University of Cagayan Valley

BALZAIN HI-WAY, TUGUEGARAO CITY

Name of student: _______________________________ Year and Section: _________________

Subject: ____________________________ Teacher: _______________________________

MODULE NO.1: PRELIM COVERAGE

TITLE INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC CHEMISTRY
INTRODUCTION Forensic Chemistry is defined as the branch of chemistry that deals
with the application of chemical principles in the solution of
problems that arise in connection with the administration of justice.
This field of study applies science and technology to investigate
and establish facts i criminal or civil courts of law.
The word “forensic” is derived from the latin word forensis which
means “of the forum” or speaking the truth in public. It embraces a
large and diversified field. It includes not only the chemical side of
criminal investigation with which is generally associated with the
public mind but also the analysis of any material the quality of
which may give rise to legal proceedings. It involved often
branches of forensic sciences notably legal medicine, ballistics,
question documents, dactyloscopy and photography.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES Define “forensic chemistry” and its role in forensic investigation
Identify the characteristics and main functions of forensic chemists
Discuss the four stages in the practice of forensic chemistry major
classification or kinds
Explain the evidences
Enumerate and discuss the golden rules ub the practice of forensic
chemistry
LEARNING OUTCOMES

ASSIGNMENT
What is Forensic Chemistry?
What is the difference between ordinary witness and expert witness?
Enumerate and explain the six golden rules in the practice of forensic chemistry.
What is the difference between direct wevidence and circumstancial evidence?
What are the four stages in the practice of forensic chemistry? Cite situations.
 University of Cagayan Valley
BALZAIN HI-WAY, TUGUEGARAO CITY

Name of student: _______________________________ Year and Section: _________________

Subject: ____________________________ Teacher: _______________________________

MODULE NO.2: PRELIM COVERAGE

TITLE BLOOD AND BLOOD STAINS
INTRODUCTION The significance of blood and blood stains as evidence in crimes of
violence is very obvious such that we need not to place emphasis
on this. The test for the identification of blood is employed as an
important part of the routine investigation in many cases of violent
death. The specimen usually submitted in fresh blood or fluid
blood, dried blood and clotted blood. Very often, is on brought to
the laboratory in the form of dried red or brown stains on weapons,
clothing and other objects.
Blood examination in forensic can include blood toping and testing
for the presence of blood stain in serology, blood stain pattern
analysis and testing for the presence of deoxyribonucleic acid in
paternity test.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES Explain the importance of blood in criminal investigation
Describe the four major tests employed in conducting blood
examination
Identify the possible outcome of the test conducted
Learn how a particular blood type is formed based from the given
blood type of the parents.
Determine the difference between human blood and animal blood
LEARNING OUTCOMES

ASSIGNMENT
Enumerate the different preliminary/screening test for blood and identify the positive result of
each
What are the different tests used to confirmed that the blood is really a blood? Discuss each.
Determine the possible blood type of the if (show your solution):
The mother is blood type A and the father is blood type B
The father is blood type AB and the mother is blood type O
The father is blood type A and the mother is blood type AB.
What is the impossible blood type of the children if the parents have the same blood type O?

University of Cagayan Valley

 BALZAIN HI-WAY, TUGUEGARAO CITY

Name of student: _______________________________ Year and Section: _________________

Subject: ____________________________ Teacher: _______________________________

MODULE NO.3: PRELIM COVERAGE

TITLE SEMEN AND SEMINAL STAINS

INTRODUCTION Semen refers to the body fluid produced by the male sex organ
usually amounting 2.5 to 6.0 ml. seminal fluid per ejaculation.
Each ml contains 100 million or mor spermatozoa. The fresh
ejaculate semen has a gelatinous, sticky, consistency and tends to
become more fluid when exposed. It has two parts, the seminal
fluid and epithelial cells and crystals composed of choline and
lecithin.
The examination of semen and seminal stains is an important part
in the routine investigation of sexual offenses like cases of rape,
adultery, sodony, bestiality and sexual homicide.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES Define semen
Identify the parts of the semen
Discuss the cases wherein ejaculation has no spermatozoa
Explain the importance of semen and seminal stains in criminal
investigation
Discuss the four major examinations in conducting semen and
seminal tests
Describe the mode of collecting, preserving, packaging and
transpiniting semen-stained specimens
LEARNING OUTCOMES

ASSIGNMENT
What is semen?
What are the parts of the semen?
What are the four major examinations for semen and seminal stains? Explain.
What is the difference between oligospermia and aspermia?
How is the mode of collecting, preserving, packaging and transmitting of semen and seminal
stains?

University of Cagayan Valley

BALZAIN HI-WAY, TUGUEGARAO CITY
Name of student: _______________________________ Year and Section: _________________
Subject: ____________________________ Teacher: _______________________________

MODULE NO.4: PRELIM COVERAGE

TITLE GUNPOWDER AND OTHER EXPLOSIVES

INTRODUCTION In the investigation of crimes involving the use of firearms, three
most important problems may arise. The first and probably of
primary importance is the problem of determining whether or not a
person has fired a gun with bare hands within a pertinent period of
time. The other is the means of determining the probable gunshot
range like the distance the firearms held from the body of the
victims at the time of firing the gun becomes an issue.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES Identify the kinds of gunpowder
Describe the process of testing for gunpowder nitrates
Explain the factors that affect the presence and amount of
gunpowder residue
Discuss the possibilities that a person maybe found negative or
nitrate even if he or she actually fired a gun
Discuss the possibilities that a person maybe found positive for
nitrate even if he or she did not actually fire a gun
Explain the sources of nitrate which maybe encountered in the
paraffin test
Determine the probable gunshot range on the distance the firearms
were held from the body of the victim at the time of discharge
Discuss the classifications of explosives with respect to functioning
characteristics
LEARNING OUTCOMES

ASSIGNMENT
What are the two kinds of gunpowder?
What are the possibilities that a person maybe found positive for nitrate even if he or she did not
actually fixed a gun?
Enumerate the classification of explosives with respect to functioning characteristics
Give at least 5 sources of nitrate which maybe encountered in the paraffin test.
Discuss the mode in determining the probable gunshot range to a victim.

University of Cagayan Valley

SCHOOL OF CRIMINOLOGY
BALZAIN HI-WAY, TUGUEGARAO CITY
Name of student: _______________________________ Year and Section: _________________
Subject: ____________________________ Teacher: _______________________________

MODULE NO. 5: PRELIM COVERAGE

TITLE HAIR AND TEXTILE FIBER

INTRODUCTION Hair examination is one of the oldest forms of physical evidence.
Its use is older than fingerprints. It is valuable because the hair of
each kind of animal is different and distinct from each other. Like
fiber it is mostly likely to be involved in contact between the
victim and the suspect. Most crimes cause contact between one
person to another and there maybe transfer of fibers and hairs from
the victim to the criminal and vice-versa. The successful
investigation of crimes of violence such as rape, murder, assault,
kidnapping, hit-and run and etc. are frequently materially assisted
by the result of the examination of the hairs and fibers.cHairs are
very resistant to decomposition and putrefaction thus,cthey often
remain as a means of identification long after others such as facial
and fingerprints have been destroyed.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES Identify the parts of human hair and haif shaft.
Distinguish human hair from animal hair.
Identify the sources of hair evidence and textiles.
Study the fiber and different tests in identifying the kind of fiber.
Enumerate the classes of fiber and fabric.
LEARNING OUTCOMES Describe the significant role of human hair as evidence.
Show the signicant role of hair and fiber as evidence.
Analyze and interpret the different tests in the identification of
fibers.
Apply their knowledge on how to undergo with the different tests
of hair and textiles.
Define “fiber transfer and persistence”

Hair examination is one of the oldest forms of physical evidence. Its use is older than
fingerprints. It is valuable because the hair of each kind of animal is different and distinct for all
others. Like fiber, it is mostly likely to be involved in contact between the victim and the suspect.
Most crimes cause contact between one person and another and there may be transfer of fibers
and hairs from the victim to the criminal and vice versa. The successful investigation of crimes
of violence such as rape, murder, assault, kidnapping, hit and run, etc. are frequently materially
assisted by the result of the examination of the hairs and fibers. Hairs are very resistant to
decomposition and putrefaction thus they often remain as a means of identification long after
others such as facial and fingerprints have been destroyed.
 The work of Glaiser Hussman and others has made relatively simple and quite positive
the identification of hair as to species. In the negative sense, human hair may often be definitely
shown not have come from a particular individual. The obvious difference in color, length and
texture can distinguish one hair from another and served to eliminate a suspect. The use of hair
as a means of positive identification is more uncertain and indeed no expert in his right
mind/senses will venture to give a definite statement as to individual origin of hair.
COLLECTION, PACKING, PRESERVATION AND TRANSPORTATION OF HAIR
1. All of the hair in the questioned specimens should be submitted but do not mix hairs at
different places.
2. In vicious assault and murder cases, obtain the clothing of the victim from the hospital or
morgue to avoid the loss of evidence by careless handling and to prevent the clothing from being
destroyed.
3. Representative samples of hair from the victim as well as the suspect should be obtained if
possible. To be a representative head hair samples from a particular individual it should of at
least a dozen hairs from different areas of the scalp and preferably full-length hair.
4. Don’t mix known samples of hair from different parts of the body.
5. The hairs should be placed in a folded paper or in a white mailing envelope, but the corners of
the envelope should be sealed with scotch tape.
6. Do not secure the hair samples to a piece of paper with scotch tape because this will damage
the hair.
7. All foreign fibrous debris should be removed from the submitted specimen.
8. Fragmentary hairs or underdeveloped hairs are not suitable for examination.
9. Areas on an object containing hairs should be protected with cellophane or paper taped over
the area before wrapping the object from transmittal to laboratory.

Hair- is a specialized ephitilial outgrowth of the skin which occur everywhere on the human
body except on the palm of the hands and the sole of the feet. It is an appendage of the skin. Hair
is not completely round but may be oval or flattened. Its width is not always the same along its
length. It starts out pointed and narrow and then strays more or less the same.
Two Kinds of Hair (among mammals including human being)
1. Real Hair- generally long and stiff.
2. Fuzz Hair- generally short, fine at times curly and wooly.
Parts of the Hair
Anatomically hair is consists of 3 parts namely:
1. Root- portion embedded in the skin.
2. Shaft- portion above the surface of the skin. It is the most distinctive part of the hair.
3. Tip- sometimes termed point. The distal end of an uncut hair shaft.

THE HUMAN HAIR

Parts of the Shaft:
1. Cuticle- outermost covering of the hair. It consists of one layer of non-nucleated polygonal
cells which overlaps like the scales on fish.
2. Cortex- the intermediate and the thickest layer of the shaft and is composed of elongated,
spindle shaped fibrils which cohere. They contain pigment granules in varying proportion
depending on the type of the hair.
3. Medulla or Core- is the central canal of hair that may be empty or contain various sorts of
cells more or less pigmented and begins more or less near the root.
Certain hair has medulla. Therefore, hair can be classified into two categories namely:
1. Hair without medulla
2. Hair with medulla.

MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF HUMAN HAIR

Before performing the examination, take note of any foreign material on the hair and
should be identified if present in sufficient quantity. Hair should be clean with a mixture of equal
parts of alcohol and ether.
1. Color a. with naked eye b. under the microscope
Melanin- the brownish-black pigment in the hair skin, etc. It is the chemical responsible for the
color of the hair. Black and brown hair differs only on the amount of melanin. Red hair is
thought to be due to iron.
2. Length by Actual Measurement
3. Character of the Hair- whether stiff, wiry or soft.
4. Width Breath
5. Character of the Hair Tip if Present- tip of the hair may show whether a hair has been cut.
Tips of the body hair become rounded from rubbing against
The cloths. Hair of human usually shows a fine tip. Men’s hair tip is apt to be cut off square.
6. Manner by which Hair Had been Cut
7.Condition of the Root or Base or Bulb of Hair

TWO KINDS OF ROOTS

1. Living Roots- often found on hair in full growth.
2. Dry Roots- dead roots

The roots do not give much information as to the origin of the hair. Very often the root is
missing on hair found on cloth at the scene of the crime, on weapons, etc. The examination of the
root will only give clue as to whether the hairs have been pulled away by force or have fallen out
spontaneously and there are three possibilities:
1. All hairs have living roots- on case they have not fallen out themselves but have been
pulled away by force.
2. All hairs have dry roots- in this case they have most certainly fallen out themselves.
3. Some hairs have living and some dry roots- in this case they have been pulled away by
force, the living hairs with dry ones.

