Contents Preface Acknovoledgments 1, Fundamentals of C Programming 11 History in C 1.2 Why use C? 1.3 Why Learn C? 1.4 Features of C Language 1.5 Programming Elements 1.5.1 Character Set Keywords 1.5.3 Identifiers 154 Constants Data Types 1.6 Variables 1.6.1 Rules for Naming Variables 1.6.2 Declaration of Variable 1.6.3 Initialization of Variables/Assigning Values to Variables 17 Structure of C-Program 1.8 Operators 1.8.1 Arithmetic Operators 1.8.2 Relational Operators 1.8.3 Logical Operators 1.84 Assignment Operators 1.8.5 Increment and Decrement Operators 1.8.6 Bitwise Operators 1.8.7 Conditional Operator 1.8.8 Special Operators 1.9 Operator Precedence and Associativity 1.10 Creation and Execution of a C-Program 1.11 Expressions 1.12 Evaluation of Expressions 1.12.1 Precedence of Arithmetic Operators 1.13 Library Functions 1.13.1 String Functions (string.h) or String Handling Functions 1.13.2 Math Function(math.h) ix ee Ua oa 10 ul 12 13 13 4 14 Ib 17 7 18 201.14 The € Preprocessor Let Us Summarise Review Questions Exercises 2. 1/0 and Control Statements 2.1 1/0 Statements 2.1.1 Single Character 1/0 2.2 Formatted 1/0 2.2.1 Formatted Input: scanf(_) 2.2.2 Formatted Output :print£() 2.3 String 1/O Functions 2.3.1 String Input: gets () 2.3.2 String Output: puts () 2.4 Sample C Programs 2.5 Control Statements/Control Flow/Programming Flow Control 2.5.1 Decision-Making Statement 2.5.2. Looping Statement 2.6 Comma Operator 2.7 Sample C Programs Let Us Summarise Review Questions Exercises 3. Functions and Storage Classes 3.1 Functions 3.1.1 Need for User Defined Functions 3.2 Return Statement 3.3 Function Prototype 3.4 Calling a Function 3.5 Formal and Actual Arguments 3.5.1 Formal Arguments 3.5.2 Passing Arguments 3.6 Category of Functions/Types of Function 3.6.1 Function with no Arguments and no Return Value 3.6.2 Function with Arguments and no Return Value 3.6.3 Function with no Arguments and Return Value 3.6.4 Function with Arguments and Return Value 3.7 Recursion 3.8 Storage Classes 25—52 38xi Let Us Summarise Review Questions Exercises 4, Arrays and Structures and Union 4.1 Arr 4.1.1 One Dimensional Array ys 4.1.2 Two Dimensional Arrays 4.1.3 Multidimensional Arrays 4.14 Sample C Programs 4.2 Structure 4.2.1 Defining Structure 4.2.2 Structure Declaration 4.2.3 Giving Values to Structure Members 4.2.4 Structure Initialization 4.2.5 Difference Between Arrays and Structure 4.3 Structures within Structures 4.4 Pointers to Structures 45 Self-referential Structure 4.6 Union 4.6.1 Declaration of Union 4.7 Difference Between Structure and Union 4.8 Bitwise Operations 4.9 User Defined Data Type Let Us Summarise Review Questions Exercises 5. Pointers and Files 5.1 Pointers 5.1.1 Accessing the Address of the Variable 5.1.2 Declaring and Initializing Pointers 5.1.3 Accessing a Variable Through its Pointer 5.1.4 Pointer Operators 5.2 Operations on Pointers 5.3 Arrays of Pointers 5.4 Pointers to Functions 55 Pointers and Arrays 5.6 Pointers and Structures 39 60—74 60 60 80xii 5,7 Pointers and Function 80 5.7.1 Call by Value 80 5.7.2 Call by Reference 81 Dynamic Memory Allocation 82 Command Line Input or Arguments 83 5.10 Files 83 5.10.1 Creating a File au 0.2 Reading a File 4 5.10.3 Writing a File 84 5.10.4 Opening a File 85 5.10.5 Closing a File 85 5.11 Operations on Files 86 Let Us Summarise 86 Review Questions 86 Exercises 87 Appendix 1 8 Appendix IT 98 Index 107CHAPTER FUNDAMENTALS OF C PROGRAMMING HISTORY IN C Introduction Cis a general-purpose computer programming language developed in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie at the Bell Telephone Laboratories for use with the Unix operating system. C is a structured programming language, which means that it allows you to develop programs using well-defined control structures (you will learn about control structures in the articles to come), and provides modularity (breaking the task into multiple sub tasks that are simple enough to understand and to reuse). C is often called a middle-level language because it combines the best elements of low- level or machine language with high-level languages. WHY USE C? C (and its object oriented version, C+#) is one of the most widely used third generation programming languages. Its power and flexibility ensure it is still the leading choice for almost all areas of application, especially in the software development environment. Many applications are written in C or C++, including the compilers for other programming languages. It is the language many operating systems are written in including UNIX, DOS and Windows. It continues to adapt to new uses, the latest being Java, which is used for programming Internet applications. Chas much strength, it is flexible and portable, it can produce fast, compact code, it provides the programmer with objects to create and manipulate complex structures (e.g. classes in C++) and low level routines to control hardware (e.g. input and output ports and operating system interrupts) 1.3} WHY LEARN C? * Compact, fast, and powerful id-level” Language2 Procravmnc iv C Standard for program development (wide acceptance) It is everywhere! (Portable) * Supports modular programming style © Useful for all applications Cis the native language of UNIX Easy to interface with system devices/assembly routines. 1.4) FEATURES OF C LANGUAGE * It isa flexible high-level structured programming language. It includes the features of low-level language like assembly language. Itis portable. A program written for one type of computer can be used in any other type It is much ability and efficient. It has an ability to extend itself. It has a number of built-in functions, which makes the programming C is modular, as it supports functions to divide the program in to sub-program. Cis efficient on most machines, because certain constructs are machine dependant. C language is well suited for structured programing, thus requiring the user to think of a problem in terms of function modules or blocks. 5 | PROGRAMMING ELEMENTS 1.5.1 Character Set Characters are used in a language to form words, numbers and expression. Characters used in C language can be grouped in to four types: Letters « Digits « Special Characters ‘* White Spaces C Character Set Letters Digits Uppercase A - Z 0to9 Lowercase a ~ 2 Special characters comma + plus ; semicolon ~ minus 2 question mark < less than $ dollar symbol > greater than # number sign exclamation mark ~tild % percentage * asteriskFunioamentats oF C Proonannns 3 _ White Space: Blank Space Horizontal Tab Carriage Return New Line Form Feed 1.5.2 Keywords Keywords also referred as reserved words. Keywords have standard predefined specific meaning The user has no right to change its meaning. Keywords should be written in lower case. They should be written in lower-case letters. The following keywords are reserved for C: C Keywords Switch Boolean _| Break ‘Auto For Case Const Register Char Sizeof Void Static Default Do Double [Struct While Continue | Float Union Include Else Go to Short Nested For ‘Char Signed Int If Long Volatile 1.5.3 Identifiers Identifiers refer to the names of variables, functions and arrays. These are user-defined names and consist of a sequence of letters and digits with the letter as a first character. Both uppercase and lowercase letters are permitted although lowercase letters are commonly used. The underscore is used as a link between two words in long identifiers. Rules for naming an identifiers * Identifiers are formed with alphabets, digits and a special character underscore (_ ) * The first character must be an alphabet. * No special characters are allowed other than underscore. * They are case sensitive. That it Sum is different from SUM. For Example Valid Identifiers Invalid Identifiers ROLL25 25ROLL Register_No Register No CT100 1oocTDD 4 PROGRAMING INC 4.5.4 Constants ‘A constant is a quantity whose value does not change during the execution of the program. There fare three types of constants in C. They are: 1. Numeric Constants 2. Character Constants 3, String Constants 1. Numeric Constants ‘A numeric constants is a constants made up of digits and some special characters. There are two types of numeric constants. They are: 1. Integer or fixed point constants 2. Real or floating point constants 1. Integer or Fixed Point Constants: Integer constant is a constant made up of digits without decimal point. This can have values form -32, 768 to +32,767. For Example 125 2. Real or Floating Point Constants: Any number written with one decimal point is called real constant. For Example 98.50 2. Character Constants Character constants are used to represent a alphabet within single quotes. For Example ‘F’ ‘G’ 3. String Constants String constants is a set of characters are represented with double quotes For Example: “College” “school”. 1.5.5 Data Types Data types are used to store various types of data that is processed by program. Data type attaches with variable to determine the number of bytes to be allocate to variable and valid operations which can be performed on that variable. C supports various data types such as character, integer and floating-point types. Data Type Variable Type Size Range Char Character L byte or 8 bits | -128 to 127 Int Integer 2 bytes -32,768 to 32,767 Short Short integer 1 byte “32,768 to 32,767 Short int Short integer Ibyte 32,768 to 32,767 Long Long integer 4 bytes -2,147,483,648 to. 2,147 483,648 Unsigned char __| Unsigned character I byte 0 to 255 Unsigned int | Unsigned int 2 bytes 0 to 65,535 Unsigned short _| Unsigned short integer 0 to 65,535Funoamenrats oF C Procrammana 5 Unsigned long | Unsigned long integer 4 bytes Te 4204 967 25 ual Floating point 7 digits) [4b 3.38 to 3.40438 Double, Floating point (15 digits) [8 bytes 1,7e-208 to 1.7e+308 VARIABLES Variable is a quantity which changes during the execution of a program. Declaration does things. Variable is a name of memory location where we can store any data. It can store only single data (Latest data) at a time. In C, a variable must be declared before it can be used. Variables can be declared at the start of any block of code, but most are found at the start of each function. 