Music notes (Mock Exams)
Rudiments
● Dynamic Markings:
○ pp (pianissimo): Very soft
○ p (piano): Soft
○ mp (mezzo piano): Moderately soft
○ mf (mezzo forte): Moderately loud
○ f (forte): Loud
○ ff (fortissimo): Very loud
● Tempo Markings:
○ Largo: Very slow and broad
○ Adagio: Slow
○ Andante: At a walking pace
○ Moderato: Moderate speed
○ Allegro: Fast, cheerful
○ Presto: Very fast
○ Accelerando (accel.): Gradually getting faster
○ Ritardando (rit.): Gradually getting slower
● Expression Markings:
○ Crescendo (cresc.): Gradually getting louder
○ Decrescendo or Diminuendo (decresc. or dim.): Gradually getting softer
○ Legato: Play smoothly, connect the notes
○ Staccato: Play with a short, detached feel
○ Sforzando (sfz or fz): A strong accent on a single note
○ Tenuto (ten.): Hold the note for its full value
● Ornaments:
○ T rill (tr): A rapid alternation between the indicated note and the one above it, often starting on the
main note.
○ Mordent (M or ∿): A rapid alternation between the indicated note and the one immediately below it.
○ Turn or Gruppetto: A series of four small notes embellishing the principal note, usually performed in a
specific order.
○ Appoggiatura (App. or grace note): A grace note that is played quickly before the main note, taking
half or more of its time value.
○ Acciaccatura (acciacc. or short appoggiatura): A very short grace note played simultaneously with the
main note, quickly taking its value.
● Articulation Signs:
○ Staccato (dot above or below the note): Indicates that the note should be played in a detached,
separated manner.
○ Legato (slur): Signifies that the notes should be played smoothly and connected.
○ Accent (> or ^ above the note): Emphasizes the note, making it slightly louder or more forcefully
played.
○ Tenuto (line above or below the note): Instructs the musician to sustain the note for its full value.
○ Marcato (short horizontal line above or below the note): Indicates that the note should be played with
emphasis or marked, often louder or more forcefully than surrounding notes.
○ Fermata (half-circle above or below a note): Directs the musician to extend the duration of the note
beyond its normal value.
○ Staccatissimo (a dot with a short vertical line above or below the note): Similar to staccato but
requires an even shorter and more pronounced detachment.
○ Spiccato (dots above or below the note): In string instrument notation, it indicates a bouncing or lightly
detached bowing technique.
○ Sforzando (sfz or fz): Instructs the musician to play the note with sudden emphasis or accent.
○ Ritenuto (rit.): A directive to immediately and temporarily slow down the tempo.
● Treble Clef (G Clef):
S
○ ymbol:
○ Placement: Usually positioned on the second line from the bottom of the staff.
○ Indicates: The lines and spaces of the staff represent higher-pitched notes, typically for instruments
like the violin, flute, and right hand of the piano.
● Bass Clef (F Clef):
S
○ ymbol:
○ Placement: Usually positioned on the fourth line from the bottom of the staff.
○ Indicates: The lines and spaces of the staff represent lower-pitched notes, commonly used for
instruments like the cello, bassoon, and left hand of the piano.
A
● lto Clef (C Clef):
S
○ ymbol:
○ Placement: Usually positioned on the third line from the bottom of the staff.
○ Indicates: Used for instruments with a mid-range pitch, such as the viola. It is also commonly used for
the alto voice in choral music.
● Major Keys:
○ No Sharps or Flats (C Major): C
○ 1 Sharp (G Major): G
○ 2 Sharps (D Major): F#, C#
○ 3 Sharps (A Major): F#, C#, G#
○ 4 Sharps (E Major): F#, C#, G#, D#
● Minor Keys:
○ No Sharps or Flats (a minor): a
○ 1 Sharp (e minor): e
○ 2 Sharps (b minor): e, a
○ 3 Sharps (f# minor): e, a, d
○ 4 Sharps (c# minor): e, a, d, g
● Major Keys:
○ No Sharps or Flats (C Major): C
○ 1 Flat (F Major): Bb
○ 2 Flats (Bb Major): Bb, Eb
○ 3 Flats (Eb Major): Bb, Eb, Ab
○ 4 Flats (Ab Major): Bb, Eb, Ab, Db
● Minor Keys:
○ No Sharps or Flats (a minor): a
○ 1 Flat (d minor): Bb
○ 2 Flats (g minor): Bb, Eb
○ 3 Flats (c minor): Bb, Eb, Ab
○ 4 Flats (f minor): Bb, Eb, Ab, Db
● Time signatures
● 4/4 (Common Time): Four beats per measure, with a quarter note receiving one beat. This is the most
common time signature.