8. Character of Cuticle
The size, the general shape and the irregularity of the scales are observed.
9. Character of Cortex
Structural features are studied under the microscope. Cortex is embedded with the
pigment granules that provides the criminalist with important points of comparison between the
hairs of the different individuals.
10. Presence of Dye in Hair
Dyed hair can be distinguished from natural hair. Under the microscope dyed hair has a
dull appearance and the color tone is constant, whereas natural is not and the individual pigment
granules stand more shapely. If there has been subsequent growth of the hair since dyeing the
undyed root end portion will stand out markedly. Bleached hairs have a rough appearance, are
more uniform in shade and contain less pigment depending on the amount of bleaching.
Dye absorption and chemical tests have been developed for the detection of the bleached hair.

11. Determination of whether naturally or artificially curled

12. Character of Medulla

MEDULLA
The medulla and cortex are the most characteristic portion of the hair. Have more
distinguishing quantities, thus cortex and medulla yields the most reliable criteria in the
diagnosis of hair.

LONGITUDINAL CROSS SECTION OF A HAIR

Medulla or core or the central canal of the hair can be continuous or interrupted. It is
continuous in large number of animals, very often interrupted in human monkeys, horses.

Medulla’s diameter can be absolutely constant. At times alternately narrow and boarder.
The diameter of a medulla and the diameter of the whole hair s the great importance.

Medulla Index (M.II.)- the relationship between the diameter of the medulla and the diameter of
the whole hair. Usually expressed in fraction. Its determination is performed under a microscope
provided with micrometer eyepiece.

1. Hair with narrow medulla (less than 0.5) belongs to human and certain monkey
hair.
2. Hair with medium medulla (approximately 0.5) belongs to hair of cow, horse
and others.
3. Hair with thick medulla (greater than 0.5) almost all animals belongs to this.
Based on the medulla examination it can be determined whether hair is human or animal
origin. The medulla is usually narrower in width in human hair when present. Has finer and more
numerous cross striations. Animal hairs usually consist of both heavy guard hair and finer fur
hair whereas human hair does not.

A comparison of the medullary index of the hair from the different parts of the body
between man and woman is given in the table below:

COMPARISON BETWEEN HUMAN AND ANIMAL HAIR

HUMAN ANIMAL
1. Medullary index is less than 0.5 1. Medullary index is more than 0.5
2. Medulla may not be present 2. Medulla is always present
3. Scale pattern is fine and each one 3. Scale is coarse and overlaps less than ½
Overlaps the other more than 4/5 4. Pigment granules are coarse
4. Pigment granules are fine
OTHER ASPECTS OF HAIR EXAMINATION
1. Determination of characteristics by race.
2. Determination of characteristics by sex.
3. Determination of the region from which the human hair has been
removed
4. Determination of the approximate age of individual.

1. Characteristics by Race
In most instances it can be determined whether a human hair
came from Negroid, Mongoloid or Caucasian race.

Negroid Race Hair:

1. Contain heavy pigment distributed unevenly
2. A thin cross section of the hair is oval in shape.
3. Hair is usually kinky with marked variation on the
diameter along shaft
Monggoloid Race Hair:
1. Hair contains dense pigment distributed more evenly than Negroid
race hair.
2. Cross section of the hair will be round to oval in shape.
3. Hair is coarse and straight with very little variation in diameter along the shaft of the hair.
4. Usually contains a heavy black medulla core.
Caucasian Race Hair:
1. Hair contains very fine to coarse pigment and more evenly distributed than is found in Negro
or Mongolian.
2. Cross section will be oval to round in shape
3. Usually straight or wavy and not kinky.
2. Characteristics by Sex
Sex cannot be definitely determined from a hair examination. Male hair is generally
larger in diameter, shorter in length, more wiry in texture than that of a female. Male hair
average approximately 1/350 of an inch in diameter. Female hair averages approximately 1/450
of an inch in diameter.
If a hair is as much as six inched in length and has a split end, these are good indications
that the hair is from a female, though not a positive proof. Pinning, curling, brushing and
combing hair will cause the tip ends to split. Most males hair their haircut often enough to
prevent having head hair with split tip ends.
3. The region of the body from which the human hair has been removed.
 The region from the body from which the human hair has been removed can be
determined with considerable accuracy that is through length, size, color, stiffness, curliness and
general gross appearance.

a. Scalp hair- they are more mature than any other kind of human hair.
b. Beard hair- coarse, curved, very stiff and often triangular in cross section.
c. Moustache- usually triangular in shape and very stiff.
d. Hairs from eyebrow, eyelid, nose and ear- short stubby and have wide medulla. Eyebrow and
eyelashes are usually very short and has a sharp tip.
e. Trunk hair- vary in thickness along the shaft and are immature but are somewhat similar to
head hairs. They have fine, long tip ends.
f. Limb hair- similar trunk hair but usually are not so long or so coarse and usually contain less
pigment.
g. Axillary hair- are fairly long with unevenly distributed pigment. They vary considerably in
diameter along the shaft and have frequently a bleached appearance. It has an irregular shape and
structure. Looks like pubic hair but the ends are sharper and the hair is not so curly.
h. Pubic hair- similar to axillary hairs but are coarser and do not appear bleached. More wiry,
have more construction and twists and usually have continuous broad medulla. Have many
broken ends because the clothing rubs against it.

4. The approximate age of an individual through hair examination

The approximate age of an individual cannot be determined from hair examination with
any degree of certainty except in infant hairs. Infant hairs are fine, short in length, have the fine
pigment and are rudimentary in character.
Children’s hair through adolescence is generally finer and more immature than adult hair
but cannot be definitely differentiated with certainty.
If it is noted that the pigment is missing or starting to disappear in the hair, it can be
stated that the hair is from adult. It is common for a relatively young person to have prematurely
gray or white head hair but not body hairs. The root end of hair from an aged person may show a
distinctive degeneration.
Can we say definitely that the hair came from a certain individual.

The identification of a specimen of a hair as having been derived from a certain individual is
always difficult and in most cases impossible. If a number of strands are taken from a known
source and compared with another specimen, it is impossible to say with absolute certainty that
they are identical in origin no matter how similar they may be in appearance, both grossly and
under the microscope. Many individuals have hair that would present the same characteristics on
examination and could not be differentiated. It can be stated with certainty that the
TEXTILE FIBERS
In general and broad sense, the word “textile” is derived from the Latin word “textilis”
and the French “textere”, to weave, hence textile fiber means that can be converted into yard. A
yarn consists of fibers or filaments that have been twisted together.

CLASSIFICATION OF TEXTILE FIBER

Schematic diagram for the classification of fibers.
TEST FOR TEXTILE FIBERS
1. Burning or Ignition Test- it is a preliminary macroscopic exam. A test that determines
whether fiber is mineral, animal or vegetable fiber.

Procedure:
A single fiber is applied with flame at one end and the following are noted:
Manner of burning
Odor of fumes
Appearance of burnt end
Color of ash
Action of fumes on moisten red and blue litmus paper
Effect of litmus on a piece of filter paper moistened with lead acetate.
For animal fibers, fibers smoulder or burn slowly and give odor like that of burning feather.
When removed from the flame they do not continue to burn readily and a charred bead remains
at the end of the fiber. Fumes turn red litmus blue.
Wool- odor strong, disagreeable; fumes turn lead acetate paper black or brown
Silk- odor not so pungent, fumes have no effect on lead acetate paper.
For vegetable fibers, fibers burn rapidly with a flame and give off little smoke or fumes.
Charred bead not present when fiber is removed from the flame. Fumes turn blue litmus red.
2. Fluorescent Test- frequently used to determine the general group to which a fiber belongs. It
is not reliable for positive identification of fibers. In general, the vegetable fibers exhibit a
yellow fluorescence in ultra-violet light, whereas the animal fibers show bluish fluorescence.

The fluorescence of some common fibers is given in the following table as obtained by Noptisch
and given by Mr O’Neil:
Material Color under Ultraviolet Daylight Color
1. Unbleached wool Brilliant light blue Light yellow
2. Bleached wool Bluish-white to bluish yellow White
3. Bleached cotton Light-yellow White
4. Mercerized cotton Light-yellow White
5. Bleached linen Brilliant yellowish-white White

6. Cuprate silk Reddish white with blue-violet Brownish-white

shadow
7. Vidcose silk Sulfur yellow with blue shadow Brownish-white

8. Nitro silk Brilliant flesh yellow Yellowish

9. Acetate silk Bluish violet White
10. Natural silk Very bright light blue, much White
brighter and whiter than acetate
silk
3. Microscopic examination- In general, it is the most reliable and best means of identifying
fiber. The fiber is placed on a glass slide, teased and covered.
The following are the characteristics of common textile fibers:

Cotton: Unicellular filament, flat, ribbon-like, twisted spirally to right or left on its axis, central
canal or lumen broad uniform in diameter; cell wall thick, covered by a thin, structureless, waxy
cuticle. Fiber tapers gradually to a blunt or rounded point at one end.

Mercerized Cotton: Straight, cylindrical, with occasional twists, evenly lustrous, smooth except
for occasional transverse folds or wrinkles. Cuticle mostly lacking, lumen irregular in width.
Linen: Multicellular filament, straight and cylindrical, not twisted and flattened, tapering to a
sharp point. Cell wall thick, the lumen appearing as a narrow dark line in the center of the fiber.
Filament marked by transverse lines at intervals causing the fiber to appear jointed, resembling
bamboo. Cross lines frequently interest appearing like the letter x.

Cultivated Silk: Smooth, cylindrical, lustrous threads, usually single but often double, the twin-
filaments held together by an envelope of gum. More or less transparent, without definite
structure.

Wild Silk- similar to cultivated silk but broader and less regular in outline. Marked by very fine
longitudinal striations with infrequent diagonal cross-markings.

Artificial Silk: Cylindrical, lustrous, appearing like a glass rod. Microchemical reactions,
dissolved rapidly by half saturated chromic acid; not colored by Millon’s reagent as in case of
true silk.
Wool: Easily distinguished by presence of flattened, over lapping epidermal scales not found on
silk or any of the vegetable fibers. Fiber many-celled, cylindrical; shaft composed of three layers;
central core or medulla (seldom seen), cortex and scaly cuticle.

Fiber examinations can identify the type of fiber such as animal (wool), vegetable (cotton),
mineral (glass) and synthetic (manufactured). Questioned fibers can be compared to fibers from
victim’s and suspect’s clothing, carpeting and other textiles. A questioned piece of fabric can be
physically matched to known fabric. Fabric composition, construction and color can be
compared. Impressions on fabric and from fabric can be examined. Clothing manufacturer’s
information can be determined by label searches

4. Chemical Analysis of Fibers- If the sample submitted for analysis is fairly large, such as a
piece of cloth or a number or large threads, it is suggested that a chemical analysis be made to
supplement the microscopic examination and confirm the results obtained from that procedure.

A. Staining Test- The fiber is stained with picric acid, Millon’s reagent, stannic chloride or
iodine solution.
 Test Result
Picric acid + silk Dyed
Picric acid + wool Dyed
Picric acid + cellulose fibers Unchanged
Millon’s reagent + silk Brown
Millon’s reagent + wool Brown
Millon’s reagent + cellulose reagent No reaction
Stannic chloride + cellulose Black

B. Dissolution Test- If the fiber is white or light colored it is treated with the following
chemicals. If dyed, the fiber is first decolorized by boiling in either hydrochloric acid, acetic acid
or dilute potassium hydroxide.