1. It gives name to memory location. 2. It specifies the type of data 3. It allocates memory space. 1.6.1 Rules for Naming Variables * The first character in a variable name must be an alphabets, underscore ( _ ), dollar sign($). * Commas or blanks spaces are not allowed within a variable name. « Variable names are case sensitive. (i.e, regno is different from REGNO) + Uppercase and lowercase letters are distinct. * The Variable name should not be a keyword. * Variable names cannot contain blanks; use underscore instead. 1.6.2 Declaration of Variable A declaration begins with the type, followed by the name of one variable. The general format is data_type variable_name; where Variablename: Every variable has a name and a value. The name identifies the variable, the value stores data. There is a limitation on what these names can be. Every variable name in C must start with a letter; the rest of the name can consist of letters, numbers and underscore characters. C recognizes upper and lower case characters as being different. Finally, you cannot use any of C's keywords like main, while, switch etc as variable names. To declare multiple variables A declaration begins with the type, followed by the name of one or more variables The general form is: datatype varl,1var2j.m.Varn; where, datatype - any valid datatype arn ~ name of the variables varl,var2,.6 PROGRAMMING IN C Some valid variable declarations are as follows: For Example int count; float XY? double pl; byte bs char ¢1,¢2,c3; 1.6.3 Initialization of Variables/Assigning Values to Variables C Variables may be initialized with a value when they are declared. Consider the following declaration, The general format is: datatype variable_name = value or expression; Example 1 int a=10; char 9 c=/M'; String str="MAN; Example 2 The following example illustrates the two methods for variable initialization: #include main () a‘. int sum=33; float money=44.12; char letter; double pressure; letter=’E’; /* assign character value */ pressure=2.0le-10; /tassign double value */ printf("value of sum is %d\n”,sum); printf("value of money is %f\n",money); printf("value of letter is %c\n",letter); print£("value of pressure is te\n”,pressure) ; } The output of the above program is as follows: value of sum is 33 value of money is 44.119999 value of letter is E value of pressure is 2.010000e-10Funoamenrats oF C Prosrannnna, 7 Local Variables Local variables are declared within the body of a function, and can only be used within that function only. y Syntex: void main( ){ int a,b,c; } void fun1() { int x,y,z; ) Here a, b, c are the local variable of void main() function and it can’t be used within funi() Function. And x, y and z are local variable of fun() Global Variable A global variable declaration looks normal, but is located outside any of the program's functions. This is usually done at the beginning of the program file, but after preprocessor directives. The variable is not declared again in the body of the functions which ace: Syntax: #include int abc; void main() { } void funi() { ) Here a, b, c are global variable and these variable can be accessed (used) within a whole program. | STRUCTURE OF C-PROGRAM The general structure of C-Program is clude Main function { n Variable declarations; Method definitions8 PROGRAMMING IN C Statement1; Statement n; Include Section In this section the header files must be included. This depends on the functions used in the program statements. The include files must begin with # symbols. For Example #includecstdio.h>, #includecmath.h> etc. Main Functions This function must present in all programs. This gives the starting point of the program Variable Declaration In this section the user has to declare the variables which are local to the main block. Method Definition This is an optional section. This section is used to write sub-programs Statements In this section the user can write valid C statements to solve the problem. 1.8| OPERATORS ~ ‘An operator is a symbol which helps the user to command the computer to do a certain mathematical or logical manipulations. Operators are used in C language program to operate om data and variables. C has a rich set of operators which can be classified as 1. Arithmetic Operators Relational Operators Logical Operators Assignment Operators FED . Increment & Decrement Operators . Bitwise Operators . Conditional Operators . Special Operators eruaw 1.8.1 Arithmetic Operators Arithmetic operators are used to perform arithmetic calculations. C provides basic arithme! operators. They are +,-,*, /, % soFunoamenrats oF © Proarawainic, 9 Table shows you, the different Arithmetic operators that were used in C programming, Table: Arithmetic Operators Operators Example Meaning, + arb Addition (or) Unary plus - ab Subtraction (or) Unary minus * ath Multiplication / a/b Division = a%b Modutlo division (Remainder) Example /** program using Arithmetic operators **/ #include main() { intab,c; printf(“enter the a and b values: seanf("%d%D" &a,&b); printf(“ C value is%d ”, ¢); } 1.8.2 Relational Operators Relational operators are used to find out the relationship between two operands. Table shows. you the different relational operators used in C programming. Operator Operations Example < Less than ab > Greater than amb Less than or equal to Greater than equal to Equal to Not equal to Example #include int main(void) ( int n1n2;10 PROGRAMMING IN C printf(“enter the two numb seanf("%a%_” gent &n2); printi(“%d is equal to %d\n",n1,n2); } if(n1!=n2) { printf(“%d is not equal to %d\n",n1,n2); } if(n1=n2) { printf(’%d is greater than or equal to %d\n" n1,n2); } retrun 0; } 1.8.3 Logical Operators Logical operator is used to find out the relationship between two or more relationship expressio"s Table 2.3 shows you the different logical operators used in C Programming. Operators Meaning && Logical AND, ul Logical OR ! Logical NOT The logical operators && and | | are used when we want to form compound conditions &! combining two or more relations.ee — FUNDaweNTALS OF C Prooraumine 14 Logical operators return results indicated in the following table, [ x Y x &&e y xily a T T T a F F T FP T E T F T E F Logical AND (&&) This operator is used to evaluate 2 conditions or expressions with relational operators simultaneously. If both the expressions to the left and to the right of the logical operator is true then the whole compound expression is true. Example a>b && x==10 The expression to the left is a> b and that on the right is x == 10 the whole expression is true only if both expressions are true icc,, if a is greater than b and x is equal to 10. Logical OR (1 |) The logical OR is used to combine 2 expressions or the condition evaluates to true if any one of the 2 expressions is true. Example a= y) the NOT expression evaluates to true only if the value of x is neither greater than or equal to y. 1.8.4 Assignment Operators Assignment operators are used to assign the value of an expression to a variable, The Assignment Operator evaluates an expression on the right of the expression and substitutes it to the value or variable on the left of the expression. The general form is V op=exp; Where, v - variable Exp - expression Op ~ C binary operators2 PROGRAMMING IN C : Is known as the assignment operators, V op=exp; is equal to op (exp); is equal to x=x+(y+1); The table given below lists the assignment operators with example operator descriptions. Table: Assignment Operators Operators Meaning Expression Addassign —[Xt=a__|X=x+a Sub assign X-=a Xexa *s Multiple assign | X*=a / ‘ion x. % Modul X%hea Example x=a+b Here the value of a + b is evaluated and substituted to the variable x In addition, C has a set of shorthand assignment operators of the form. 1.8.5 Increment and Decrement Operators C has two very useful operators. They are increment (++) and decrement (--) operators. The increment operator (++) add 1 to the operator value contained in the variable, The decrement operator (--) subtract from the value contained in the variable. The increment and decrement operators are one of the unary operators which are very useful in C language. They are extensively used in for and while loops. Increment Decrement Pre increment Postincrement Pre decrement —_—Post decrement (++ Variable) (Variable +#) Variable) (Variable—-) The increment operator ++ adds the value 1 to the current value of operand and the decrement operator ~~ subtracts the value 1 from the current value of operand. ++variable name and variable name++ mean the same thing when they form statements independently, they behave differently when they are used in expression on the right hand side of an assignment statement. Example Consider the following: m=5; y = ++; (prefix) In this case the value of y and m would be 6 Suppose if we rewrite the above statement asFUNDAMENTALS OF C PRoarannainic 13 y= m+; (post fix) Then the value of y will be 5 and that of m will be 6. A prefix operator first adds 1 to the operand and then the result is assigned to the variable on the left. On the other hand, a postfix operator first assigns the value to the variable on the left and then increments the operand 1.8.6 Bitwise Operators Bitwise operators are used to perform bit by bit operations. A bitwise operator operates on each bit of data. Those operators are used for testing, complementing or shifting bits to the right on left. Bitwise operators may not be applied to a float or double. The table given below lists the various bitwise operators. Table: Bitwise Operators Operators Meaning & Bitwise AND 1 Bitwise OR a Bitwise Exclusive OR > Bitwise Right Shift << Bitwise Left