● 3/4 (Waltz Time): Three beats per measure, with a quarter note receiving one beat. Often associated
with waltz dances.
● 2 /4 (Cut Time): Two beats per measure, with a quarter note receiving one beat. Also known as "cut
time" because it is often used as a quicker alternative to 4/4.
● 6/8 (Compound Duple Meter): Six beats per measure, with an eighth note receiving one beat. Often
felt in two groups of three, creating a compound duple meter.
● 9/8 (Compound Triple Meter): Nine beats per measure, with an eighth note receiving one beat. Often
felt in three groups of three, creating a compound triple meter.
● 12/8 (Compound Quadruple Meter): Twelve beats per measure, with an eighth note receiving one
beat. Often felt in four groups of three, creating a compound quadruple meter.
Intervals
● C-Db: minor 2nd(1st)
● C-D: Major 2nd (2st)
● C-Eb: Minor 3rd (3st)
● C-E: Major 3rd (4st)
● C-F: Perfect 4th (5sh)
● C-F#: Augmented 4th or Diminished 5th (6sh)
● C-G: Perfect 5th (7st)
● C-G#:Minor 6th (8st)
● C-Ab: Minor 6th (8st)
● C-A: Major 6th (9st)
● C-Bb: Minor 7th (10st)
● C-B: Major 7th (11st)
● C-C: Perfect Octave (12st)
Melody and rhythm
● Major Scale:
○ Tone, Tone, Semitone, Tone, Tone, Tone, Semitone
○ Example: C major scale - C (T) D (T) E (S) F (T) G (T) A (T) B (S) C
● Natural Minor Scale:
○ Tone, Semitone, Tone, Tone, Semitone, Tone, Tone
○ Example: A natural minor scale - A (T) B (S) C (T) D (T) E (S) F (T) G (T) A
● Chromatic Scale:
○ Consists entirely of consecutive semitones.
○ Example: C chromatic scale - C (S) C# (S) D (S) D# (S) E (S) F (S) F# (S) G (S) G# (S) A (S) A# (S)
B (S) C
● Whole-Tone Scale:
○ Consists entirely of consecutive tones.
○ Example: C whole-tone scale - C (T) D (T) E (T) F# (T) G# (T) A# (T) C
● Pentatonic Scale:
○ Major Pentatonic Scale Structure: Tone, Tone, Minor Third, Tone, Minor Third
■ Example: C major pentatonic scale - C (T) D (T) E (M3) G (T) A (M3)
○ Minor Pentatonic Scale Structure: Minor Third, Tone, Tone, Minor Third, Tone
■ Example: A minor pentatonic scale - A (M3) C (T) D (T) E (M3) G (T)
● Blue notes
● In music, a blue note is a note sung or played at a slightly lower pitch than that of a standard major
scale. Blue notes are commonly found in blues, jazz, and some forms of rock music. The addition of
these altered, often flattened, notes contributes to the distinctive "bluesy" sound.
● The term "blue notes" primarily refers to the flattened third, fifth, and seventh degrees of a major
scale, although other notes may also be altered. Here's a breakdown:
● Flattened Third (♭3): This is a crucial blue note, often giving the characteristic blues sound. For
example, in the key of C major, the third note (E) is flattened to E♭.
● Flattened Fifth (♭5): The flattened fifth is another important blue note. For instance, in the key of C
major, the fifth note (G) is flattened to G♭.
● F lattened Seventh (♭7): This note is commonly flattened in blues music. In the key of C major, the
seventh note (B) is flattened to B♭.
● These blue notes introduce a sense of tension and dissonance, contributing to the expressive and
emotive qualities of blues and related genres. The use of blue notes, along with techniques like
slides, bends, and vibrato, is integral to capturing the distinctive character of blues music.
Stepwise Movement (Conjunct):
● Ascending Stepwise Movement: The melody moves from one note to the next one in sequence, going
higher in pitch by a single step (semitone or whole tone).
● Descending Stepwise Movement: The melody moves from one note to the next in sequence, going
lower in pitch by a single step.