Reagents:
10% NaOH + wool--------------------------------- dissolved
10% NaOH + cultivated silk--------------------- dissolved
10% NaOH + cotton linen, wild silk, cellulose silk------------- undissolved

GUIDE QUESTIONS:
What are the parts of human hair and the hair shaft? Give a brief description.

What are the sources of hair evidence?

What are the tests for textile fibers? Describe how they are being used as a test.

How does fiber play a significant role as evidence in a particular crime/investigation?

Cite a situation/crime on how a hair is being used as an evidence.

Prepared by:
MR. NOEL S. PENETRANTE
Forensic Chemistry Instructor
University of Cagayan Valley
BALZAIN HI-WAY, TUGUEGARAO CITY

Name of student: _______________________________ Year and Section: _________________

Subject: ____________________________ Teacher: _______________________________
MODULE NO. 1: MIDTERM COVERAGE

TITLE CHEMICAL ASPECT OF DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

INTRODUCTION Document is an official or original written or printed paper
furnishing information or used as a proof of something else. Is an
object that contains handwritten or typewritter markings whose
sourcr or authenticity is in doubt.
At first impression seems that examination of questioned documents
is hardly within the province of a forensic chemist, but if we
consider the fact that that essential materials in a document
examination of any kind are the papers and ink or pencil, and the
chemical examination of inks, erasures, alterations anse sequence of
writing are often associated with such examination, it will be very
evident that there is a large amount of purely chemical work in
document examination.
LEARNING To know the comparative difference in physical characteristics of
OBJECTIVES the questioned and standard papers.
To analyze ballpoint per ink by paper chromatography
To know some of the commonly used invisible inks and the different
methods of developing them
Enumerate the process of obtaining ink and paper standard
Describe the process of forensic examination of paper and ink
LEARNING OUTCOMES To apply their knowledge on the importance of ink and paper
analysis in forensic point of view.
Show the process on how to conduct physical and chemical
examination of the paper and ink
Show willingness and interest in doing examinations or tests in
relation to forensic investigation

At first impression it seems that the examination of questioned documents is hardly within the
province of a forensic chemist, but if we consider the fact that the essential materials in a
document examination of any kind are the paper and ink or pencil, and the chemical examination
of inks, erasures, alterations and sequence or writing are often associated with such examination,
it will be very evident that there is a large amount of purely chemical work in document
examination.
DOCUMENT – An original or official written or printed-paper furnishing information or used
as a proof of something else. Is any object that contains handwritten or typewritten makings
whose source or authenticity is in doubt.
PACKINNG, PRESERVATION AND TRANSPORTATION OF DOCUMENTS
Documents are precious things and therefore should be treated accordingly,
Documents should be handled, folded and marked as little possible.
If folding is necessary to send to the laboratory, the fold should be made along old lines. Place it
in Manila paper envelope or brown envelope since it is sufficiently hard paper or it can be placed
in a transparent plastic envelope.
On receipt the document should be placed between two sheets of plain white paper in a folder.
Documents should not be touched with pencil, pen or anything that could be possibly marked
hem.
THE EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS
Examination and Comparison of Paper
The essential materials in documents examination of any kind are the paper and ink or
pencil or writings. The examination of paper may be necessary if we want to know the age of
the document, the presence of alterations, ensures and other forms of forgery.
PROBLEM ENCOUNTERED IN THE ANALYSIS OF PAPER
Determination of whether two pieces of paper originated from same source.
Determination of the probable age of paper.
Determination of the composition of the paper.

Fiber Composition – practically all papers maybe classified from the standpoint of their basic
fiber composition into sets of fiber mixtures namely:
Mechanical pulp – ground wood sulfite mixture, this is pulp from coniferous and dicotyledonous
wood in combination with sulfite chemical pulp from conifers.
Soda – sulfite mixture – chemical pulp from dicotyledonous woods.
Rag sulfite – cotton rag or linen rag.

Sizing material – added to paper to improve its texture. Examples of sizing materials are rosin,
casein, gelatin and starch.
Loading material – added to paper to give weight. It partially fills the pores between the fibers
of the paper. Examples of loading material are calcium sulfate and barium sulfate.
Substances Used for Writing:
Egyptian papyrus – one of the earliest substances used for writing. It is from the
name papyrus that the word paper was derived. After papyrus came parchment and velum
then linen rag followed by mixture of linen and cotton or cotton only. Paper made from a
variety of fibrous materials that started about the middle of the 19th century.
1800 – straw was first used.
Between 1845 and 1880 – from soda wood pup
1869 – from mechanical wood pulp
Between 1880 and 1890 – from sulfite wood pulp
At present a thin sheet of matted or felted vegetable fiber (usually wood pulp) with filler as clay
and sizing material as rosin or starch.

THE EXAMINATION OF PAPER

The examination and comparison of paper may determine the following:
The age of the paper as compared with the age of known document.
Whether a paper is identical with or different from another paper whose history is known.
Whether two sheets of paper of the same manufacturer were made at the same time. In this case
we have to know when the form was printed or when the paper was first made that bears a
particular mark.

THE FOUR TESTS FOR PAPER

Preliminary examination
Physical test causing a perceptible change
Chemical test
1.Preliminary Examination – deals with the appearance of the document and the following are
observed:
Folds and creases
Odor
Impression cause by transmitted light – gives indication of color, translucency where tampering
is made, change in tint which indicates substitution of sheet of paper, watermarks and wire
marks.
Presence of discoloration in daylight and under the ultraviolet light.
Watermark – if present is one of the most important features in the comparison of paper. It
is distinctive mark or design placed in the paper at the time of its manufacture, by a roll
usually covered with wire cloth known as dandy roll which serves as a means whereby the
paper can be identified as the product of a particular manufacturer.
Wiremark – Marks produced on paper by the flexible wire soldered to the surface of the
dandly roll that carries the watermark.
2.Physical test causing No perceptible Change – a test applied on paper without perceptible
changing altering the original appearance of the document.
measurement of length and width – to indicate that they originated from the same manufacturer
if two pieces are found to be exactly the same.
Measurement of thickness
Measurement of weight/unit area
Color of the paper – it is closely related to its brightness. A side-by-side comparison maybe
made in well-diffused light. Observation of color is influenced by the texture, gloss, finish, type
of illumination and the element of human error.
Texture
Gloss- gloss and texture maybe determined by visual observation in good daylight or under
different kinds of illumination.
Opacity – the quality of paper that does not allow light to pass through or which prevents dark
objects from being seen through the paper.
Microscopic examination/inspection – for possible presence of dirt, foreign particles,
imperfections, wiremarks or certain unusual fibers. These maybe a deciding factor in
determining whether or not the same manufacturer made two pieces of paper.
3.Physical Examination causing a Perceptible Change – this is done only it sufficient samples
are available and if prior authorization from the court is required this can be done.
Bursting strength or “pop” test – the apparent pressure necessary to burst a hole in a sheet when
property inserted in a suitable instrument.
Folding endurance test – it is obtained on an instrument that registers the number of alternate
fold the paper will stand before breaking.
Accelerated aging test – there are some methods of aging a document artificially namely:
Soaking in coffee solution
Soaking in tea solution
Exposure to charcoal
Ironing
Heating in an oven
Exposure to ultraviolet light
Absorption test – maybe made to determine either the rate of absorption or the total absorption of
the paper. A strip of paper is suspended in water or ink or other liquid.
4.Chemical Test – this test determines the fiber composition, the loading material and sizing
material used in the paper.
A. Fiber composition – the examination is purely microscopic and it determines the
material used and nature of processing. This maybe determined by boiling a small piece of the
document in 5% sodium hydroxide. The liquid poured off and the fragment of paper washed and
teased out on a glass slide and strained with the following and the color observed under the
microscope.
Reagents:
2 grams potassium iodide, 1.5 grams iodine, 2ml glycerine and 20 ml water
1) 20 grams zinc chloride and 10 ml water
Mix 1 and 2 allow the mixture to stand and decant clear supernatant liquid for use. (the solution
is zinc chloriodine)
1 gram phloroglucine, 25 ml water and ml conc HCL
10% solution of aniline sulfate
B. Sizing material – the sizing materials maybe tested by:
Procedure and results:
Gelatine – is extracted by boiling the paper in water. The solution is tested with dilute tannic
acid solution. Positive is yellow precipitated.

Rosin – this is extracted by heating the paper on a water bath with 95% alcohol. The solution
obtained is evaporated to dryness and the residue dissolved in acetic anhydride, cooled,
transferred to a porcelain dish and strong sulfuric acid is added. Positive result is reddish-violet
color that quick changes to red brown.
Simple test for rosin – place a few drops of ether on the paper and if rosin is
present a brown ring will be formed when ether evaporates.
Starch – add a dilute iodine solution on the paper. Blue color is produced if starch is present.
Casein – it can detected by addition of Million’s reagent on the paper. Pink color appears if
casein in present.

THE ANALYSIS OF INK

 Some of the most important questions that arise in the analysis of ink are:
Whether the ink is the same or like or different in kind from ink on other parts of the same
document or on other documents

Whether two writings made with the same kind of ink were made with identical ink, or inks of
different qualities or in different conditions.

Whether an ink is as old as it purports to be.

Whether documents of different dates or a succession of differently dated book entries show
natural variations in ink writing or whether the conditions point to ne continuous writing at one
time under the same condition.

TYPES OF INK
1.Gallotanic ink or iron-nutgall ink (blue) – today the most frequently used in for making
entries in record books and for business purposes. Gallotonic ink is made of a solution of iron
salt (ferrous sulfate) and nutgall (iron galotannate). This ink can penetrate into the interstices of
the fiber and not merely on the surface thus making its removal more difficult to accomplish.
The color changes undergone by this ink in the process of oxidation provides a valuable means
of estimating the approximate age of the writing.
Blue – with the naked eye; very recent
Violet – less recent
Black – still less recent
Change undergone by gallotonic ink:
First reaching a maximum degree of blackening within the first year of two.
Then fades gradually over a period of many years until only a rust colored deposit remains.
This period of time can be stated only approximate since the oxidation processes are retarded
or accelerated according to the degree of atmospheric humidity, the light, the quality of the ink
itself, the condition of blotting, condition of storage, ect.
2. Logwood ink (black) – the color is dependent on the inorganic salt added, but on drying and
standing they turn black. It is made of saturated solution of logwood to which very small amount
of potassium dichromate is added. Hydrochloric acid is added to prevent formation of
precipitate. Phenol is added as preservative. The ink is inexpensive, does not corrode steel pen.
Will not washed off the paper even fresh, flows freely.
3. Nigrosine ink or aniline ink (blue black or purple black) – made of coal tar product called
nigrosine dissolved in water. It easily smudge, affected by moisture, made washed off from the
paper with little difficulty.
4. Carbon ink or Chinese ink or Indian ink – the oldest ink material known. Today, finely
divided carbon is held in colloidal suspension and used to produce deep black drawing and
writing ink. Made of carbon in the form of lampblack. Does not penetrate deeply into the fibers
of the paper so that it may easily be washed off. Not affected by the usual ink testing more
permanent.
5. Colored writing ink – today most all colored inks are composed of synthetic aniline dyestuffs
dissolved in water. In certain colored inks ammonium vanadate is added to render the writing
more permanent.
6. ballpoint pen ink – made of light fast dues solution in glycol type solvents like carbitol, gycol
or eleic acid. Paper chromatography can best analyze this ink.
TEST FOR INK
The different classes of ink may be determined by many different methods such as the
use of reagents on the ink lines, the spectrographic method in the photographic method. For our
purpose only the physical and chemical methods will be discussed.
Physical Method/Test – applied to determine the color and presence of alterations, erasures,
destruction of sizes with the use stereoscope, handlens and microscope.
Chemical test or Spot Test – a simple test wherein different chemicals or reagents are applied on
the ink strokes and the chemical reactions or characteristic color reactions or other changes in the
ink are observed.
The following table shows the chemical reactions of the different types of inks:

Reagent Gallotonic ink Gallotonic ink

with without Logwood Nigrosine Carbon
provisional provisional
color color
5% HCI Blue Disappear with Red Maybe No effect or
slight yellow smudged smudged with
color blotter
10% oxalic Blue Disappears Violet-red Maybe No effect or
acid smudged smudged with
blotter
Tartaric acid Blue Disappears Light brown Maybe No effect or
smudged smudged with
blotter
2% NaOH Reddish- Brown Brown Runs, dark No effect or
brown violet at edges smudged with
blotter
10% NaOCI Disappears Disappears Disappears Brown No effect or
smudged with
blotter
Chlorine water Disappears Disappears Disappears Brown No effect or
smudged with
blotter
K Fe(CN) Blue Blue Red No effect No effect or
(a) smudged with
blotter
KCNS Red Red No effect No effect or
(a) smudged with
blotter
Note: (a) after iron has been dissolved by a drop of HCI
 DETERMNATION OF APPROXIMATE AGE OF DOCUMENT
Age of ink – no definite procedure which can be given for this determination except when the
color is black, because on the observation that within a few hours the color of ink writings
becomes darker the dye contained therein is influenced by the light of the room, oxygen on the
air, acidity or alkalinity of the paper.
There are several methods of determining the degree of oxidation the ink writing and apparently
these methods depend upon:
Physical phenomena such as matching the color of the ink writing with standard colors or with
itself over a period of time.
Chemical reaction that may reveal some information concerning the length of time te ink has
been on the paper.
Age of paper
Through watermarks
In certain cases from the composition of paper.
OTHER ASPECT OF DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
The detection and deciphering of illegible writing is one of the major problems in
document examination.
Illegible writing – is unnecessary writing which is not capable of being read usually made on
checks, birth certificate, passports and transcript of records.
Example of illegible writing:
Ensures – the removal of writing from the paper. It can be made mechanically or chemically.
Obliteration – the obscuring of writing by superimposing ink, pencil or other marking materials.
Sympathetic ink – substances used for invisible writing.
Indented writing - term applied to the partially visible depression appearing on a sheet of paper
underneath the one that visible writing appears.
Writing on carbon paper – remember that used sheets of carbon paper can be made readable
Contact writing – blank paper may contain traces of ink because of previous contact with some
writings.

GUIDE QUESTIONS:
What are the problems encountered in the analysis of paper?

What are the four tests for paper? Give brief descriptions of each.

What are the different types of ink? State the sources or where it is originated.

Give a brief description on the different tests for ink.

Enumarate the other aspect of document examination particularly on illigible writing and explain
each.

Prepared by:
MR. NOEL S. PENETRANTE
Forensic Chemistry Instructor
 University of Cagayan Valley
BALZAIN HI-WAY, TUGUEGARAO CITY

Name of student: _______________________________ Year and Section: _________________

Subject: ____________________________ Teacher: _______________________________

MODULE NO. 2: MIDTERM COVERAGE

TITLE GLASS, GLASS FRAGMENTS AND FRACTURES

INTRODUCTION Glass is important as physical evidence because it breaks and pieces
are scattered at the crime scene and on the suspect. It is a common
type of thing carried away evidence in burglary and vehicle hit and
run cases. The evidence may be fragments to a headlight leads found
at the scene of hit and run accident, window glass from the scene of
robbery or glass through which a bullet was fired.
Glass consists of a mixture of silicon oxide and two or more alkaline
bases, such as lime, soda or potash. It may also contain other elements
and metals which are added for color, heat resistance, hardness and
other desired properties.
Glass and glass fragments often take an important role in criminal
investigation of such offenses as burglary, house breaking, fleeing the
scene of vehicle accidents and others. The ultimate value of such
materials either as evidence or investigative leads, there can be
contained from them, depends on the investigator’s knowledge and
training in the nature of glass, proper procedure of collection,
preservation and examination. Glass fractures and glass fragment can
provide information through which several types of determinations
may be possible.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES Describe the visual distinction of glass and enumerate its properties
Enumate the types of glass fractures
Describe the process of collecting and handling glass and glass
fragments
Determine the direction of the breaking force caused by bullet on
glass windows
Study the proper technique of collecting and preserving glass and
glass fragments in a crime scene
LEARNING OUTCOMES Show the value of glass as evidence in relation to glass-related
incidents
Show willingness and interest in administering glass examination in
relation to forensic investigation
Apply their knowledge in determining the possible entrance and exit
point of a bullet in a glass pane.
Glass is important as physical evidence because it breaks and pieces are scattered at the crime
scene and on the suspect. It is a common type of thing carried away evidence in and burglary and
vehicle hit and run cases. The evidence maybe fragments of a headlight leads found at the scene
of a hit and run accident, window glass from the scene of the robbery, or glass through which a
bullet was fired.

GLASS- is a supercooled liquid which possesses high viscosity and rigidity. It is a non-
crystalline inorganic substance.

COMPOSITION OF GLASS
Glass is usually composed of oxides like SiO (Silica), BO (Boric Oxide), PO (Phosphorus
pentoxide). For commercial use silica is the most important oxide. It is the base of commercial
glasses. It is made of silica sand and other metallic oxides. Oxide is for fluxing, durability and
reduction of viscosity. Glass, like window and plate which are made in mass production is fairly
uniform in composition. This may contain incidental impurities and the presence of these
substances is invaluable for the identification and comparison of glass by spectrographic
analysis. Gas has also presence of trace elements which maybe sufficient to establish or negate
the fact of a common source for two samples of glass.

COMMON OXIDES USED IN GLASS MANUFACTURE

OXIDES FUNCTION
Silica (SiO2) Base of commercial glass
Soda (Na2O) Acts as flux for silica
Lime (CaO) Gives the glass chemical durability
which it otherwise lack because of the
water-soluble Na2O.
Magnesium (MgO) Present as impurity or substitute for CaO
Alumina (Al2O3) Gives the glass greater chemical
durability lower coefficient of expansion
and greater freedom from devitrification
Potash (K2O) for chemical durability and resistance to
Devitrification.

ANALYSIS OF GLASS
The most important problem commonly referred to a forensic chemist is the comparison of two
or more samples of glass.

Test/Analysis for Glass

Spectrographic Test
X-ray Diffraction Test
Physical Properties Examination
Ultraviolet Properties Examination
Polish Marks Test
 DISCUSSION TEST
Spectrographic test- an instrumental method of analysis which determines the presence of trace
elements. Shows the constituent elements of glass. It will not give sufficient information to
establish the origin of the samples examined. A rapid examination and an adequate method for
glass analysis since it requires only a small amount of sample. In the absence of trace elements it
maybe difficult to determine whether two samples of common types of glass are identical. If
similar trace elements are found of both samples it is obvious they come from the same source.

X-ray diffraction test- not as effective as the spectrographic analysis. It determines the type of
pattern of glass. The type of pattern depends upon the composition of glass.

Physical properties examination- the most sensitive method of determining differences of

composition in glass samples and depends upon the study of the physical properties of glass.
Properties like specific gravity and density, refractive index. Density and refractive index can be
measured with great accuracy. Density or specific gravity is an especially important physical
property from the viewpoint of the forensic chemist.

Method of Measuring Density of Glass:

Flotation method- a rapid and convenient method of determining the density of small glass
fragments. Procedure and principle is the same as in the soil.

Method of Measuring the Refractive Index of Glass:

Immersion method- method use to measure the refractive index of a glass. It is difficult to
distinguish between two samples of glass by density and refractive index. It maybe mentioned
that two glass from independent sources can vary conceivably have the same index of refraction
or the same density but it is quite improbable that they would have both index of refraction and
density the same.

Ultraviolet light examination- determines the differences in the appearance of the fluorescent
thus indication of physical and chemical differences.

Polish marks- optical glass and other fine glassware’s are usually polished. In the polishing of
glass fine marks are often left on the surface which can sometimes served as a basis of
comparison.

Procedure for the Determination of Fine Marks

The surface is cleaned with alcohol and then etched by spraying with 20 to 25% hydrofluoric
acid. The acid is permitted to remain in the surface for several minutes. The glass is again
washed with alcohol and dried. If the surface is illuminated by oblique light, a photographer can
be made to show the polish marks.

GLASS AS EVIDENCE OF CRIME

In the field of forensic chemistry emphasis is placed on.
Automobile glass in case of hit and run.
Broken windows cause by pressure, blow or bullet in case of robbery.
Broken bottles, drinking glasses, spectacles found at the scene of an assault or other crimes of
violence, which would suggest examination of the soles and heels of a suspect for imbedded
glass fragments.

HOW GLASS BREAKS

(How glass forms cracks when a blow or pressure is applied on one of its surface)
When the blow strikes the glass on one of its surface, the front for example, the glass first
bends a little swing to its elasticity. When the limit of elasticity is reached the glass breaks
along radial lines starting from the point where the portion or surface which is more
subjected to stretching by bending. The front surface is only pushed. While the radial
fractures are taking place the newly created glass triangle between the radial rays also bend
away from the direction of the destroying force. By this bending the glass is stretched along
the front surface and when the limit of elasticity is reached, the glass breaks in concentric
cracks. These originate on the front of the glass because of stretching.

ANALYSIS OF GLASS FROM VEHICLES

Hit and run accidents represent a good percentage of crimes. If an automobile or any vehicle
for that matter discovered in which fragments of the lens can be found, a comparison maybe
made with the fragments found at the scene of accident employing the methods of analysis
for glass.

ANALYSIS OF BROKEN WINDOWS

Examination of window fragments in robbery cases is important when there is a question of “
as to whether the glass was broken from the outside or inside.” Since our penal law
specifically provides the mode of entrance before a crime maybe classified as robbery, this
particular kind of examination becomes very important. The general procedure to determine
whether the glass was broken from the outside or inside or to determine the side from which
a pane of glass was broken is to collect and piece together as much of the glass as possible I
order to study the patterns of cracks and to be able to orient the pieces in their original
position.

BROKEN WINDOW CAUSED BY BULLET HOLES

Generally it maybe said that the hole produced by a bullet of a strong charge has the sharpest
edges; but if a bullet gas been fired from very long distance and has come to have a low
speed it will break the pane in the same manner as will a stone. A shot from a very short
distance will produce the same result the pressure of the powder gas itself will smash the
glass.
It is easy to determine the direction from which the shot was fired.
On one side of the hole numerous small flakes of glass will be found to have been blown away
giving the hole appearance of a volcano crater. Such appearance indicates that the bullet was
fired from the opposite direction of the hole from which the flakes are missing.
If the shot was fired perpendicular to the windowpane the flake marks are evenly distributed
around the hole.
If the shot was fired at an angle from the right, the left side will suffer more flaking than from the
right.
Excessive flaking on the right side of a windowpane would indicate a shot fired at angle from the
left.
(The direction is taken from the person shooting)

BROKEN WINDOW CAUSED BY FIST OR STONE

The direction of the blow in case a fist or stone smashed the window is quite difficult but the
principle of radial crack and concentric crack or fracture will apply.

Glass fractures produced by a low- speed impact such as a rock (left) and by a high-speed and
by a high-speed projectile such as a bullet (right).

The Principle of 3R’s Rule for Radical Crack- states “stress lines on a radical crack will be at
right angle to the rear side of the glass.”
The Principle of RFC Rule for Concentric Crack- states “stress lines on a concentric crack
will be at right angle to the front side, that is the side from which the blow came rather than the
rear side.
The rule for concentric crack is the reverse of the 3R’s rule provided the concentric cracks can be
examined is near, preferably adjacent to the point of impact.

Procedure: Piece together as many as you can gather of the glass fragments as possible. Select a
triangular piece bounded by two radial cracks and one concentric crack. The triangular piece
must be adjacent to the point of impact, if it is not available select a piece as close as possible to
the point of impact.