Shift = Bitwise Complement Bitwise AND (&) The bitwise operations are carried out between two bit patterns Example Let x=0101 y= 1011 x & y =0001 Bitwise OR(I |) The bitwise operations is carried out between two bit patterns. Let x=0100 =1011 xly = 111 Bitwise exclusive OR(‘) Let x=0010 xy =1000 1010 1.8.7 Conditional Operator The conditional operators are also called ternary operator, It is used to construct conditional expressions. Conditional operator has three operands, The general format is: condition?expressionl :expression2; If the result of condition is TRUE (non-zero), expressiont is evaluated and the result of the evaluation becomes the result of the operation. If the condition is FALSE (zero), then expression? is evaluated and its result becomes the result of the operation,44 PROGRAMMING IN C For Example int 0, y=15; int y= (oy)?x 1 y; In the above example, check x>10, if is true, print x value otherwise y. 41.8.8 Special Operators C supports some special operators of interest such as comma operator, size of operator, pointe, operators (& and *) and member selection operators (, and ->). The size of and the comm, operators are discussed here. The remaining operators are discussed in forth coming chapters, 1.8.8.1 The Comma Operator The comma operator can be used to link related expressions together. A comma-linked list of expressions are evaluated left to right and value of right most expression is the value of the combined expression. Example value = (x= 10, y=5,x+y); First assigns 10 to x and 5 to y and finally assigns 15 to value. Since comma has the lowes precedence in operators the parenthesis is necessary. Some examples of comma operator are In for loops: for (n=1, m=10, n Left to right 1 - 4+ -- + = # (type)| Right to left sizeofFUNDAMENTALS OF C ProaRaMMinG. 15 left to right left to right <<>> left to right left to right left to right e left to right left to right I left to right 56 left to right left to right right to left tight to left << > Example Write a C program to print the message “Welcome to C Program.” #include< stdio.n> int main() { print£("Welcome to C program"); + * The C program starting point is identified by the word main(). * This informs the computer as to where the program actually starts. The parentheses that follow the keyword main indicate that there are no arguments supplied to this program The two braces, { and }, signify the begin and end segments of the program. In general, braces are used throughout C to enclose a block of statements to be treated as a unit * The purpose of the statement #include is to allow the use of the printf statement to provide program output. For each function built into the language, an associated header file must be included, Text to be displayed by printi() must be enclosed in double quotes. The program only has the one printf() statement. printf( ) is actually a function (procedure) in C that is used for printing variables and text. Where text appears in double quotes ””, it is printed without modification. There are some exceptions however. This has to do with the \ and % characters. These characters are modifiers, and for the present the \ followed by the n character represents a newline character. 1.10) CREATION AND EXECUTION OF A C-PROGRAM The following steps are followed for creating and executing a C-Program. Step-1: Creating or Editing the C- Program Using any editor, we can create the program with C extension. Usually we use TC or Turbo editor. For Example: Sample.Ci ea DS 16 PROGRAMMING INC Step-2: Compiling and Executing a C Program Using Alt+F9 keys in TC editor, the program can be compiled and linked. This produces th, executable program with .exe extension. For Example: Sample.exe Using Ctrl+F9 we can run the .exe program and produce the required result. Sample C Program Write a C Program to Computer Simple and Compound Interest. #include #include Main( ) { Float p,n,r,simple, compound; printf(“Enter principle amount”); Scanf("8£", &P)i printf(“Enter the rate of interest”); Scanf("8f", 6r); Printf(“Enter the time period in years”); Scanf("f", &n); +ntr/100; *pow(1+r/100,t)-p; print£(“simple interest is \n &6.2£", simple); print£(“\n"); print£(“compound interest is \n\n%6.2£", compound) ; } A) EXPRESSIONS An expression is a linear combination of constants, variables and operators. There are three types of expressions, They are: 1. Arithmetic Expressions 2, Relational Expressions 3. Logical Expressions 1. Arithmetic Expressions: Arithmetic Expressions are formed by connecting constants o! variables by arithmetic operators. The general form is: variable Arithmetic operator variable Example xtytz (xty)/2. (xty)/(2/a) 2. Relational Expressions: Relational Expressions are formed by connecting, constants 0" variable or arithmetic expressions by relational operators. The general form is variable relational operator variableFunoamentars oF C Procrayeans, 7 Example a>=b 3. Logical Expressions: Logical expressions are formed by connecting relational expressions by logical operators. The general format is Variable logical operator variable Example a>10 && b>20 salary>5000 && DA>=500 41 12) EVALUATION OF EXPRESSIONS In “C” expressions are evaluated by assignment statement. Variable = expression Example X=atb/c; 2=(x/y)+(a/b) 1.12.1 Precedence of Arithmetic Operators Highest operator -"/% Lowest operator Example Consider the expression given below: 5+8(3+1) #12443 Step] - 5+8/4+12"4+3 Step2 - 5+2+12*4+3 Step3 — 5+2+48+3 Step4 — 58 Example #include main() { float a,b,c, x,y,z} y=a-b/(3+c)*(2-1); z=a-(b/(3+c)*2)-1; printf ("x=8d", x); printf(“y=%d", y); printf(“z=8d", 2);oo y 18 Proorammns nC 4.13) LIBRARY FUNCTIONS Library Functions are functions not to be written by the programmer. But thes separate files called header files. The commonly used predefined functions are as follows: (9 string function(string.h) or string handling functions. (ii) math function(math.h) are available i, 1.13.1 String Functions (string.h) or String Handling Functions String are the combination of number of characters these are used to store any word in any variable of constant. A string is an array of character. It is internally represented in system by using ASCII value. Every single character can have its own ASCII value in the system. A character string is stored in one array of character type. e.g. “Ram” contains ASCII value per location, when we are using strings and then these strings are always terminated by character ‘\0’. We use conversion specifies %s to set any string we can have any string as follows: char nm [25]. When we store any value in nm variable then it can hold only 24 character because at the end of the string one character is consumed automatically by ’\0" The important string functions are given below: (i) strlen) (ii) strepy() (iti) streat() (i) strupr() (2) strlwr() strlen() This function is sued to find out the number of characters in the given string. The general rormat is n=strlen(string); where, n __- length of the string. String - valid string variable Example Nestrlen(“mucollege”) Output: 9 strepy() This function is used to copy the content of one string to another string. The general form's strepy(stringl, string2); Where, String] & string - valid string variableFunoaenrais oF © Proneamans 19 Example String2="mucollege”; Strepy(stringl, string2); Output Stringl= mucollege streat() This function is used to concatenate ( merge or join) two strings. The general form is streat(stringl, string2); Where, String] & string2 - valid string variable Example Stringl = “engineering”; String2=" college"; Streat(stringl,string2); Output String1= engineering college String2=college strupr() strupr(_) function is used to convert a string in lowercase to uppercase. The general format is Nestrupr (string); Example N=Strupr(“muc”); Output: MUC strlwr() strlwr(_ ) function is used to convert a string in uppercase to lowercase. The general format is Nestrlwr(string); Example String="MUCOLLEGE" ; Nestrlwr(string); Output: Mucollege Example Program Mprogram to demonstrate string handling functions #include #include int main() {ProGRanMinG INC char a[(50); char b(50]; printf("Please the two strings one by one\n”); gets (a); gets(b); printf("Length of String a is d \n”,strlen(a)); print£("Length of String b is %d \n”,strlen(b)); if(Istremp(a,b)) print£("Both the strings are Equal"); else print£("Both the strings are not equal”); streat(a,b); //Concatenation function print£("the concatenated String is:”); puts(a); strrev(a); print£(“The reverse string is\n"); puts(a); getch(); return 0; } 1.13.2 Math Function(math.h) The important math functions are given below: 1. sin) cos() tan() exp) ceil() floor() 7. abs() 1. sin() in() function is used to find the sine value of the given argument. The general format is a9 ew p Sin(double x); 2. cos() cos() function is used to cosine the value of the given argument, The general format is Cos( double x); 3. tan() tan() function is used to tangent value of the given argument. The general format is Tan(double x); 4. exp() exp() function is used return exponential value of the given argument. The general format is Exp(double x);Funinawenrrais of © Pronmanmania 24 5, ceil) ceil() function is used to round the given argument(real number). The general format is Ceil(double x); 6. floor() floor () function is used to round the given argument(real number). The general format is Pia Floor(double x) abs () function is used to find the absolute value of an integer. The general format is abs(int x); 8. sqrt() Sqrt() function is used to find the square root value of a given number. The general format is 4 14/THE C PREPROCESSOR The C preprocessor is a tool which filters your source code before it is compiled. The preprocessor allows constants to be named using the #define notation. The preprocessor provides several other facilities which will be described here. It is particularly useful for selecting machine dependent pieces of code for different computer types, allowing a single program to be compiled and run on several different computers, Sqrt(int x) The C preprocessor isn't restricted to use with C programs, and programmers who use other languages may also find it useful, however it is tuned to recognize features of the C language like comments and strings, so its use may be restricted in other circumstances. The preprocessor is called cpp, however it is called automatically by the compiler so you will not need to call it while programming in C. Using #define to Implement Constants We have already met this facility, in its simplest form it allows us to define textual substitutions as follows: #define MAXSIZE 256 This will lead to the value 256 being substituted for each occurrence of the word MAXSIZE in the file. Using #define to Create Functional Macros fdefine can also be given arguments which are used in its replacement, The definitions are then called macros. Macros work rather like functions, but with the following minor differences. * Since macros are implemented as a textual substitution; there is no effect on program performance (as with functions). * Recursive macros are generally not a good idea. * Macros don't care about the type of their arguments. Hence macros ate a good choice where we might want to operate on real, integers or a mixture of the two. Programmers sometimes call such type flexibility polymorphism.