Skipwise Movement (Disjunct):
● Ascending Skipwise Movement: The melody leaps from one note to another, skipping over one or
more intervening notes and ascending in pitch.
● Descending Skipwise Movement: The melody leaps from one note to another, skipping over one or
more intervening notes and descending in pitch.
Harmony
● I (Tonic) Chord:
○ The I chord is built on the first degree of the scale and is often considered the home or resting chord.
● IV (Subdominant) Chord:
○ The IV chord is built on the fourth degree of the scale and provides a sense of stability and
preparation.
● V (Dominant) Chord:
○ The V chord is built on the fifth degree of the scale and has a strong tendency to resolve to the I
chord. The V7 chord includes the seventh degree, enhancing the tension and resolution.
As for the secondary chords:
● II Chord:
○ The II chord is built on the second degree of the scale. In major keys, it is typically a minor chord and
is often used as a pre-dominant chord leading to the V or IV chords.
● VI Chord:
○ The VI chord is built on the sixth degree of the scale. In major keys, it is typically a minor chord and
can serve as an alternative pre-dominant chord or a chord providing a contrasting color.
Cadences:
Perfect Cadence:
● Chord Progression: Typically involves a movement from the V (dominant) chord to the I (tonic) chord.
● Characteristics: This cadence provides a strong sense of resolution and closure. The finality is often
likened to a musical "full stop" or a period at the end of a sentence.
● Example in C Major: G (V) to C (I)
Imperfect Cadence:
● Chord Progression: Often involves a movement from any chord to the V (dominant) chord.
● Characteristics: This cadence creates a sense of temporary pause or suspension, leaving the listener
with an expectation for further musical development.
● Example in C Major: F (IV) to G (V)
Interrupted Cadence (Deceptive Cadence):
● Chord Progression: Typically involves a movement from the V (dominant) chord to a chord other than
the expected I (tonic) chord, often a vi (relative minor) chord.
● Characteristics: This cadence subverts the listener's expectation, creating a moment of surprise or
tension instead of the anticipated resolution.
● Example in C Major: G (V) to Am (vi)
In Roman numeral analysis, where uppercase Roman numerals represent major chords and lowercase represent
minor chords, the cadences can be illustrated as follows:
● Perfect Cadence: V - I
Imperfect Cadence: Any chord - V
●
● Interrupted Cadence: V - vi
● Subdominant Modulation:
○ Involves moving to the key of the subdominant, which is a fourth below the original key.
○ Example: In the key of C major, modulating to F major.
● Dominant Modulation:
○ Involves moving to the key of the dominant, which is a fifth above the original key.
○ Example: In the key of C major, modulating to G major.
● Relative Minor Modulation:
○ Involves moving to the relative minor key, which is three semitones (or a minor third) below the
original major key.
○ Example: In the key of C major, modulating to A minor.
● Relative Major Modulation:
○ Involves moving to the relative major key, which is three semitones (or a minor third) above the
original minor key.
○ Example: In the key of A minor, modulating to C major.
Ensembles and instruments/voices
● Orchestra:
○ Main Instruments:
■ Strings: Violin, Viola, Cello, Double Bass
■ Woodwinds: Flute, Oboe, Clarinet, Bassoon
■ Brass: Trumpet, French Horn, Trombone, Tuba
■ Percussion: Timpani, Snare Drum, Bass Drum, Cymbals, Xylophone, etc.
○ Voices: Orchestras may also include vocalists for choral or operatic performances.
● Jazz Band:
○ Main Instruments:
■ Brass: Trumpet, Trombone
■ Woodwinds: Saxophone (Alto, Tenor, Baritone)
■ Rhythm Section: Piano, Double Bass (or Electric Bass), Drum Kit, Guitar
○ Optional Instruments:
■ Vibraphone, Clarinet, Flute, and various percussion instruments
○ Voices: Jazz bands often include vocalists, and vocal improvisation is a significant element.
● Choir:
○ Voices:
■ Soprano, Alto, Tenor, Bass (SATB) are common voice parts in a traditional choir.
■ Larger choirs may have additional divisions like Soprano 1, Soprano 2, etc.
○ Optional Instruments:
■ Piano or organ accompaniment is common, and choirs may collaborate with orchestras or
other instrumental ensembles.
● Chamber Music Ensemble:
○ Instrumentation:
■ Varied combinations of instruments, typically with one player per part.