THE BULLET HOLES IN A WINDOW

Where there are two bullet holes in a window, one from each side, the problem of which one was
first becomes important to determine who is the aggressor. It will be found that the fractures
caused by the first will be complete especially the radial cracks, whereas the fractures from the
second will be interrupted and end-stopped at point where they intersect those from the first.

FRACTURES ON SAFETY GLASS

Laminated glass that is now being used is automobiles does not shatter when struck sharply.
Frequently the cracking of safety glass is not complete. The radial cracks do not extend to the
side of impact and the spiral cracks do not extend to the other side.

The Cracking of Safety Glass:

The cracking into radial lines divides the pane into a number of triangles. These triangles are
pushed out from the point of impact by the initial impulse. The main body of the glass that is
fairly rigid resists this pushing out. The effect of a torque is produced, and if the force is
sufficient, the glass is now pushed in the opposite direction until again the limit of elasticity is
exceeded and the glass begins to break on the side where the blow was struck. The cracking now
takes place along the quasi-circle concentric with the point of impact. It was demonstrated that
the number of spiral cracks present in a fracture depends upon the nature of impringing force. A
rapid dynamic force produces more spiral pattern than a slow, relative static force even though
the total energy involved is the same in both cases.
If radial or concentric cracks cannot be definitely established the side from which the blow came
cannot be determined

GUIDE QUESTIONS:
What are the distinct characteristics and properties of a glass?

What are the types of glass fractures? Describe each.

What are the Tests/Analysis of glasses? Explain each.

Explain how glasses breaks on the following analysis:

Analysis of glasses from vehicles

Analysis of broken windows

Analysis of broken windows caused by bullet holes

Analysis of broken windows caused by fist or stone

Prepared by:
MR. NOEL S. PENETRANTE
Forensic Chemistry Instructor

University of Cagayan Valley

BALZAIN HI-WAY, TUGUEGARAO CITY

Name of student: _______________________________ Year and Section: _________________

Subject: ____________________________ Teacher: _______________________________

MODULE NO. 3: MIDTERM COVERAGE

TITLE FOOT IMPRESSION AND TOOL IMPRESSION

INTRODUCTION Traces left by a criminal in the form of foot impression, tool
 impression and tire impression in cases like theft, robbery and etc.
The evidential value of impression made by shoe, hand, tool or
other articles is based in the theory that no two physical objects
are alike and hence, the impressions made by such object are
marked by uniquely identifying characterstics.
In forensic science, toolmarks can make a negative impression or
an abrasion. Some toolmarks are a combination of both types.
Usually, toolmark impressions are microscopic and are due to the
imperfections found in the cutting surface of a tool. This marks
comprised the signature or identifying characteristics of specific
tool.
The gol of criminal investigation is to establish a link between a
toolmark and the tool tha created it at the crime scene. Such links
are crucial in forensic sciences, given that tool is often used in
criminal activities and can help identifying a criminal.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES Define Impression, Imprints and Moulages
Differentiate “Foot Impression and Tool Impression”
Enumarate the characteristics of a good casting material
Explain the general classes of tool impressions
LEARNING OUTCOMES Apply their knowledge on how to moulage foot and tool
impressions using a plaster of paris
Inculcate the concept of impression in their future professions

Traces let by a criminal in the form of foot impression, tool impression and tire impression in
cases like theft, robbery, etc. will be studied in this chapter. The evidential value of an
impression made by shoe, hand, tool or other articles is based in the theory that no two physical
objects are alike and hence that impressions made by such object often is marked by uniquely
identifying characteristics. A given impression can only be produced by one object.

IMPRESSION – a strong mark produced by pressure that goes below the surface. A stamp,
form or figure resulting from physical contact. It causes damage to object.
IMPRINT – weak mark made by pressure that stays on the surface.
In scientific criminal investigation the problem of producing the faithful representation of
an object is of great evidential value. In many cases reliance has been placed on photographic
representation may not serve the purpose. Using a mold called moulage can only make a faithful
reproduction of these objects.

MOULAGE – a faithful reproduction of an impression with the use of casting materials. It is

admitted that moulage cannot reproduce all characteristics of the object under all circumstances
but whatever is mission in a moulage it can be supplied by the photograph.
CASTING MATERIAL – any material which can be changed from a plastic or liquid state to
the solid condition.
For foot impression and tire impression. Plaster of Paris is the best casting material.
Sometimes it is desirable to hasten or retard the setting time of the Plaster of Paris.
Hastening - add one half teaspoonful of table salt to the plaster.
Retarding – add one part of saturated solution of borax to ten parts of water to be used in
making the plaster. One teaspoonful of sugar may also be used.
Hardening – to give a dried cast greater durability it can be placed in a saturated solution
of sodium bicarbonate and allow to remain in the solution for sometimes. It is then removed and
dried.
Drawback of Plaster of Paris – Poor mechanical strength. The fluid plastic flows into all the
interstices of the mark but when the cast is removed from the mark the finer details have a
tendency to break off.
OTHER CASTING MATERIALS:
Wood’s metal – used for small impressions as tooth impression, tool impression. It is a variety
of solder with melting point 60̊ to 70̊ C. it is made of B – 50%, Pb – 25%, Sn – 12.5%.

Plastic Material – like plasticine and dental composition. Used for small impression. Dental
composition is the best casting material for making the cast of tool marks.
Drawback – distorts when remove from the impression since plastic and never fluid and
does not flow to the very interstices of the impressions.

Negocoll – used for human body as cast of hand or face. It is rubbery gelatinous consisting
material consisting of colloidal magnesium soap.

Celerit – brown substance used or backing and strengthening the hominid.

Cast of Human Body – it is sometimes required to make a cast of a human hand or face. It is
important that the temperature of the negative material should be below 110̊ F (43.3̊ C). A
temperature higher than this will be uncomfortable if not injurious to the subject.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD CASTING MATERIAL:

It must be readily fluid or plastic when applied – so that it can penetrate into minute depressions
or cracks of the impression. Fluid materials are more satisfactory than plastic materials in this
respect since even the most plastic material does not enter into the crevices of all the minute
depression.
Must harden rapidly to a rigid mass – so that non deformation of the cast takes place when it is
being removed from the impression. Rapid hardening is desirable as the time factor is often of
importance.
Must not be deformable nor shrinks – so that if measurements are to be made from the cast, it
can retain exactly its size and shape.
Must be tough – so that the minute lines and ridges in the impression do not break or
disintegrate, so that it will stand the wear and tear it will receive during examination.
Must be easy to apply – since cast have to taken under all kinds of difficult circumstances, it can
readily be seen that the simpler the method the better the result.
Must not have the tendency to adhere to the impression.
Should have fine, even composition and surface – the grain of the surface must be considerably
smaller than the smallest detail it is desired to show in the cast otherwise this details is lost in the
grain.
Should not injure the impression.
Should be easily obtainable.
Should be cheap

(a)Shoe impression in soil. Shoeprint examiners have difficulty analysing low-contrast

photographs such as the one on the left. The shoeprint on the right has been sprayed with colored
paint to increase contrast, which produces a more detailed photographer (b)Shoeprint cast in
dental stone.

(a) Shoeprint collected using electrostatic device (b)Shoeprint collected using gelatin filter.

TOOL IMPRESSION
Tool impression may be classified into two general classes.
Those produced by such instruments like axe, hammer, pliers and cutters which touch the area
only once in producing the impression.
Compression marks – produced by a single application of the tool in one area of contact.
Example is the impression of a single blow of a hammer.
Friction marks – these are series of scratches or striations produced by pushing a tool across the
surface such as those produced by cutters, axe and jimmy.
Those produced by such instruments like saw or file that is applied in repeated strokes over the
same area. It is hard to identify since one-mark overlaps the other

EXAMINATION OF TOOL IMPRESSION

Examination of tool impression is done by comparative examination the purpose of
which is to determine or to determine or to show that the particular tool made the impression in
questioned.
 Comparison of shoeprint collected from crime scene and shoe collected from the suspect.

GUIDE QUESTIONS:
Define the following terms:
Impressions

Imprint

Moulage

Casting Material

What are the charactertics of a good casting materials? Give a brief description.

Cite a situation on how compression marks and friction mark occur.

How is tool impression examination can be done?

Prepared by:
MR. NOEL S. PENETRANTE
Forensic Chemistry Instructor

University of Cagayan Valley

BALZAIN HI-WAY, TUGUEGARAO CITY

Name of student: _______________________________ Year and Section: _________________

Subject: ____________________________ Teacher: _______________________________

MODULE NO. 4: MIDTERM COVERAGE

TITLE METALLURGY AS APPLIED TO CRIME

DETECTION
INTRODUCTION Metallography is a branch of metallurgy that involves the
study of the microstructures of metals and alloys. All metals
are composed of minute grains or crystals, under the naked
eye and when viewed from a distance a metal appears to be
homogeneous, but when viewed under metallography
microscope, the crystal structure is visible.
Metallurgy is the art of extracting and working on metals by
the application of chemical and physical knowledge. In
criminal investigation, the branch of science known as
 metallurgy will in most instances be of great help in the
solution of baffling problems involving pieces of metals or
metal articles. Robbery, arson, murder, kidnapping, hit and
run and counterfeiting are example of this investigative work.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES Describe the principles involve in the restoration of tampered
serial numbers
Explain how are counterfeit coins be made
Differentiate the kinds of counterfeit coins
LEARNING OUTCOMES Apply techniques in restoring tampered serial numbers
Show willingness and interest in doing macro-etching.

In Criminal investigation, the branch of science known as metallurgy will in most instances be of
great help in the solution of baffling problems involving pieces of metal or metal articles.
Robbery ,arson ,murder, kidnapping, hit and run and counterfeiting are examples of this
investigative work.

METALLURGY - the art of extracting and working on metals by the application of chemical
and physical knowledge.

METALLOGRAPHY - branch of metallurgy that involves the study of the microstructures of

metals and alloys. All metals are composed of minute grains or crystals, under the naked eye and
when viewed from a distance a metal appears to be homogeneous but when viewed under a
metallography microscope the crystal structure is visible. These crystals of the metal are tightly
packed.

APPLICATION OF METALLURGY IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION

1. Robbery
2.Theft
3.Hit and run
4.Bomb and explosion
5. Nail examination
6. Counterfeit coins
7. Restoration of tampered serial number.
Counterfeit Coins
Counterfeit coins are coins made to imitate the real thing and used for gain.

Two Kinds of Counterfeit Coins:

Cast coins - coins made in molds.

Struck coins - coins made by striking or stamping method.

HOW ARE COUNTERFEIT COINS MADE

Cast coins - An impression of genuine coin is taken by use of Plaster of Paris, clay or bronze.
The plaster molds bearing the image of a good coin are filled within a low temperature alloy
made with lead or tin. Sand molds are used for high temperature metals such as copper or silver
alloys. Cast coins have poor imitation. It can be easily detected. The surface is usually pitted and
uneven. The edges of letterings and designs are rounded instead of sharp.
Struck coins - Made by striking or stamping method. Consists of making an impression of a coin
on a metal blank by pressure. Stamping is done by way of steel dies. Often well executed. Its
detection is not easy since weight, specific gravity, composition may all be good. Careful
comparison of smaller details of the design with those of the genuine should be made.
Examination of counterfeit coins involves chemical and physical method.

TAMPERED SERIAL NUMBERS

Tampered serial numbers are restored by the application of etching fluid. Etching fluid is
a fluid used to restore tampered serial numbers. Choice of etching depends on the structure of the
metal bearing the original numbers.

ETCHING FLUIDS

1.For cast iron and cast steel - 10% sulfuric acid and potassium dichromate.

2.For wrought iron and forged iron - solution no. 1 (hydrochloric acid is 80 ml, water is 60 ml,
cupric chloride is 2.9grams and alcohol is 50 ml) Solution no. 2 (15% nitric acid)

3.For aluminum - glycerin is 30 ml, nitric acid is 10 ml, and hydrofluoric acid is 20 ml.

4.For lead - 3 parts glacial acetic acid and one part water.