@ 22 PROGRAMMING INC * Macros are generally fairly small. Macros are full of traps for the unwary programmer. In particular the textual substitution means that arithmetic expressions are liable to be corrupted by the order of evaluation rules. in Other Files using include The preprocessor directive #include is an instruction to read in the entire contents of another file at that point. This is generally used to read in header files for library functions. Header files contain details of functions and types used within the library. They must be included before the program can make use of the library functions. Library header file names are enclosed in angle brackets, < >. These tell the preprocessor tp look for the header file in the standard location for library definitions. This is /ust/include for most UNIX systems. For example #include Another use for finclude for the programmer is where multi-file programs are being written Certain information is required at the beginning of each program file. This can be put into a file called globals.h and included in each program file. Local header file names are usually enclosed by double quotes, "It is conventional to give header files a name which ends in -h to distinguish them from other types of file. Our globals.h file would be included by the following line. #include "globals.h" Conditional selection of code using #ifdef The preprocessor has a conditional statement similar to C's if else. It can be used to selectively include statements in a program. This is often used where two different computer types implement a feature in different ways. It allows the programmer to produce a program which will run on either type. The keywords for conditional selection are; #ifdef, #else and #endif. tifdef takes a name as an argument, and returns true if the name has a current definition. The name may be defined using a #define, the -d option of the compiler, or certain names which are automatically defined by the UNIX environment. #else is optional and ends the block beginning with #ifdef. It is used to create a 2 way options! selection. #endif ends the block started by fifdef or #else. Where the ifdef is true, statements between it and a following #else or ¢endif are include! in the program. Where it is false, and there is a following #else, statements between the #else and the following fendif are included. This is best illustrated by an example. Using #ifdef for Different Computer Types Conditional selection is rarely performed using #defined values. A simple application si" machine dependent values is illustrated belowFunoamentacs oF © Proseamannis 23 #include main() { #ifdef vax printf("This is a vax\n"); #endif #ifdef sun printf£("This is a suN\n"); #endift + Sun is defined automatically on SUN computers. vax is defined automatically on VA computers, Using #ifdef to temporarily remove program statements fifdef also provides a useful means of temporarily ‘blanking out’ lines of a program. The lines in question are preceded by #ifdef NEVER and followed by #endif. Of course you should ensure that the name NEVER isn't defined anywhere. LET US SUMMARISE + Cis an efficient and portable general purpose programming language. * Algorithm is defined as a step by step procedure to solve a problem. It can be written in any language. * A flow chart is a graphical representation of an algorithm is called flow chart. * Characters are used in a language to form words, numbers and expression. + A constant is a quai + Keywords also referred as reserved words. * Data types are used to store various types of data that is processed by program whose value does not change during the execution of the program. * Variable is a quantity which changes during the execution of a program. REVIEW QUESTIONS What is Character set? Define Identifiers. List out any two rules for naming variables What are the various types of operators in C? . What are keywords? . Define Constants. . What is Expressions? Define ternary operator. we euaaeene Define Library Functions. 10. What is string?24 PRoGRamMinc In C EXERCISES Write a C-program to find the sum and average of three real numbers. Write a C-program to find area and perimeter of a circle. Write a C-program to print the sample interest. Write a C-program to convert centigrade to farenheit temperature. Write a C-program to convert farenheit to centigrade temperature.CHAPTER 1/O AND CoNnTROL STATEMENTS 2.1) 1/O STATEMENTS Reading, processing, and writing of data are the three essential functions of a computer program Most programs take some data as input and display the processed data, often known as information or results, on a suitable medium. There are two methods of providing data to the program variables. One method is to assign values through the assignment statements such as 0; and so on. Another method is to use the input function scanf that can read data from a keyboard. We have used both the methods in most of our earlier example programs. For outputting results we have used extensively the function printf, which sends results out to a terminal. All input-output operations are carried out through function calls such as printf and scanf. There exist several functions that have more or less become standard for input and output operations in C. These functions are collectively known as the standard I/O library. The first statement of a C Program is # include < stdio. h > This is to instruct the compiler to fetch the standard input/output function from the C library and that it is not a part of C language. However, there might be exceptions. For example, this is not necessary for the functions printf and scanf which have been defined as a part of the C language. The file name stdio.h is an abbrevation for standard input-output header file. The instruction #include tells the compiler ‘to search for a file named stdio.h and place its contents at this point in the program. The contents of the header file become part of the source code when it is compiled # is a pre-processor. 2.1.1 Single Character I/O Single Character Input : getchar () The getchar(_) function reads a single character from the keyboard. It takes no parameters and it’s returned value is the input character. The general format is Variable = getchar(); 2526 PROGRAMMING IN C Example char c; C=getchar(); getchar () reads a character from the keyboard and assigns it to c. Single Character Output: putchar () ‘The putchar() function displays a single character on the screen. The general format is: putchar (variable) Example putchar(c); 2.2. FORMATTED 1/0 C provides two functions that gives formatted I/O : scanf( ) and printf( ). 2.2.1 Formatted Input: scanf( ) This function reads character, strings are well as numeric values from the standard input. The general format is: scanf(“format string”, argument list); The following table show what format specifiers should be used with what data types: Code ‘Meaning %c_| read a single character %d_[read a decimal integer ‘%f_| read a floating point value “%e _ | read a floating point value (even in exponential format) og read a floating point value %h | read a decimal, heaxadecimal or octal integer %o _| read an octal integer %s_| read a string ‘%u_| read an unsigned integer ox _| read a hexadecimal integer Example scanf("#d", 6X); Here, x is an integer value. 2.2.2 Formatted Output : The printf (_ ) function is used to display values or results at the terminal. This function cat be used to output any combination of numerical values, single characters and strings. printf£(" control string", argument list);VO ann Conreen Seareeerr an Where the control string consists of 1) literal text to be displayed, 2) format specifiers» 2) special characters. The arguments can be variables, constants, expressions, of flnctior - anything that produces a value the number of format identific identifier. Which can be displayed. Number of arguments must mat crs, Unpredictable results if argument type does not mat The following table show wh, lat format specifiers should be used with what data type Code Meaning %d decimal integer %0 octal integer (leading 0) %x hexadecimal integer (leading 0x) You _ | unsigned decimal integer %ld__ | tong int %£ | floating point Ylf | double or long double %e | exponential floating point ‘os _| character string Example printf( “ Welcome to c programming”); The above statement prints the output as welcome to ¢ programming. 