■ String Quartet: Two Violins, Viola, Cello
■ Woodwind Quintet: Flute, Oboe, Clarinet, Bassoon, Horn
■ Brass Quintet: Trumpet 1, Trumpet 2, Horn, Trombone, Tuba
○ Voices:
■ Chamber music can also include vocal ensembles, like vocal duets or small vocal quartets.
World ensembles and instruments:
● Indonesian: gamelan;
● frican and Arab: rabab, kora, xylophone, ud;
A
● Indian: bansuri, sitar, sarangı, tabla;
● Chinese: ch’in, dizi, erh-hu;
● Japanese: shakuhachi, koto, sho;
● Latin American: bandoneon, pan-pipes, charangos, guitars. (recognize their sound)
Instrumental and/or vocal effects
● Arco:
○ R efers to playing a bowed string instrument (such as a violin, viola, cello, or double bass) with the
bow. It is the standard method of playing for string instruments.
● Pizzicato:
○ Indicates that the musician should pluck the strings of a bowed string instrument with their fingers,
rather than using the bow.
● Glissando:
○ Instructs the musician to slide smoothly between two notes, creating a continuous and connected
pitch change. It is often indicated by a wavy line between the starting and ending notes.
● Tremolo:
○ Instructs the musician to rapidly repeat a single note or alternate between two notes. The rapid
repetition creates a trembling or shivering effect.
● Double Stopping:
○ Involves playing two notes simultaneously on a bowed string instrument. This technique is common
for creating harmonies or chords on instruments like the violin or cello.
● Strumming:
○ Typically associated with string instruments like the guitar or ukulele, strumming involves brushing or
running the fingers across the strings to produce a chordal or rhythmic effect.
● Pitch Bending:
○ Involves smoothly changing the pitch of a note, either by bending a string on a fretted instrument like
a guitar or by using techniques on other instruments to achieve a gradual pitch change.
● Mute:
○ Refers to a device, such as a mute or damper, that is applied to an instrument (commonly brass or
string instruments) to reduce the volume or alter the tonal quality.
● Roll:
○ Typically used in percussion notation, a roll instructs the musician to produce a sustained sound by
rapidly repeating a single stroke or alternating between multiple strokes.
● Melisma:
○ In vocal music, melisma refers to the singing of a single syllable of text while moving between several
different pitches. It is a vocal ornamentation technique.
Structure
● Binary Form (AB):
○ Binary form consists of two distinct sections, labeled as A and B. The structure is often represented
as AB. Each section may have its own melody, harmony, and rhythm. Commonly, the second section
contrasts with the first, creating a sense of variety and balance.
● Ternary Form (ABA or ABC):
○ Ternary form consists of three sections, typically labeled as A, B, and A (ABA) or A, B, and C (ABC).
The first and third sections are often similar or identical, creating a sense of return or recapitulation,
while the middle section provides contrast.
● Rondo Form (ABACA or ABACABA, etc. - with a recurring theme):
○ Rondo form features a recurring theme (A) that alternates with contrasting sections (B, C, etc.). The
structure is often represented as ABACA, ABACABA, and so on. The recurring theme helps unify the
composition, while the contrasting sections add variety.
● Theme and Variations:
○ In theme and variations, a musical theme (melody, chord progression, or harmonic structure) is
presented initially. This theme is then followed by a series of variations, where the original material is
odified or elaborated upon while retaining its essential characteristics. The structure is often
m
represented as Theme (A) followed by Variations (A1, A2, A3, etc.).
Compositional devices
● Repetition:
○ The recurrence of a specific musical idea, phrase, or section. Repetition is a fundamental element in
music that contributes to structure and creates a sense of familiarity.
● Imitation:
○ The repetition of a musical phrase or motive in a different voice or instrument, usually following a brief
delay. It's a common technique in counterpoint and can add interest to a composition.
● Sequence:
○ The immediate restatement of a melodic or harmonic pattern at a different pitch level. Sequences are
used to create patterns, build tension, or provide a sense of development in a musical piece.
● Canon:
○ A composition technique where a melody is imitated by one or more voices at regular intervals. The
imitating voices may start at different times, creating overlapping and echoing effects.
● Ostinato:
○ A repeating musical pattern or motif that persists throughout a section or an entire piece. Ostinatos
provide a rhythmic or melodic foundation and contribute to the overall structure and atmosphere.