5.For stainless steel - dilute sulfuric acid or 10% hydrochloric acid in alcohol.

6.For copper, brass, silver and other copper alloy - ferric chloride -19 grams, hydrochloric acid -
6 ml, and water - 100 ml.

7.For tin - 10% hydrochloric acid

8.For zinc - 10% sodium hydroxide

9.For silver - concentrated nitric acid

10.For gold and platinum - aqua regia (3 parts hydrochloric acid and one part nitric acid)

11.Forwood- subject to a jet of steam

PRINCIPLE INVOLVED IN THE RESTORATION OF TAMPERED SERIAL

NUMBERS

When a number or any mark is stamped on metal, the crystalline structure of the metal in
the neighborhood of the stamp is disturbed. This disturbance penetrates to an appreciable
distance into the substance of the metal, but not visible to the naked eye once the actual
indentations caused by the pouch have been removed. When etching fluid is applied to this
surface the disturbed or strained particles of the metal differ in the rate solubility makes it
possible in many cases restore the umber to such an extent that they can be read and photograph.

GUIDE QUESTIONS:
List down at least 10 metallic elements and identify the chemicals involved suitable to come up
with macro-etching and their corresponding amount/volume needed.

What are the two kinds of counterfeit coins? Differentiate.

What are the principles involved in the restoration of tampered serial numbers?

How is macro-etching aid in solving problems related to crime detection?

Prepared by:
MR. NOEL S. PENETRANTE
Forensic Chemistry Instructor
 University of Cagayan Valley
BALZAIN HI-WAY, TUGUEGARAO CITY

Name of student: _______________________________ Year and Section: _________________

Subject: ____________________________ Teacher: _______________________________

MODULE NO. 1: FINAL COVERAGE

TITLE SOIL AS APPLIED TO CRIME DETECTION

INTRODUCTION Soil as evidence in murder, homicide, rape, robbery, kidnapping, hit and
run incident has been overlooked by most investigators probably because it
is such a common place substance and is more or less taken for granted.
Very few persons have realize that the soil upon which they stand may have
a different composition from the soil few meters away. Researches have
shown are greatly diversified and vary considerably over the surface of the
Earth not only from widely separated points but also from points quite
close together. This expected because soil represents not only
originalearthly constituents derived from the parent rock of the natural
sources and the activities of living organisms over millenia.
Soil varies rapidly in depth. The admixture of soil from below the surface
with surface soil is taking place constantly in excavatingfor pipes, paving
and in agricultural operations. Surface variation may arise, therefore due to
admixture with surface soil of the same region. Addition for fertilizers and
soil conditioning material and human, animal and plant waste would cause
further variations of a local nature. In view of this variations in
composition, soil can only be used as circumstancial evidence in crime or
violence.
LEARNING Identify the types of soil
OBJECTIVES Learn the application of soil analysis to scientific crime detection
Determine the classification of dust used in criminal investigation
Be knowledgeable enough in collecting and submitting of soil and dust
particle for inverstigation
LEARNING Show willingness and interest in collecting soil particles for examination
OUTCOMES Boost their knowledge especially in analyzing soil samples using the
different methods of soil analysis
Soil as evidence in murder, homicide, rape, robbery, kidnapping, hit and run accident has been
overlooked by most investigator, probably because it is such a common place substance and is
more or less taken for granted. Very few persons have realized that the soil upon which they
stand may have a different composition from the soil a few yards away. Researches have shown
the soil are greatly diversified and vary considerably over the surface of the earth not only from
widely separated points but also from points quite close together. This is expected because soil
represent not only original earthly constituents derived from the parent rock of the natural forces
and the activities of living organism of millennia.

Soil varies rapidly with depth. The admixture of soil from below the surface with surface soil is
taking place constantly in excavating for pipes, paving and agricultural operations. Surface
variations may arise, therefore due to the admixture with surface soil of the same region.
Addition for fertilizer and soil conditioning material and human, animal, and plant waste would
cause further variation of local nature. In view of this variation in compositions soil can only be
used as circumstantial evidence in crimes of violence.

There is the remote possibility that another soil from some part of the century would be identical,
although this has never been found to happen.

Petrography- is the branch of geology that deals with the systematic classification and
identification of rocks, rock forming rock forming minerals and soils. Also include the study of
dust, dirt, safe insulation, ceramics and other such materials both natural and artificial.

Soil means different things to different people. A farmer plants crops in it. An engineer builds
with it. A miner takes mineral from it. Criminalist regards soil as the top layer of the earth. It
may include any substance on the earth that may stick a person’s clothing or shoes.

TYPES OF SOIL

Alluvial soil- formed form soil particles that were washed, brown, or move by gravity to the
lowlands. Earth, sand, gravel, etc. are deposited by moving water and wind. Its particles maybe
derived from an almost infinite number of sources, and since the action of water and wind would
in few cases be identical over long periods of time in different spots, great variations in
composition would be expected.
Colluvial soil- formed from decomposition of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks, the
decomposed particles moved by gravity. Soil in which some movement and intermingling of
parts has occurred would be expected to be less variable.
Sedentary soil- inactive, not migratory soil.

COLLECTION AND SUBMISSION OF SOIL

Soil usually in form of mud is usually recovered from shoes, slippers, clothes, tires, tools and
furniture.
If found on he above the soil should remain in place and the whole submitted to the laboratory.
Should be wrapped in a clean paper or filter paper and placed in a box
Known soil samples should be taken at different places around the point or reference.
 CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL

The basic component of soil originates primarily from mechanical and chemical decomposition
of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. Rocks are almost infinite variable in
composition containing usually many different materials.

Igneous rock- produce by volcanic or intense heat.

Metamorphic rock- had undergone change in structure, texture through pressure, heat and
chemical reaction. Like limestone into marble.
Sedimentary rock- or sandstone. Rocks formed by sediments.

CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL:
1) Primary mineral -includes undecomposed rock fragments ranging from stone down through
pebbles, sand and silt.

IMPORTANT MINERALS
Quartz- a form of a silica Crystalline mineral usually colorless and transparent. Also called
quartz sand. It originated primary from igneous rock but much of the soil quartz is contributed
directly by metamorphic and sedimentary rock. A common mineral. An almost universal
component of soil.
Calcite (limestone – CaCO3)- white reacts with acid with evolution of carbon dioxide. Occurs
widely particular in calcareous soil.
Feldspar (silicate of aluminum or sodium, or barium, calcium, potassium) – their
composition gives rise to clay along with more or less soluble salts of the metals name.
Dolomite – white mineral obtained from sedimentary rock. Similar to limestone.
Mica – a mineral that crystalline in thin, flexible layers, resistant, to heat.
Other primary minerals: gypsum, talc, kaolinite, limonite, magnetite.

2) Clay minerals – a product of a decomposition of primary minerals. Found nearly all soil and
is the major constituent of most heavy soil. It imparts to soil cohesiveness and plasticity and
becomes hard and adherent on heating. Pure clay is considered by criminologist to be hydrated
aluminum silicate. The color of clay soil varies from white through red, yellow, green, or blue
depending on the nature of the admixed impurities.
3) Organic constituent – one of the most variable of all soil constituents and is peculiar
importance in the identification of soil. Agriculture land is likely to be particular rich in organic
constituents both from growth occurring on the land and from added materials such a manure,
peat and cover crops. Richest of all are the peat and much soils which have been formed primary
from the constant decay of organic matter and contain only a small amount of residual mineral
deposited mostly by flooding. Humus constituents are the most important black coloring matter
of soil. It alters texture markedly, making clay soil less cohesive and sandy soil more so.
 ANALYSIS OF SOIL
The identification of soil is never necessary that all constituents be identified as such or that they
be separated. Any method which quantitatively distinguishes particles of characteristic
appearance of properties will be successful in proving identity or non-identity depending on
whether the distribution found in two soils are the same or different
There are several methods of petrographic analysis that are being used in the laboratories to
establish the identity of two or more samples of soils. There is no procedure which is specially
recommended. In the crime laboratory the use of DENSITY GRADIENT APPARATUS is
utilize. A simple procedure of determining the identity or non-identity of soil sample base on the
density distribution. The procedure is rapid, requiring a few hours of completion. Consists of
simple apparatus and is indeed so sensitive to small changes in composition.

OTHERS METHODS OF ANALYSIS FOR SOIL

X-ray diffraction
Spectrographic analysis
Thermal analysis
The above methods are extensively used in commercial and private laboratories as general
procedure.

APPLICATION OF SOIL ANALYSIS TO SCIENTIFIC CRIME DETECTION

The value of soils as evidence depends wholly upon the facts that soils differ in various
characteristic over the surface of the earth. This difference makes it possible to establish the
identity where about of a person under investigation.

DUST AND DIRT

Dust and dirt have been described as “matter in the wrong place”. The study of such piece of
evidence may often provide the investigator with clues as to the occupation of previous where
about a person under investigation.
Dust – matter which is dry and in finely divided form
Mud – dust mixed with water.
Grime- (heavy dirt)- when dust s mixed with the sweat and grease of the human body this
formed.
COMPOSITION OF DUST
Whatever is the origin of dust and whatever it is found it always contain substances derived from
substances of plant and animal origin and substances of mineral origin.
CLASSIFICATION OF DUST
For purposes of criminal investigation dust may well, be classified from their source.
dust deposited from the air- extremely fine dust particles present in the air everywhere. More
abundant in thicky populated and industrial regions. Settle very slowly and ultimately deposited
on any exposed surface. Its value in crime detection is insignificant.
Road and footpath dust- produced by the wear and tear of the road surface by vehicular and
pedestrian traffic together with particles of soil carried by the wind or rain from adjoining
regions.
Industrial dust- industries like cement, button, powdered gypsum and plaster of paris factories,
flour milling paint pigments, involves industrial processes impart a pronounce local character to
the dust on the neighboring roads and buildings.
Occupational dust- some of the finely powdered materials maybe found on the clothing and
footwear of employees engaged in such industries. Aside from this example, bricklayer will yield
brick dust, sand and lime on his clothes. Coal miner will have coal dust on his clothes.
From the forensic chemical point of view the identification of occupational dust is of great
importance. In criminal investigation the identification of the person through the articles of
clothing left in the scene of crime or in a vehicle may place him in an identifiable class and
thus serves to distinguish him from the great majority of other persons. Such observation
does not serve to distinguish the wearer of the cloth of all other persons.

COLLECTION AND SUBMISSION OF DUST AND DIRT

Dust and dirt in clothing or objects that can be readily transported should be left in situ. The
whole article is packed in a clean box with proper protection and shipped to the laboratory. If
the object is immovable or too big to submit as a specimen like sofa, piano, dresser, the
specimen maybe removed by the use of a vacuum cleaner with paper bags used in the dust
sack to collect the dirt. If a vacuum cleaner is not available the clothes maybe placed in a
clean paper bag and beaten to remove dust and dirt.

ANALYSIS OF DUST SND DIRT

The identification of dust/dirt is usually made for the purpose determining the occupation of the
suspect or finding evidence that maybe similar or identical with the found at the scene f crime.
Quantitative examination is rarely necessary but qualitative test should be made for metals
present. If the sample is very small, microchemical test or the spectrographic analysis maybe
employed.
Examine the sample under the ultraviolet light.
Treat a small quantity with a drop of water on a spot plate.
Observe color of aqueous drop with handlens.
Note the proportion of the solid matter which remains in suspension and proportion which settle
rapidly.
Reaction with litmus settle rapidly.
Treat a small quantity with a drop of 0.1 N hydrochloric acid
Note the evolution of gas
Note formation of precipitate
Note change in color
Note materials dissolved by acid
Treat a small quantity with ethanol
Note color of the alcohol drop
Note difference between the color of an aqueous solution in procedure 2 and that in color
solution
Note other changes
GUIDE QUESTIONS:
What are the types of soil? Give a brief description of each.

How are the constituents of soil related to one another?

Define the following:

Dust

Mud

Grime

Enumerate the classification of dust and explain.

