VMAC1 to Router R1. Now the switches must know to send the
frames to the new active router, R2.

HSRP LOAD BALANCING

4. Explain in detail about HSRP Load Balancing.

SOLUTION:

The active/standby model of HSRP means that in one subnet all hosts send their off-
subnet packets through only one router. In other words, the routers do not share the workload,
with one router handling all the packets. For instance, back R1 was the active router, so all hosts
in the subnet sent their packets through R1, and none of the hosts in the subnet sent their
packets through R2. HSRP does support load balancing by preferring different routers to be the
active router in different subnets. Most sites that require a second router for redundancy are also
big enough to use several VLANs and subnets at the site. The two routers will likely connect to
all the VLANs, acting as the default router in each VLAN. HSRP then can be configured to prefer
one router as active in one VLAN, and another router as active in another VLAN, balancing the
traffic. Or you can configure multiple instances of HSRP in the same subnet (called multiple
HSRP groups), preferring one router to be active in one group, and the other router to be
preferred as active in another.

CHECKING HSRP CONFIGURATION

5. Determine the concept of Checking HSRP Configuration with an example code.

SOLUTION:

First, for the issue of determining the configuration, take another moment to think
about the output of the show standby command, but now with the goal of re-creating the
configuration in mind. To that end, Example 20-6 repeats the configuration of Router R1 from
the running example used throughout this chapter. It also repeats the same show standby
command output In this new example, highlighted comments in the show command output list
the matching configuration command on which the output is based.

■ Routers must be configured with the same HSRP version (standby version {1 | 2})

■ Routers must be configured with the same HSRP group number (standby number …).

■ Routers must configure the same virtual IP address (standby number ip address).

■ Virtual IP address must be (a) in the same subnet as the interface IP address and (b) not used
by any other device in the subnet (including the other HSRP routers) (standby number ip
address).
■ In the attached Layer 2 network, the interfaces on the routers or Layer 3 switches must be in
the same VLAN.
■ No ACLs should filter HSRP messages between the two routers. (HSRP uses UDP, port 1985;
version 1 sends to multicast address 224.0.0.2, while version 2 sends to 224.0.0.102.)

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