23] STRING I/O FUNCTIONS 2.3.1 String Input : gets() The gets ( ) function is used to read a string form the keyboard until a carriage return key is pressed. gets(s) Where s is the name of the array storing the string. Example char name(20); gets (name); 2.3.2 String Output : puts () The puts ( ) function outputs the string of characters stored in variable on the screen. The general format is puts(s); Where s is the name of the variable containing the text to. be displayed28 PROGRAMMING IN C Example char name(20]; gets(name); puts (name); 4) SAMPLE C PROGRAMS write a ¢ program to print your rollno, name, address #include main() { print£("Rollno\1001"); printf ("name="Faizan”); printf("No.25, SK Road, Ambur”); } Write a C program to add two numbers #include main() { Int a,b,c; Printf("enter the two values a and b”); Scanf("tdtd", &a,&b); Ceatb; Printf£("C=%d", c); b Write a C program to subtract two numbers #include main() { int a,b,c; printf(”enter the two values a and b”); scanf(“#d%d", &4,&b); c=a-b; print£("C=%d", ¢); + Write a C program to multiply two numbers #include main() { int a,b,c; printf(“enter the two values a and b"); scanf(“tdtd", &a,&b); c=atb; printf ("C=%d", c);VO ann Contnen Stareme 29 Write aC program to divide two numbers #include main() { int a,b,c; printf("enter the two values a and b"); scanf("%dtd", &a,&b); c=a/b; print£("c=8d", c); + Write a C program to add, subtract, multiply and divide two numbers #include main() { int a,b,add,sub,mul,div; printf(“enter the two values a and b"); scanf("S$dtd", &a,&b); print£(“add=8d", add); print£(“sub=%d”, sub); print£(“mul=sd", mul); print£(“div=8d", div); 2.5) CONTROL STATEMENTS/CONTROL FLOW/PROGRAMMING FLOW CONTROL Control statements are used to transfer control from one statement to any other statement in a program. The control statements are classified as shown in the Fig. 2.1 2.5.1 Decision-Making Statement Control statements Decision’ Looping statement Jump statement Making system Repetition statement I~ erative statoment break If Ifelse Nested if Switch While Do"while For Ficure 2.1 Continue 2.5.1.1 Simple if statement Simple if statement is used to execute or skip on one statement or set of statements for a Particular condition. The general format is30 PROGRAMMING INC if(test condition) { Statement block(s); + next statement; If the test condition is true, statement block will be executed, otherwise execution starts fron, next statement. The following flow chart explains the working of the if statement: Test condition, Statement block | Next statement | False Ficure 2.2 Example Write a C program to demonstrate the use of if statement. #include main() { int mark; print£(“Enter the marks”); scanf(“%d", amark); if(mark>=70) { mark=mark+10; print£("Marks= %d”, mark); } Compile and execute the above program. Enter the marks 75a VO ann Comurrinn Srarenn a The output of the above program is shown here Mark=85 In the above example, test the mark of student, If the student mark is equal ta 70 then | marks will be added to the mark statement 251.2 if...else Statement it..else Statement is used to execute one group of statements. ntax:- if(test condition) { True block Statement (s); else False block Statement(s); } (@ If the test condition is true, then the True block statement is executed and the control statements are transferred to the next statement. (ii) If the test condition is false, then false block statement is executed and the control statement is transferred to the next statement. The following flow chart explains the working of the if-else statement: False block statements (5) True block statements (s) Test condition Next statement _}———— i Figure 2.3 Example Write a C program to find the biggest of two numbers. #include main() { int a,b; printf(“Enter the a and b values”); scani(“tdtd", &a,&b); if (a>b)32 Procravmin in C { printf£(“A is bigger than b"); } else { print£("b is bigger than a"); + + Compile and execute the above program. Enter the a and b values 10 5 The program displays the following output: A is bigger than b In the above example: (i) This program test the true value of (a&b). (ii) IF A is greater than B, it prints “A is bigger than B” (iti) Otherwise, It prints “B is greater than A” 2.5.1.3 Nested-if Statement If many decision makings occur in a program then, more than one if .. else can be used in nested if statement. The general format is if(test condition 1) { if(test condition 2) { Statement block 1; else Statement block 2; + else Statement block 3; + next Statement; (i) The computer first evaluates the value of the test condition 1. (ii) If test condition 1 is false, the control statement execute the statement block 3 (iii) If the test condition 1 is true, the control is transferred to test condition 2, if test conditio"™ 2 is true the statement block 1 is executed,a VO ano Conrnon Sraresenr 33 (ie) I the condition s false statement block 2 is executed The following flow chart explains the working of the nested if statement False True Test condition Test condition-2 True False ‘Statement blodke3 Statement block? ‘Statement block-2. | [ext statement_ + —————_! Figure 2.4 Example Write a C program to find the biggest of three numbers. #include main() { int a, b, c; printfi("enter 3 values”); scanf(“tdtdtd", &4,6b,6C); if (a>b) { if(b>e) { printf(”B is bigger than C"); else print£("C is bigger than B”);34 PROGRAMMING INC else if(arc) { print£(A is bigger than c"); } else ‘ printf£("C is bigger than A”); } + } Compile and execute the above program. Enter 3 values: 10 15 5 The output of the above program is shown here: B value 15 is large Example 2 This program is to display the electricity bill calculation based on the number of unis consumed every month Input: The number of units - variable name - unit Output: Amount of rupee - variable name - amount Logie: Units Rupees 1.50 units 0.75/unit 51-100 0.85/unit 101-200 1.50/unit 201-300 2.20/unit 300 3.00/unit #include #include int main() { float amount=0,units; printf(“Enter the number of units”); scanf("%f", gunits); if(units <=50)VO nein Co Srarenn 4 amount = units * 0.75; ) else if(units >50 && units <=100) { amount=0.75 * 50 + 0.85*(units-50); } else if(units >100 && units $200) { amount=(0.75*50) + (0.85*50 )+ (1.5 *(units-100)) + else if(units >200 && units <300) { amount=(0.75%50) + (0.85*50 )+ (1.5 *100) + (2.20*(units-200)); + else { amount=(0.75%*50) + (0.85*50 )+ (1.5 *100) + (2.20 * 100) +(3.0*(units-300)); + amount=amount+(0.2*amount); print£(“The total electricity bill is %£”, amount); getch(); return 0; + 2.5.1.4 Switch Statement By The switch statement allows a number of choices. The general format of switch statement is shown here: switch(expression) . case Label 1: Statement block 1; Break; case Label 2: Statement block 2;36 PROGRAMMING INC Break; case Label n: Statement block n; Break; default: default Statement; break; } next statement; (i) Switch, case, default, are the keywords (ii) Expression is any valid expression (iii) Default part is optional The following flow chart explains the working of the switch statement: Label Label statement block} ' t t Label 2 ' Statement block] i 1 7 [Statement block} >| —________Setau [Default statement} >] Next statement Figure 2.5 The switch statement works as follows: 1, Integer control expression is evaluated. 2. A match is looked for between this expression value and the case constants. If a match is found, execute the statements for that case. If a match is not found, execute the default statement. 3. Terminate switch when a break statement is encountered or by “falling out the end”Example #include main() {i int color; printf("enter the color number"); scanf(“%d", &color e switch (color) { case 1: printf(”"RED” di break; case 2: print£(“BLUE”;); break; case 3: printf ("GREEN"); break; default: printf(“Invalid number”); break; a B Compile and execute the above program The output of the above program is shown here: Enter color code[1.RED, 2.BLUE, 3.GREEN]; 2 BLUE Enter color code (1.RED, 2.BLUE, 3. GREEN]; 5 Invalid Number 2.5.2. Looping Statement Looping statement is used to execute a set of statements repeatedly until some condition is satisfied. ”38 PROGRAMMING In C There are 3 types of looping statement, They are: 1. While loop statement 2. Do-while loop statement 3. For loop statement 2.5.2.1 While loop statement (Entry control statement) The general format is while(test condition) //body of the loop + next statement; 1. The computer first evaluates the loop condition. 2. If the value is true, then the body of the loop is executed repeatedly until the loop condition becomes false. 3. If the value is false, then control is transferred to the next statement. The following flow chart explains the working of the while statement False block statement (s) | True Body of the loop Figure 2.6 Examplel Write a C program to implement while loop #include main() { int i,n; print£(“Enter the Number:” scanf(“%d",6n); while(i<=n) {VO ano Conrnot Srarenetr Printf"number=ta", i); itt; | The output of the above program is shown here: Enter the Number: 5 number=1 number=2 number=3 number=4 number=5 Example 2 Write a C to find the reversal of a given number #include #include int main() { int num, rev=0; printf(”enter the number to be reversed” ve scanf("$d", enum); while(num>0) //till the number is positive, perform the proce { rev=rev*10 +(num$10); num=num/10; + print£("The reversal is td “,rev); getch(); return 0; + 2.5.2.2 Do-while (Exit control statement) ‘The general format is do { /Ipody of the loop; + while(test condition); next statement; 3940 PROGRAMMING INC (i) Check the test condition (ji) If itis true, execute the body of the loop. (iii) If it is false, execute the next statement. The following flow chart explains the working of the do-while statement —— Body of the loop Test True \ condition Next statement | Figure 2.7 Example Write a C Program to implement do-while loop. #include main() { int i,n; printf(“Enter the Number: scan£(“#d", én); do { print£number=8d", i); itt; } while(i<=n); + The output of the above program is shown here: Enter the Number: 5 number=1 number=2 number=3 number=4 number=5,VO ani Gomenen Searene 44 Difference between while and do-while loop | Do-while 7 While Condition is checked at the end | Condition is checked in the beginning, of the loop tatements within the loop Will be executed at least once. of the loop. If the condition fails the statements will not be executed even once. 25.2.3 for loop For statement is used to execute a statement or a group of statements repeatedly for a number of times. The general form is: for (initialization; testcondition; incredecrement) { // body of the loop + next statement; () Give the initial value to the control variable. (ii) Check the test condition, If the test condition is true, execute the body of the loop. (iii) If the test condition is false, execute the next statement. The following flow chart explains the working of the for statement | Initialization of control variable NG condition True Body of the loop 1 Increment or decrement of control variable Figure 2.8 * The operation for the loop is as follows: 1. The initialization expression is evaluated. 