Prepared by:
MR. NOEL S. PENETRANTE
Forensic Chemistry Instructor
 University of Cagayan Valley
BALZAIN HI-WAY, TUGUEGARAO CITY

Name of student: _______________________________ Year and Section: _________________

Subject: ____________________________ Teacher: _______________________________

MODULE NO. 2: FINAL COVERAGE

TITLE ARSON
INTRODUCTION Arson is one of the most heinous crimes committed by men.
It is an offense of great malignity and probably more
destructive the murder. It is also an intentional act of setting
fire to buildings and properties. It covers all kinds of
buildings and structures, crops and forests, the personal
property of another, and even one’s own property if burned
with intent to defraud an insurer of such property.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES Define arson in three categories
Enumerate the possible sources of combustible materials
Enumerate the most common accidental cause of fire
Differentiate the types of person who set a fire
Disinguish the two methods to start a fire
LEARNING OUTCOMES Familliarize themselves on the techniques in the
investigation of fire scene incident
Knowledgeable on the guides in the investgation of fire
scene
Aware in collecting and preserving of arson evidence

Arson is one of the most heinous crime committed by men. It is an offense of great
malignity and probably more destructive than murder.

DEFINITIONS FO ARSON
Under the Old Common Law
Arson is the willful and malicious burning of the house or house of another man. Present
laws on arson have extended the scope of the crime and cover all kinds of buildings and
structures even including personal property. Now the crime of arson includes the burning of
one's property.
Under the Revised Penal Code
Arson is the destruction of property by fire and the extent of liabilities depends on:
Kind and character of the building
Its location
Extent of damage or value
Its state of being inhabited or not

According to Webster
Arson is the malicious burning of a building or property a dwelling house.
Arson is the fire set intentionally.

WHAT CONSTITUTE ARSON?

1. Willfulness - means intentional and implies that the act was done purposely and intentionally
2. Intent - is the purpose or design with which the act is done and involves the will. An essential
element of crime, motive is not.
3. Motive - is the moving cause that induces the commission of a crime. Something that leads or
influences a person to do something.
4. Malice - denotes hatred or ill will or desire for revenge. It is the intent to do injury to another.
Deliberate intention of doing unjustified harm for the satisfaction of doing it.

1. A fire can only be considered arson if all accidental and natural cause of fire can be
eliminated.
The mere burning of a building does not constitute the body of the crime.
2. To prove the body of the crime it is necessary to show:
1st that he building in questioned burned.
2nd it was burned as a result of the international criminal act of the accused.
To continue burning, there must be some burning or charring, that is the fiber of the wood must
be destroyed, its identity changed. It is not necessary the building be seriously damaged. A mere
smoking, scorching or discoloration of the wood is sufficient.
BASIC LINES IF INQUIRY IN THE INVESTIGATION OF ARSON
Arson is the easiest time to commit but the most difficult to detect, tougher to solve than
homicide. At least in a homicide there is some kind of weapon, a gun poison or the like and there
is always the body-good physical evidence. In arson physical evidence that normally said in
convincing criminals may have been wholly destroyed by the fire itself
THE FOUR BASIC LINES OF INQUIRY IN THE INVESTIGATION OF ARSON
1. Origin of fire
2. Motive
3. Identification of prime suspect
4. Identification of fire setter

I.ORIGIN OF FIRE
The first step in recognizing arson is the exclusion of all accidental and natural causes of
fire.

CAUSES OF FIRE
Fire may belong to anyone of following
Natural cause without human intervention
Lightning
Explosion
Spontaneous combustion
Miscellaneous cause, example: damage to electric cables due to earthquake or storm; breaking of
gas pipes, etc.

Accidental cause with or without human intervention

Faulty wiring
Careless handling of inflammables
Children playing with match
Careless smokers
Careless handling of electric iron, stoves, candles, cigarette butts, mosquito coils

Arson or Touch of fires a set fire) - when all natural and accidental causes have investigator to
determine if it is in fact a touch of fire.
Tell Tale Signs - sign that maybe obvious that the firearm will suspect arson. These are to be
observed to determine if arson.
TELL TALES SIGNS
Burned building - a type of the building may indicate a set fire under some circumstances. A
fire of considerable size at the time the first apparatus arrive at the scene is suspicious if it is a
modern concrete or semi-concrete building.
Separate fire - when two or more separate fires broke out within a building the
lite is certainly suspicious.
Color of smoke - some fire burn with little or no smoke but there are exception.
The observation of the smoke must be made at the start of the fire since once the fire has
assumed a major proportion, the value of smoke is lost because the smoke will not indicate the
materials used by the arsonists.
While smoke appears before the water comes in contact with the fire indicates humid materials
burning like burning hay. vegetable materials, phosphorous (with garlic odor).
Biting smoke; irritating the nose and throat and causing lacrymation and coughing - indicates
presence of chlorine.
Black or grayish smoke - indicates lack of air but if accompanied by large flame it indicated
petroleum and petroleum products and rubber, tar, coat, turpentine.
Reddish brown smoke - indicates nitrocellulose, sulfur, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, hydrochloric
acid.
Color of flame - the color of the Name is a good indication of the intensity or fire and
sometimes of the nature of the combustible substance present.
Examples: burning alcohol - blue flame
burning petroleum products - red flame
Size of fire - the size of the fire should be noticed at the time of arrival and a subsequent
intervals thereafter. Rapid extension of the fire is indicative of the use of accelerants.
Direction of travel - fire normally sweeps upward, the travel of fires predictable from
knowledge of the construction of the building. Flames tend to rise until on meeting obstacles
they project horizontally seek other vertical outlets. Extent and rate of travel depend primarily of
the direction of the wind and on ventilating condition like open doors and windows.
Intensity - the degree of heat given off by a fire and the color of its flame oftentimes indicate
that some accelerants have been added to the material normally present in a building.
Location of flame - investigator should note whether there is more than on apparent point of
origin and should try to estimate the approximate location of each.
Odors - many accelerants emit characteristics odors especially liquid like turpentine, alcohol,
kerosene and gasoline.
THE POINT OF ORIGIN OF THE FIRE
In case of arson it is in this area that the physical evidence of criminals design is likely to
be discovered. This may be established by an examination of the witness and toy inspecting the
debris at the fire scene or by both. The witness to be interrogated is the discoverer of the fire and
second the person who turned in the alarm and lastly any other witness that can be found.
Inspection of the crime scene must immediately be made to determine the point of origin and
possibly to establish the arsonist's technique.

FIRE SETTING MECHANISM

The technique, devices and materials, employed by the arsonist vary with his mentality
and with his emotional condition immediately prior to the commission of the offense. An
arsonist may use the simplest method in a match and some papers or he may use an elaborate
means to start the fire. He may use mechanical method or chemical method to start the fire.
TWO METHODS TO START THE FIRE
Mechanical Method
Chemical Method
I.MECHANICAL METHODS TO START THE FIRE
Matches
Candles, cigarettes-slow burning initiating arrangement
Mechanical devices as clock mechanism, altered equipment, magnifying glass, animals tied to
ignition devices like portable lamp or stove - usually time delay arrangement.
Electrical system/mishap - usually occurs in modern buildings that are heavily equipped of
electrical wirings to supply fixtures, machines and heating purposes.
Inflammable gases as illuminating gas, sewer gas
Heating appliances as heaters, sparkers - heaters like flat iron and toaster, sparkles like electrical
switches, door bells, telephone boxes.
Explosives - nitroglycerine, TNT, mercury fulminate, gunpowder. Fire is a common
consequence of explosion. Nitroglycerine is the most commonly employed.
II.CHEMICAL METHODS TO START THE FIRE:
water or ice bag used as receptacle for phosphorous and water ignition device
Metallic sodium ignited by drops of water
Potassium chlorate, sugar and sulfuric acid
Chemical devices as thermit bombs, phosphorous

INCENDIARY MATERIALS
Incendiary materials are materials used to start a fire. They are combustible, fuels.

Arson Chemicals - are incendiary materials often used by arsonist as accelerants. Possess
excellent incendiary properties. Example: alcohol, benzene, petroleum ether, gasoline, kerosene,
naphtha, turpentine
Gases as acetylene, butane, co, ethylene, hydrogen, natural gas, and propane - these are
common gases resulting in fires from explosion. These when mixed with air possess excellent
ignition properties and when present in an enclosed area can lead to explosion.
Solids as chlorates, perchlorates, chromates, bichromates, nitrates and permanganates - are
typical families of oxidizing agents that give off oxygen on decomposition thus aiding
combustion.
MOST COMMON ACCIDENTAL CAUSE OF FIRE
Careless discarding of cigarettes
Careless disposition of readily combustible materials
Poorly managed or defective heating system
Spontaneous combustion
Sun rays focused by bubbles in window panes
Explosion from petroleum products, alcohol and other substances
Lightning
Electrical mishaps
II. MOTIVE
Although it is not absolutely necessary to establish a positive motive, the fact that the
element of intent is essential in proving arson suggests the importance of showing a motive. In
cases where great dependence is placed on circumstantial evidence it is especially important to
prove a motive.
FIVE MOTIVES THAT PREDOMINATE IN ARSON CASES
Economic gain
Concealment of crime
Punitive measure
Intimidation and economic disabling
Pyromania

TYPES OF PERSON WHO SET FIRE

Person with a motive
Person without a motive

PERSON WITH MOTIVE TO SET A FIRE

Those with desire to defraud the insurer
Employees or such other persons who gave grievances
Those who desire to conceal evidence of other crimes
Those who set fire for purpose of intimidation
Pyromania- an uncontrollable impulse toward incendiarism. A term to describe a condition of
mind leading to an act of arson,
Pyromaniac - a type of person who has passion for fire that can be satisfied only by watching
flames. Person who gets pleasure in watching fire or watching fireman put out the fire
PERSON WITHOUT A MOTIVE TO SET A FIRE
Mental cases c. Pyros
Pathological fire setters d. Psychos

III .DEVELOPMENT/IDENTIFICATION OF PRIME SUSPECT

 The third basic line of inquiry pointed toward the identification of the criminal and his
accomplices if any. To accomplish this identification it is first necessary to develop what are
known as prime suspect among those having motives and opportunity to set the fire or to
pinpoint a prime suspect in pro fire by studying the fire pattern.
Suspected fire setters with rational motivation are usually developed by a check of their
activities, questioning and background study. Friends, eyewitness and others who may possess
information about the fire are interviewed. The owner of the building, the occupants of the
premises affected by the fire and anyone who may profit by the fire are interrogated.
THE FOLLOWING TECHNIQUE MAY SERVE THE INVESTIGATION
Search of the fire scene for physical evidence.
Background study of policyholders, occupants of premises, owner of the building or other
persons having major interest in the fire.
Interviews and interrogations of the person who discovered the fire the one who timed the first
alarm, firemen eyewitness.
Surveillance

IV. IDENTIFICATION OF FIRE SETTER

The final basis inquiry to be pursued by an arson investigation concerns which one of the
prime suspect is the fire setter and who were his accomplices if any. This identification results
from the full development of leads, clues and traces. The testimony of persons particularly
eyewitness and the development of expert testimony maybe of value.
GUIDES IN THE INVESTIGATION OF FIRE SCENE
The fire scene holds the key to the origin of any fire. A careful method and through
search of the scene of a suspicious fire is a basic part of the initial investigation. The following
points must be given due attention:
The scene must be protected so that the evidence is not destroyed or removed either by careless
persons or the guilty party.
Mechanics of search
Collection and preservation of evidence
Laboratory aids
COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF ARSON EVIDENCE
Two to three quartz of ash soot debris must be collected at a point origin of a fire.
Specimen should be immediately packed in an airtight container.
Can use new paint cans with friction lids because they are alright, unbreakable.
Wide-mouthed glass jars can be used provided they contain airtight lids.
Leave an air space in the container above the debris
polyethylene bags are not suitable for packing
Fluids found in open bottles or cans must be collected and sealed
Through search of the scene should be undertaken for ignitors.
Collect clothing of the suspect/perpetrator and place in a separate airtight container
Freeze sample containing soil or vegetation

DETERMINATION OF ARSON CHEMICALS IN DEBRIS

Preliminary test – the debris is reacted with rhodokrit powder for the possible presence of
inflammable substance as gasoline, kerosene, turpentine, alcohol, etc.
The debris is steam distilled and the distillate collected.