● Drone:
○ A continuous, sustained sound, typically a single pitch or a harmonic interval, that serves as a
backdrop against which other musical elements unfold. Drones are common in various musical
traditions.
● Alberti Bass:
○ A broken chord pattern in which the notes of a chord are played in a specific rhythmic order – typically
low, high, middle, high. This pattern is often used in the accompaniment of keyboard or string
instruments.
● Pedal (Tonic and Dominant):
○ Tonic Pedal: Involves sustaining or repeating the tonic (root) note while the harmonies above it
change. It creates a sense of stability.
○ Dominant Pedal: Similar to the tonic pedal, but the sustained or repeated note is the dominant,
creating tension and a sense of anticipation.
● Contrary Motion:
○ A compositional technique where two voices or musical lines move in opposite directions. When one
ascends, the other descends, creating a dynamic and expressive effect.
Texture
● Melody:
○ A melody is a sequence of single pitches or notes that are perceived as a single, cohesive unit. It is
the main, prominent line in a musical composition and is typically the part that listeners are most likely
to remember.
● Accompaniment:
○ Accompaniment refers to the musical parts that support, enhance, or accompany the melody. It
provides harmonic and rhythmic support and often complements the main melodic line.
● Homophonic:
○ Homophonic music has a clear distinction between the main melody and accompanying harmonies.
The melody is supported by chordal accompaniment, and most Western popular music and hymns
fall into this category.
● Polyphonic:
○ Polyphonic music features multiple independent melodies or voices happening simultaneously. Each
voice has its own melodic and rhythmic identity, creating a rich and intricate texture. Examples include
fugues and many works from the Baroque period.
● Monophonic:
○ Monophonic music consists of a single melodic line without accompanying harmonies. It can be a
single instrument or voice performing a melody without any additional accompaniment.
● Heterophonic:
○ Heterophonic textures involve multiple performers playing or singing a slightly varied version of the
same melody simultaneously. This creates a kind of embellishment or ornamentation, often found in
certain folk music traditions.
● Parallel:
○ Parallel refers to the movement of two or more voices or parts in the same direction, maintaining a
consistent interval between them. Parallel motion can occur in both harmonic and melodic contexts.
Style
● Baroque (1600-1750):
○ Strings: Violin, Viola, Cello, Double Bass
○ Woodwinds: Flute, Oboe, Bassoon
○ Brass: Trumpet, Horn
○ Keyboards: Harpsichord, Organ
○ Continuo Section: Harpsichord, Lute, Theorbo (a large lute)
○ Chamber Ensembles and Orchestras: Small ensembles to larger orchestras
● Classical (1750-1820):
○ Strings: Violin, Viola, Cello, Double Bass
○ Woodwinds: Flute, Oboe, Clarinet, Bassoon
○ Brass: Trumpet, Horn, Trombone (in later Classical works)
○ Piano: Emerged as a solo and accompanying instrument
○ Classical Orchestra: Developed with standardized instrumentation
○ Chamber Ensembles: String quartets, woodwind quintets
● Romantic (1820-1910):
○ Expanded Orchestra: Increased size and variety of instruments
○ Strings: Still dominant, with expressive use of techniques
○ Woodwinds: Expanded use of the clarinet, more expressive playing
○ Brass: Fuller brass section including trombones, tuba
○ Piano: Remained a central instrument for solo and accompaniment
○ Choirs: More prevalent in choral-orchestral works
● Twentieth Century:
○ Impressionism (c. 1875-1925):
■ Expanded use of orchestral colors and timbres
■ Prominent use of French horns, harps, celesta
■ Example: Claude Debussy's orchestral works
○ Neoclassicism (1920s-1950s):
■ Return to classical forms and structures
■ Use of smaller orchestras
■ Example: Igor Stravinsky's neoclassical works
○ Jazz (20th Century):
■ Big Band Jazz: Trumpet, Trombone, Saxophone, Rhythm Section (Piano, Double Bass,
Drums)
■ Traditional Jazz: Clarinet, Trumpet, Trombone, Piano, Double Bass, Drums
■ Modern Jazz: Varied instrumentation, often including non-traditional instruments
■ Example: Miles Davis's quintet
○ Minimalism (1960s onward):
■ Simple, repetitive structures
■ Use of electronic instruments
■ Example: Steve Reich's compositions using minimalistic techniques
Genre
● Opera:
○ Prominent instruments include:
■ Orchestra: Strings, woodwinds, brass, and percussion.