2. The test expression is evaluated, If it is FALSE, exit the for loop. Next statement q TRUE, body of the loop is executed. It it isOY 3. Assume test expression is TRUE. Execute the program statements making up , body of the loop. 42 PROGRAMMING IN C Evaluate the increment expression and return to step 2. 5, When test expression is FALSE, exit loop and move on to next line of code Example Write a C program to implement for loop #include main() { int im; printf("Enter the number”); scanf(“$a", &n); for (i=1;i<=10;i++) { print£(“number=8d",i); } Compile and execute the above program The output of the above program is shown here: Enter the number 5 number = 1 5 2.5.3 Jump Statement 1, Break statement 2. Continue statement. 2.5.3.1 Break statement Break statement is used to terminate from a loop w! the test condition is true. This statemet! can be used with in a while do while, for and switch statement. The general format is: break;VO ann Conn cs] Example for(i=0;i<20; i++) } 2.5.3.2 Continue Statement ‘The continue statement is used to skip the remaining statement in the loop. It only works within loops where its effect is to force an immediate jump to the loop control statement. + Ina while loop, jump to the test statement. * Ina do while loop, jump to the test statement. * Ina for loop, jump to the test, and perform the iteration. ‘The general format continue; Example int i; for(i=0;i<10;i++) { if (is=5) continue; print£("#d",i); This code will print 1 to 8 except 5. Continue means, whatever code that follows the continue statement WITHIN the loop code block will not be executed and the program will go to the next iteration, in this case, when the program reaches i=5 it checks the condition in the if statement and executes ‘continue’, everything after continue, which are the printf statement, the next if statement, will not be executed Break statement will just stop execution of the look and go to the next statement atter the loop if any. In this case when i=8 the program will jump out of the loop. Meaning, it won't continue till i=9, 10.ee J 44 PaoaRawmina INC 2.6| COMMA OPERATOR cot of expressions separated by commas is a valid construct in the ¢ language: For examp, and v are declared by the statement int x,y; Consider the following statement that makes use of comma operator. int a,b,c; 2.7) SAMPLE C PROGRAMS Write a C program to check whether a number is Armstrong Number The armstrong number is of the form 153= 13 +53 + 33 ‘The input is: 153 or any other number Output: The number is armstrong or not. Processing: take 153 as an example, remove 3, 5 and 1 in the reverse order (using % operate, and take the power of 3 and add to the sum variable. If the total sum and the original number, both are same, then that is the armstrong numbe, If else, the number is not an armstrong number. #include #include int main() { int original_num, check, temp, sum=0; print£("Enter the number to check for armstrong number”); scanf(“%d", goriginal_num); temp=original_num; while(original_num>0) { check=original_num¢10; sum=sum+check*check*check; original. num=original_num/10; printf£("This is an armstrong number\n"); else print£("This is not an armstrong number”); getch(); return 0;VO ani Conireey Srareer 45 Write aC program to check whether a given number is p A prime number can be divided by 1 and itself, there are no other divisors eof not Examples are : 23, 5,7, 11, To find out whether a given number is prime or not, here is the logic 1, Get the number 2. Divide the given number from 2 to n-1 (Example if 6 is the number divided by 2,3,4,5 will get the remainder respectively 0,0,2,3) Increment a counter to 1 if the remainder is 0 4. If there counter variable is 0, then the given number is prime (because we didn’t get any remainder) else non prime #include #include int main() { int a,i,count=0; printé("enter a"); //Let the given number is a scanf("td",6a); //get the number for (i=2;i #include int main() { int a[10],i,j,temp=0;Procrawmins In C print£("Enter all the 10 numbers”); for (i=0;i<10; i++) scanf("$d",6a[i]}); for(i=0;i<10;i++) { for (j=073<975++) { if(atj}>aljt1]) { temp=a[j]i a(j)=ali+1ly a[j+1]=temp; + print£("The ordered array is”); }3<10;j++) //Finally print the ordered array for (j= print£("#d \t",alj])+ getch(); return 0; + Write a C program to sort a set of numbers in the ascending order. #include main() { int i,j,k,n,l=1,arr[50], tmp; elrser(); printf(“\t ASCENDING OF ORDERS\n"); printf (“\t aye printf£(“\n Enter the number of elements to be sorted.."); scanf(“%d",6n); printf(“\n Enter the elements to be sorted.."); for (i=0;i #include #include main() { int a,b,c, *x,*y,*z; float temp, root1, root. /*x=8a; yrab; 2=60;*/ elrser(); print£(“\t QUADRATIC EQUATION (USING POINTERS) \n"); print£(“\t~~---~~~ ~-\n"); printf(“Enter thecoefficients....:"); scanf(“%d%d¢d",&a,&b,&c); if(a==0) { ' print£(”Singleroot - Linear equation”); root1=(float )-c/b; printf(”\n The root of the equation is %5.2£",rootl); + else temp=b*b-4*a*c; if(temp<0) ic printf(“\n Imaginary roots"); temp=-temp; temp= (float) (sqrt(temp) ); root1=(float)-b/(2*a); a7PROGRAMMING IN C printf("\n The real part is $ 5.2£",rootl); printf("\n The imaginary part is (85.2£)i/td”,temp,2%a); } else L£(temp>0) print£("\n Real roots”); root 1=(float) (-btsqrt (b*b-4*axc) )/(2*a); root2=(float) (~b-sqrt(b*b-4*a*c))/(2#a); printf("\n The roots of the equation are %5.2f and $5.2£" ,root1, root2) ; J } else { printf£("\n Single real root\n"); rootl=-b/(2*a); printf("\n the roots of the equation is 5.2£",rootl); } getch(); } Write a C program for print customer name and type of product and discount, bill amount. #include #include #define FIVE 0.0F #define SEVEN 0.075 #define TEN 0.1 #define FTEEN 0.15 main() { float amt,disc, total; int type,ch=0; char name[20]; float mill (float) ; float handloom(float); clrser(); do { print£(“Enter the customer’s name; “); gets (name); print£(“\n Enter the amount purchased by the customer. .Rs."); scanf(“t£",Gamt); print£(“\n Enter the type purchased (0-mill#1-handloom:”); scanf(“%d",atype); switch(type) { case 0:VO ano Conrron Srareuenrs disc=mill (amt); break; case 1: disc=handloom( amt); break; + total=amt-dise; elrser(); printf("\t\t CASH BILL\n”); print£("\t\t ~~~-~~--~-\n); printf£("\n\t customer's Name :%s”,name); if(type==0) print£(“\n\t The cloth type is Mill\n\n"); else printf(“\n\t The cloth type is Handloom\n\n"); print£(“\n\t The amount purchased is Rs.%6.2£",amt); print£(“\n\t The amount of discount is Rs.%6.2f£",disc); print£(“\n\t The amount to be paid is Rs.86.2£\n\n", total); printé(“\n\t- wannn=====\n\n"); print£(”\n\n continue ? (0--> yes, 1-->no):"); seanf("%d",&ch); elrser(); }while(ch!=1); + float mill(float sum) { float d; if(sum<=100) d=0.0; else if(sum<=200) d=FIVE*sum; else if(sum<=300) d=SEVEN*sum; else = TEN* sum; return(d); } float handloom(float sum) { float d; if(sum<=100) IVE*sum; else if(sum<=200) d=SEVEN*sum; else if(sum<=300) d=TEN* sum; else d=FTEEN*sum; return(d); } 49Ton mere (ti tststi(‘é‘SS 50 PROGRAMMING IN’ C white space: Write a C program to Count the number of vowels, consonants, words, Paces in , line of text and array of lines. #include #include main() ‘ char s[50]; int i,c=0,W=1,v=0,len; clrser(); printf(”\nEnter the text: ”) gets(s)i len=strlen(s); for(i=0;i #include main() { char str[80],rev(80J; int i,j,len; elrser(); print£(“\n\t\t\t\PALINDROME CHECKING"); print£(“\n\t\t\t\t—— <"); print£(“\n\nEnter the string\n\n"); gets(str); len=strlen(str);VO ano Cone for(islen-1, j=0;is<9 rev(j]=str[ij; rev[j}="\0'; print£("\nThe original string:ts”,str); printf(“\nthe reversed string:§s\n\n\n\n", rev); if(stremp(str, rev)==0) printf("%s is a Palindrome”,str); else printf("8s is not a palindrome”,str); getch(); inn, jet) } Write a C program to implement linear search #include #inelude main() { int a( ]={12,27,5,83,94,36,72,11,54,43}; int i=0,n: 10,x, found=0; clrser(); printf(“\n Enter a Number to search scanf(“td",&x); while(i return type functi { Local declaration; Executable statement; Statement body } Executable statement; return(expression); Where, Function type - data type of the value returned by the function. Function name ~ name of the function List of argument - parameters Argument declaration _- declaration of formal argument Return - return the value of the function to other function. Rules + Function header should not terminate with semicolon. « List of argument and declaration and return is optional. 3.2) RETURN STATEMENT ‘A function returns a value to the calling program with the use of the keyword return, followed by a data variable or constant value. The return statement can even contain an expression. The general format is return or return(expression); For Example return 3; return nj return (a*b); + When a return is encountered the following events occur: 1. Execution of the function is terminated and control is passed back to the calling program. 2. The function call evaluates to the value of the return expression. © If there is no return statement control is passed back when the closing, brace of the function is encountered.33) FUNCTION PROTOTYPE Hunetion prototype means, declaring the defined function in the main program. The zen sormat is datatype function_name( ); where, datatype — valid ¢ data type. Function_name - name of the function 3.4] CALLING A FUNCTION A defined function can be called from other functions by specifying its name followed by a list of arguments enclosed within parentheses. The general form is Function_name(list of arguments); Rules + Function_name should be the name used in the function definition. « list of argument is optional. Example 1 #include main() { int a,b; int abe() ;<———. function prototype scanf("tdtd", &a,&b); print£(“%d”, abc(a,b)); } t__ function calling int abe(I,3) int 1,5; { int k; k=i+5; retrun(k); + Example 2 #include main() { int mul(int a,int b); { Int c; Ceatb; Return(c) ,56 PROGRAMMING INC main() { int x,y,z; x=5; Y=10; c=mul (x,y); printf("the value of c is %d”, Cc); + 3.5| FORMAL AND ACTUAL ARGUMENTS 3.5.1 Formal Arguments The arguments present in the function definition are called formal arguments. These are als, called as dummy arguments. Example int abe(I,j) int 1,37 { int k; keitd; retrun(k); } In this function I and j are called formal or dummy arguments because the values for the arguments I and j are not available. 3.5.2 Passing Arguments ‘The arguments present in the function calling are called passing arguments or actual arguments. Example main() { int x,y,2; x57 y=10; c=mul(xry) 7 print£(“the value of c is %d", c); } In the above example, x and y are called actual or passing arguments, because only through this the called function mul receives the values of the formal arguments I and jas 5 and 10 3.6 | CATEGORY OF FUNCTIONS/TYPES OF FUNCTION There are four types of functions. They are: 1. Function with no arguments and no return value,Functions ann Sronace Grasse: 37 anction with arguments and no return value. 3. Function with no arguments and return value. ion with arguments and return value. 4, Fun 3.6.1 Function with no Arguments and no Return Value This is the simplest function. This does not receive any arguments from the calling function and does not return any value to the calling function. 3.6.2 Function with Arguments and no Return Value value to the This function receives arguments from the calling function and does not return any calling function. 3.6.3 Function with no Arguments and Return Value | This function does not receive arguments from the calling function and return the computed value back to the calling function. | 3.6.4 Function with Arguments and Return Value | This function receives arguments from the calling program and return the computed value back to the calling function. 3 7) RECURSION A recursive function is one that calls itself again and again. Recursive functions are useful in evaluating certain types of mathematical function. You may also encounter certain dynamic data structures such as linked lists or binary trees. Recursion is a very useful way of creating and accessing these structures. Example Write a program to find the factorial of a given number. #include main() { Int fact(int n); Int I,a; Scanf("$a", 64); A=fact (i); Print£(“$d", a); + int fact(int n) { Int £; I£(n==0) return 1; else f=n*fact(n-1); return(f);58 PROGRAMMING IN C Explanation Lot us assume n=4, since the value of n is not equal to 0 the statement, Fact = n*fact(n-1) call - 1 | Fact=4*fact (3) call - 2 Fact=4*3*fact (3) call - 3 Fact=4*3*2*£act (3) call - 4 Fact=4*3*2*1*fact (3) call - 5 Fact=4*3%2*1 Factorial 4 = 24 3.8 | STORAGE CLASSES A storage class defined both scope and life time of identifiers. The default storage class is auto, which declares the scope of the variable as local. ‘Types of storage classes The various types of storage classes are as follows: 1, Automatic External Register Static Automatic: This is the default storage class for the local variables. The variable which are declared inside a function are called automatic variable. The general format is Pe eN auto datatype variabel, variabe2,.... variable nj Example auto int a,b; 2. External: The variable which are declared outside the functions are called extemal variable, Since these variables are not declared within a specific function, these a common to all the functions in the program. The general format is extern datatype variablel, variable2,.... variable nj; Example extern int a; 3. Register: The variable which are stored in the registered are called register variable: The general format is register datatype variablel, variable?2,.... variable n; Example register in b;4. Static: Static variables are variables which retain the values till the er The general format is static datatype variablel, variable2, variable nj; Example static in a,b; LET US SUMMARISE * Functions are the building blocks of the C programming language. * Library Functions are functions not to be written by the programmer. + A user defined function has to be written by the programmer to carry out some specific defined task. A function send value to the calling using return statement. + Function prototype means, declaring the defined function in the main program A defined function can be called from other functions by specifying its name followed by a list arguments enclosed within parentheses, + The arguments present in the function definition are called formal arguments. These are also called as dummy arguments. + The arguments present in the function calling are called passing arguments or actual arguments. REVIEW QUESTIONS . What is Function? . List out the part of functions? Define storage class. . Define Recursion. . What is function prototype? Qeene EXERCISES 1. Write aC program to define user-defined functions. Call them at different places. 2. Write a C program to use return statement in different ways. 3. Write aC program to send value to user defined function and display results.CHAPTER ARRAYS AND STRUCTURES AND UNION 4.1] ARRAYS _ | ‘Arrays are widely used data type in ‘C’ language Array is a group of related data items, that share a common name with same data type. An individual variable in the array is called an array element. We can define an arrayname,rollno to represent a set of rollno of a group of students. A particular value is indicated by a number called index number. An index number is present in brackets after the arrayname. * One Dimensional Array * Two Dimensional Array * Multidimensional Array 4.1.1 One Dimensional Array {A list of items group in a single variable name with only one index is called 1- D array. Declaration and initialization of arrays (i) Declaration of One Array: We can declare an array in C using subscript operator. The general form is datatype var_name[size]; Here, datatype is valid c datatype and var_name is the name of the array Example i) int mark(50]; This declares an integer type array names as mark having 50 memory locations '© store 100 integer data. ii) float salary(30]; This declares a floating point type array named as salary having 30 memory locations to store 30 floating point data.iit) char name[ 20}; This declares a char acter type array named as name having 20+ store 20 characters, (1) Initialization of 1-D Arrays: We can store values at the time of declaratie allocates the required space depending upon the list of values, The general datatype array _name(size] = { list of values}; Example 1 i) int mark[4)={45,58,90,76}; This declare mark as an integer array having four locations and assign initial va as given below. mark(0] | mark(t] | mark(2] | mark(3] | 45 58 90 76 ii) int mark[6]; If the size of the array is greater than the number of values in the list, then the unused locations are filled with zeros as given below mark[0]_|_mark(1]_| mark(2] | mark[3]_[ mark[4] | mark{5] 45 58 90. 76 0 0 iii) char dept[10); This declares name as a character array having 10 characters and assign initial values as dept{0] | dept{1] | deptt2] | dept{3) | dept(4] | dept(s] | dept(o) | depti7) | c ° P U T E R \o__| 4.1.2 Two Dimensional Arrays A list of items group in a single variable name with two indexes (row and column size) is called 2D array. (@ Creation of 2-D Arrays: We can create two dimensional array as follows: datatype arrayname[sizel][size2}; Here, sizel number of rows size2 ~number of columns Example i) int arr(2 ] [ 3]; This represents a two dimensional array named art. Structure of two-dimensional arrays as shown he62 PROGRAMMING INC - tonto) [avon [seal | arr{1][0] arr{1(1] arr{M12) i) int mark[5][2]; This declares ma The total r as a two dimensional integer array having 5 rows and 2 Colum mber of locations is 5x2 = 10. columns column1 row0 | mark(O}{0] | mark(oi{1} rowl _| mark{1][0] | mark{1][1] row2_| mark(2/{0]__ | mark{2I[1} row3_| mark(3]{0]___| markI3I[1] rowd | mark{4J{o]__ | mark(4]fi] (ii) Initialization of 2-D Arrays: Two dimensional array can be initialized similar to ong dimensional array as below. datatype arrayname[sizel]{size2]={list of values}; Example (i) int mark[3}[2]=(45,65,89,78, 99,66); mark{0}(0] mark(0}[1] 45, 65 mark(1}(0} mark(1][1] 89 78 mark(2)(0] mark(2)[1) cd 66, 2.1.3 Multidimensional Arrays three or more dimensional arrays can also be used in C. The general form is dataype arrayname[sizel][size2],[{size3].......