■ Voice: Soprano, mezzo-soprano, tenor, baritone, bass.
● Oratorio (including recitative, aria, and chorus):
○ Similar to opera, an oratorio features:
■ Orchestra: Strings, woodwinds, brass, and percussion.
■ Voice: Soprano, mezzo-soprano, tenor, baritone, bass.
■ Chorus: Often with significant roles.
● Musical:
○ Musicals may have a wide variety of instruments, depending on the style and era. Common
instruments include:
■ Orchestra or pit band: Strings, woodwinds, brass, percussion.
■ Piano, keyboard.
■ Electric instruments (guitar, bass, drums) for more contemporary musicals.
● Symphony:
○ A symphony typically involves a full orchestra, including:
■ Strings: Violins, violas, cellos, double basses.
■ Woodwinds: Flutes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons.
■ Brass: Trumpets, horns, trombones, tuba.
■ Percussion: Timpani, snare drum, cymbals, etc.
● Concerto:
○ A concerto features a solo instrument (or group of instruments) accompanied by an orchestra. The
solo instrument depends on the concerto and can be:
■ Piano, violin, cello, flute, trumpet, etc.
● String Quartet:
○ Consists of four string instruments:
■ Two violins, viola, and cello.
● Sonata:
○ Can vary, but commonly involves one or more of the following:
■ Piano, violin, cello, flute, clarinet, etc.
● March:
○ Typically involves a marching band or orchestra, with instruments such as:
■ Brass: Trumpets, trombones, tuba.
■ Percussion: Snare drum, bass drum.
● Waltz:
○ Originally associated with ballroom dancing, the waltz can be performed by various ensembles,
including:
■ Orchestra: Strings, woodwinds, brass.
■ Piano.
● Minuet and Trio:
○ Commonly associated with the classical era and often found in symphonies and string quartets.
○ Orchestra or chamber ensemble with strings, woodwinds, brass, and percussion.
Transcription exercises
Transcribing from Treble Clef to Alto Clef:
Understand the Key Difference:
● In treble clef, notes are written higher on the staff compared to alto clef.
● The G clef symbol in treble clef indicates that the second line from the bottom represents the pitch G.
● In alto clef, the G clef is centred on the second line from the top, indicating that the second line
represents the pitch G.
Identify the Note on the Staff:
● In treble clef, if a note is on the second line (G), you need to move it down one line to the first line in
alto clef.
● If a note is on the third line (B), move it down one line to the second line in alto clef.
Use Mnemonics:
● Mnemonics can help you remember the note names on the lines and spaces. For treble clef lines, the
mnemonic is "Every Good Boy Deserves Fudge" (EGBDF). In alto clef, it becomes "Good Boys
Deserve Fudge Always" (GBDFA).
Be Mindful of Accidentals:
● Watch for accidentals (sharps, flats, or naturals) in the treble clef, and make sure to maintain them
when transcribing to alto clef.
Transcribing from Alto Clef to Treble Clef:
Understand the Key Difference:
● In alto clef, notes are written lower on the staff compared to treble clef.
● The G clef symbol in alto clef indicates that the second line from the top represents the pitch G.
Identify the Note on the Staff:
● In alto clef, if a note is on the second line (G), you need to move it up one line to the third line in treble
clef.
● If a note is on the third line (B), move it up one line to the fourth line in treble clef.
Use Mnemonics:
● Continue using mnemonics like "Good Boys Deserve Fudge Always" for the lines and "FACE" for the
spaces. These mnemonics are the same for both clefs.
Be Mindful of Accidentals:
● Pay attention to accidentals in the alto clef, and maintain them when transcribing to treble clef.
ecognize the sound of:
R
Western ensembles and instruments: orchestras, jazz bands, choirs and chamber music ensembles. The main
instruments and voices used in the above ensembles. Keyboard instruments: piano, harpsichord, organ.
Indonesian: gamelan; African and Arab: rabab, kora, xylophone, ud; Indian: bansuri, sitar, sarangı, tabla; Chinese:
ch’in, dizi, erh-hu; Japanese: shakuhachi, koto, sho;Latin American: bandoneon, pan-pipes, charangos, guitars.
(recognize their sound)
Baroque, Classical, Romantic, Twentieth Century (including impressionism, neoclassicism, jazz, minimalism).