[size n]i Example int mark(5](4)(3](2]7 In the above example mark is a four dimensional array to store 120 integer type of data. 4.1.4 Sample C Programs Write a C program to search a number in a given array //This program is to search a given number in an array #include #include int main() { int a(10],i,num;Anaya ann Srenecines ain Unies, 89 print£("enter the array elements"); for(i=0;i<10;i++) //get all the numbers scanf("8d”,&ali}); printf("Enter the number to search”); scanf("%d", &num); for(it0;i<10; i++) { if(ati um) //given num is matched in the array { printf("The number is found in the %d position”, i+1); getch(); exit(0); //to go the end of the program + } printf(“The number is not found”); getch(); return 0; } Write a C program to add two matrices /* Program to add two matrices */ #include #include int main() { int a(10][10], b[10}[10],c{10}[{10},i,4; printf(“Enter a”); for(i=0;i<2;i++) //get the matrix A for(j=0; 5<2;5++) scanf("td”,&a[i}[(j]); printf£(“Enter b”); for(i=0;i<2;i++) //get the matrix B for (5-0; 5<275++) scanf(“td",&b[i}(j])¢ for (i=0;i<2;it+) it for(j=0;5<275++) { efil(3] = afil(3] +blil(5]i //adding two matrices } } print£ (“Added Matrix is \n"); for (i=0;i<2;it++) for(3=0;5<2;5++) print£("#d ",cli](i1)i getch(); return 0; +64 Proarammina in C Write a C program to multiply two matrices * Program to multiply two matrices */ #include #include int main() { int a(2)(3}/b(31{2),c(2)[2],k, 3,47 printf(“enter a”); for(i=0;i<2;i++) //Get array A { for (j=075<3;5++) { scanf(“8d",6a(i}[4]); 7 print£(“enter b"); for(i=0;i<3;i++) //cet array B { for (j=0;5<275++) { scanf("%d”,&b[i][(5]); + } A for(i=0;i<2;it+) { for(j=0;5<275++) { efi}(5}=0; for (k=0;k<3;k++) f eli} (j)=clilli]+aliy(k]*bik] (5)e + } } printf£("C is “); for(i=0;i<2 for (j=0;5<2;5++) print£(” c[%d][#d] — 4 \n",i,j,c(illil)i getch(); return 0; } Write a C program to create a 3*3*3 matrix and find the sum of matrix. #include main() { static int num[3][{3][3],i,4j,k,sum=0,1= elrser(); for (i=0;i<3;it+)Annava ano Smauctunes ano Utne 65 for(j=0;4<3; 44+) for (k=0;k<3;k++) { num id (3) 0k)=1; ltt; sum: } print£("\n\t\tTHREE DIMENSIONAL ARRAY"); PYint£("\n\t\tereseeeceeteeeereeeeen\ n\n”); for(i=0;i<3;i++) { for (5 { for(k=0;k<3; k++) i print£(“\t\ttd”,num[i}(j](k]); v print£(“\n"); + printf£(“\n"); + print£(”\n\tThe sum of the elements of the array is 28d\n", sum); =num(ij(3)(k); F4S3;5++) getch(); iu 4.2 | STRUCTURE A structure is a collection of variables under a single name. These variables can be of different types, and each has a name which is used to select it from the structure. A structure is a convenient way of grouping several pieces of related information together. 4.2.1 Defining Structure A structure definition contains a keyword struct and a user defined tag-field. The general format is, struct tag-field { datatype member1; datatype member2; datatype member1; hi Where, Struct - keyword to define structure Tag-field — - name of the structure Datatype —_- valid c datatype66 PaorAMMiNe WC Example Below structure can be defined for storing book details of a book store. struct book_store { char title[15); char author[15}; int pages; float price; } F 7 This defines a structure with four members namely, title, author, pages and price of differen data types. The name of the structure is book_store. 4.2.2 Structure Declaration structure declaration means combining template declarations and variable declarations. The | general format is struct tag-filed variable1, variable2,......... variablen; Example struct book_store ‘ char title[15]; char author[15]; int pages; float price; struct book_store book1,book2,book3; } 4.2.3 Giving Values to Structure Members Member operator or dot operator is used to establish a link between member in a structure an tructure variable.( ‘ . ‘). The general format is structure variable . membername; Example #includecstdio.h> struct book_store { Char title(15); Char author{15]; Int pages; Float price; hi main() { struct book_store book1; printf(“input values”); seanf(%oc%c%d%f" &booK title &bookl author,&bookl pages, &book1 price);Annays aun Stayerunes an “7 Print(“%e%e%d%l” book | title, book Lauthorbook |. pages, book|.price); 1 4.2.4 Structure Initialization Structure variable can be initialized similar to other data types in C. The general format static struct tag-filed structure variable=| list of values}; Example struct book_store { Char title[15]; Char author{15]; Int pages; Float price; Jstatic book1={ ” Programming in C”, ” Rizwan”,230,85); 4.2.5 Difference Between Arrays and Structure Arrays Structure Al data in an array should | Structures data can be of be of same data type. different data type. Individual entries in an | Structure individual entries array are called elements. _| are called members. | 4, 3| STRUCTURES WITHIN STRUCTURES Structures can have as members other structures. A structure that contained both date and time information. One way to accomplish this would be to combine two separate structures: one for the date and one for the time. For Example struct date { int month; int day; int year; di struct time { int hour; int min; int sec; yy struct date_time 868 PROGRAMMING INC struct date today; struct time now; ye ‘This declares a structure whose elements consist of two other previously declared structur, Initialization could be done as follows: static struct date_time veteran = {11,11,2011}, {11,11,11}}7 which sets the today element of the structure veteran to the eleventh of now element of the structure is initialized to eleven hours, eleven minutes, item within the structure can be referenced if desired. 4) POINTERS TO STRUCTURES Jne can have pointer variable that contain the address of complete structures, just like with the basic data types. Structure pointers are declared and used in the same manner as “simple” pointers: struct playing_card *card_pointer,down_card; card_pointer=sdown_card; (*card_pointer) .pips=8; The above code has indirectly initialized the structure down_card to the Eight of Clubs through the use of the pointer card_pointer. (*card_pointer).suit=”Clubs”; The type of the variable card_pointer is “pointer to a playing_card structure”. In, there is a special symbol -> which is used as a shorthand when working with pointers to structures. It is officially called the structure pointer operator, Its syntax is as follows: *(struct_ptr).member is the same as struct_ptr->member Thus, the last two lines of the previous example could also have been written as: f November, 2011, Thy eleven seconds. Each card_pointer->pips=8; card_pointer->suit="Clubs"; EFERENTIAL STRUCTURE 4:3) SELF-R _ A self referential structure is used to create data structures like linked lists, stacks, etc. Following is an example of this kind of structure: struct struct_name { datatype datatypename; struct_name * pointer_name; YF A self-referential structure is one of the data structures which refer to the pointer to (pon) to another structure of the same type. For example, a linked list is supposed to be a self-referent! data structure. The next node of a node is being pointed, which is of the same struct type. Fo" example, typedef struct listnode { void *data; struct listnode *next; } linked_list;Sample C Program “program for student mark statement */ #include #include #include struct stud { char name[20}; int score[10}; int high; int low; float aveg; char grade; }eand; main() { input (); output (); } input() { int j,sum,mk; float avemk; elrser(); Annays aun Sraucrunes ann Union print£("\n\t\t ABC SCHOOL OF STUDIES: :CHENNAI\n\n”); printf(“\n Enter the name scanf("ts”, &cand.name) ; "YE printf(“\nEnter the 10 test marks..\n"); cand. low=100; cand. high=0; sum=0; for (53=0;5<5;5++) { print£(“test %d:”,j+1); scanf(“$d", &mk) ; cand.score[j]=mk; sumt=mk; if(cand.highmk) cand. low=mk; + avgmk=sum/5.0; cand.aveg=avgmk; if(avgmk<40) cand.grade='F’; else if (avgmk<50) cand. grade: else 6970 PROGRAMNANG IN C if (avamk<60) cand.grade='C'; else if(avgmk<75) cand.grade= else cand.grade= ys output printing */ output () { . int 3; clrser(); printf("\n\t\t ABC SCHOOL OF STUDIES: :CHENNI\n”); print£("“\t\t. \n")i printf("\n NAME :%s\n”,cand.name); for (j=0; 5<5;5++) printf("\n\t test %d +%d",j+1,cand.score[j])i printf(”\n\n\n\t\tHighest :%d",cand.high); printf(”\n\t\tLowest a" ,cand. low); printf(“\n\t\taverage 5.2£",cand.aveg) + printf(“\n\t\tGrade c\n" ,cand. grade) ; getch(); } j UNION Unions are derived data type. Union data type is similar to structure. The main advantag union is they conserve memory. A union is a single piece of memory that is shared by two more variables. 4.6.1 Declaration of Union ‘The union can be declared in the same way as the definition of structure. The general format is union tag-filed { Datatype member1; Datatype member2; Datatype membern; b Example union student { Int rollno; Char name[12]; }std;Annays ann Srane nines asin Unicon 7 Example #include main() { struct bio char name[15]; int rollno; }sta; union bio_data { char name[15]; int rollno; ybi; printf(” Enter the name and rollno”); scanf("%c%d", &name,&rollno); printf£("name=%a", std.name); printf (“rollno=%a",std.rollno); printf ("name=%d",bi.name) ; print£(“rollno=%d",bi.rollno); } 4 7 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STRUCTURE AND UNION Structure Union Structure: The size in bytes is the sum | Size of in bytes of the union is size total of size of all the elements in the | of the largest variable element in the structure, plus padding bytes. union. Size Allocated to a Structure: Size Allocated to a Union: For eg: For eg: struct example union example { { int integer; int integer; float floating_numbers; float floating_numbers; } t the size allocated here is size allocated is the size of the highest cof(int)+sizeof{ float); member. where as in an union s0 size is=sizeofi(float); Advantage of union over structure ~>Less RAM space is required thus fast execution of program. Disadvantage of union over structure If we use 2 or more instance of single union the data will be lost after data for second instance is entered.