The distillate is analyzed in one of the following instrument for confirmation:

Gas Chromatography – Mass Spectra (GC-MS)

Gas Liquid – Chromatography (GLC)
High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)

GUIDE QUESTIONS:
Define arson as to:
Under the old common law

Under revised penal code

According to Webster

Accoriding to its literal definition

What constitute an arson? Enumerate and give brief descrition.

Enumerate the most common acidental cause of fire.

What are the motives why persons intentionally set a fire?

Give atleast 10 example of incendiary materials.

Prepared by:
MR. NOEL S. PENETRANTE
Forensic Chemistry Instructor
 University of Cagayan Valley
BALZAIN HI-WAY, TUGUEGARAO CITY

Name of student: _______________________________ Year and Section: _________________

Subject: ____________________________ Teacher: _______________________________

MODULE NO. 3: FINAL COVERAGE

TITLE TOXICOLOGY/POISON
INTRODUCTION Toxicology refers to the science of detecting and identifying
the presence of drugs and poisons in tissues, organs and body
fluids. Toxins are natural substances produce by living
organisms, whereas toxic substances are synthetic substances
from chemicals which are considered as toxicants.
Poison, on the other hand, is a substance that when into the
body and absorb through the blood stream and acting
chemically is capable of producing noxous effect.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES Identify the commonly used types of poison and their
classification.
Determine the methods of examining poison
Distinguish poisoning from disease
Differentiate the types of poisoning
LEARNING OUTCOMES Present the role of toxicology on criminal investigation
Aware of the general treatment of poisoning
Knowledgeable on the symptoms caused by poisoning and
disease
Familliarize on the common volatile, non-volatile and
metallic poisons

TOXICOLOGY – Is that branch of science that treats of poison, their origin, physical and
chemical properties, physiological action, treatment of their noxious effect and methods of
detection. The etymology of toxicology came from “toxico” that means poison and “ology” that
means study or science.
POISON- From the medical point of view, is substance that when introduced into the body and
is absorbed through the blood stream and acting chemically is capable of producing noxious
effect.
CLASSIFICATION OF POISON

According to Kingdom
Animal – ex. Cantharides
Vegetable – ex. Strychnine
Mineral- ex. Hydrochloric acid

According to Chemical Properties

Inorganic Poison – poison without carbon
Volatile – ex. Bromine, Chlorine and Iodine
Non- volatile – ex. Sulfuric acid
Mineral acid- ex. Hydrochloric acid
Minerals alkalis- ex. Sodium hydroxide
Organic Poison – poison that contains carbon
Volatile – ex. Alcohol, Chloroform
Alkaloids – ex. Strychnine
Alkaloids - are nitrogenous organic basic compound with bitter taste containing usually oxygen
that occurs especially in seed plants.
Animal poison – ex. Snake venom
Bacterial – ex. Ptomaine
Organic poison- ex. Salicylic acid

According to Physiological action

Corrosives- highly irritant poisons that cause local destruction of tissues and characterized by
nausea, vomiting, great local distress. E.g. strong acids and alkalis.
Irritants – one that produces irritation or inflammation of the mucus membrane and
characterized by vomiting, pain in the abdomen and purging. E.g. arsenic.
Narcotics- one that produced stupor, complete insensibility, or loss of feeling. E.g. opium,
Demerol and cocaine.
Neurotics – one that act chiefly on the nervous system producing delirium, convulsion and
respiration as the outstanding symptoms. E.g. CO, alcohol, opium and strychnine.
Tetanic- substance that act chiefly upon the spinal column producing such spasmodic and
continuous contraction of muscles as a result of stiffness or immobility of the parts to which they
are attached.
Depressants or sedatives- agents that retard or depress the physiological action of an organ. E.g.
Nicotine and cocaine.
Asthenic or exhaustive- agents that produce exhaustion, marked loss of vital or muscular
power. E.g. hydrocyanic acid.

According to Pharmacological Action

Substance characterized by local action – ex. Volatile oils and skin irritants
Substances characterized by their action after absorption – ex. Alkaloid
Heavy metals and metalloids – ex. Phosphorous, arsenic and mercury

According to Methods of Isolation

Volatile poisons are those isolated by distillation with or without current or steam. E.g. alcohol,
phenol and chloroform.
Non- volatile poison is those isolated by extraction with organic solvents. E.g. alkaloids and
organic acid
Metallic poisons that are isolated by refluxion. E.g. arsenic and mercury
Substances for which special method of isolation are required are required. E.g. acids and alkali
metals are extracted with water.

Two Types of Poisoning:

From medical point of view
From legal point of view

From Medical Point of View

Acute poisoning – one that there is prompt and marked disturbance of function or death within a
short period of time. Due to either taking a strong poison in excessive single dose or several
doses at short interval.
Sub- acute poisoning – cases of short duration and extreme violence that may include
symptoms of chronic poisoning.
Chronic poisoning – kind of poisoning in which there is gradual deterioration of function of
tissues and may or may not result in death. Either taking several doses at long intervals or taking
only toxic doses of the drug produces it.

From Legal Point of View

Accidental poisoning- those in which the poison was take without intention to cause death. It
may be taken by mistake or without knowing that is poison.
Suicidal poisoning – those in which the victim voluntary for the purpose of taking his own life
took the poison.
Homicidal poisoning – those in which the poison was given willful wantonly and with intent to
cause death to the victim.
Undetermined – those in which the history is hazy as to how the poison was obtained and why it
was administered.

ACTION OF POISON

Local – the change or disturbance produced on the part with which the poison come in contact.
Ex. The corrosion produced by corrosive poisons.
Remote- the changes or disturbance produced in distant parts away from the site of application.
Ex. Dilation of the pupils when belladonna is taken orally.
Combined – the effect of the poison is not only localized at the site but also (local) and causes
convulsion (remote).

CONDITIONS MODIFYING THE ACTION OF POISONS

 Those attributed to the individual
Age and sex
Health
Habit- the repeated taking of small dose of drug.
Idiosyncrasy- a term applied to individuals who exhibit unusual reactions to certain substances.
Diseases
Food
Sleep
Exhaustion

Those attributed to the poison itself

Physical state or form of the poison
Dilution
Solubility of the poison
Mode of administration
Chemical combination
Mechanical combination
Dose – is the quantity of a poison to be administered at one time.

POSOLOGY- a branch of science that treats of the form and quantity of medicine to be
administered within a certain period.
KIND OF DOSE
Safe dose- one that does not cause harmful effect.
Toxic and poisonous dose- one that is harmful to both healthy and sick.
Lethal dose- one that kills.
Minimum dose- is the smallest amount that will produce the therapeutic effect without causing
harm.
Maximum dose - is the largest that will cause not harm but at the same time produce therapeutic
effect.

ENTRANCE OF POISON
Poison May Enter the Body Through:
Mouth and ear are absorbed into the circulation after passing the stomach and intestinal wall.
Nose and enter the blood from the upper respiratory passages or lungs.
Eyes
Rectum, vagina, urethra, bladder and ureter by injection
Hypodermic injection
Intravenous injection
ELIMINATION OF POISON
Poison May be Eliminated by:
1. Emesis 5. Milk
2. Respiration 6. Saliva
3. Feces 7. Feces
4, Urine 8. Tears
Diseases: certain nervous diseases causing optic antitropy
Contraction of Pupils
Poisons: opium and its derivatives, physostigmine and its derivatives
Diseases: certain nervous diseases
General and Partial Paralysis
Poisons: cyanides, Co, CO2 and botulism
Diseases: brain tumor and meningitis
Slow Respiration
Poisons: opium and its derivatives
Diseases: uremia, compression of the brain as from hemorrhage
Rapid respiration
Poisons: atropine group, cocaine and CO2
Diseases: acute respiratory disease

Delirium
Poisons: atropine group, cannabis and cocaine
Disease: epilepsy, insanity and meningitis
Cyanosis
Poisons: nitrobenzene, aniline, acetanilide and opium
Diseases: disease of cardiac and respiratory system

EFFECTS OF BLOOD ALCOHOL (ETHANOL) CONCENTRATION

STAGE OF PERCENT OF CLINICAL

INTOXICATION ALCOHOL (ETHANOL) MANIFESTATION
IN BLOOD
Stimulation 0.01-0.10 Normal by ordinary
observation
Apparent 0.05-0.20 Decreased inhabitation
Stimulation Emotional instability
Incoordination
Slowing reaction to stimuli
Confusion 0.10-0.30 Disturbance of sensation
Decrease pain sense
Staggering pain sense
Slurred speech
Stupor 0.25-0.40 Marked decreased to
stimuli
Approaching paralysis
Coma or Death 0.35-0.50 Complete unconsciousness
Subnormal temperature
Anesthesia impairment of
circulation
Stertorous breathing
GENERAL TREATMENT OF POISONING

Removal of poison from the stomach

Administration of antidotes.
Elimination of poisons by excretion.
Stimulation and other symptomatic treatment
Special treatment
Removal of poison from the stomach – if the poison is taken orally the removal of the poison
is brought about by:
Inducing vomiting using emetics
Emetics - are substances or agents that produce vomiting.

Use of stomach pump and stomach tube

If the poison is applied or instilled – wah
If the poison is injected- ligatures and bleeding

Administration of antidotes
Mechanical antidote- an agent that removes the poison without changing it or coats the surface
of the organ so that absorption is prevented.

Examples:
Stomach tubes or pumps; emetics; cathartics; demulcents and precipitants

Classes of emetics:
Local emetic- produce their effects by their irritation of the terminal nerve filaments of the
pharynx, esophagus or stomach
System or general emetics- produce their effect through the medium of circulation.
3. The length of time that may elapse after the poison has been taken before death occurs;
Where the poison was obtained;
The chemical formula of the poison;
Other names it is known in the market;
Uses of poison;
And the antidote for the poison.

GUIDE QUESTIONS:
What are the reasons for negative results in the toxicological examination?

What are the general treatments of poisoning?

Enumerate atleast 5 symptoms cause by poisoning and disease.

What are the conditions modifying the action of poison?

What are the specific types of poisoning:

From the medical point of view?

Legal point of view?

Give atleast 20 common volatile, non-volatile and metallic poisons. Give brief description of
each.

Prepared by:
MR. NOEL S. PENETRANTE
Forensic Chemistry Instructor

University of Cagayan Valley

BALZAIN HI-WAY, TUGUEGARAO CITY

Name of student: _______________________________ Year and Section: _________________

Subject: ____________________________ Teacher: _______________________________

MODULE NO. 4: FINAL COVERAGE

TITLE DANGEROUS DRUGS
INTRODUCTION A drug is any synthetic and natural substance that is used to
produce psychological or physiological effects in humans, it can
also play a central role in the daily lives of the people regardless
of whoever it is use legitimately or illegitimately. The legality
and social acceptance of a particular drug often relies on the
purpose and duration of its use, its side effects, and the person
using it. A drug that is intended to effect the body’s normal
functions can be distinguished from a medicine which cures
illnesses and for reliever signs or symptoms of diseass when
taken into the human boy in specific doses.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES Identify the main classifications of dengerous drugs
Identify the commonly abused drugs in the Philippines
Determine the types of dangerous drugs including stimulants,
depressants, hallocinogens, narcotics and inhalants.
Identify the major laws against abused drugs in the Philippines
LEARNING OUTCOMES Aware of the different types of dangerous drugs
Realize the effect in taking dangerous drugs into the body

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9165 or RA 9165

R.A. 9165 – an act instituting The Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002, repealing
Republic Act No. 6425 otherwise known as The Dangerous drug Act of 1972, as amended.

ARTICLE I
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Some definition of terms under Article I, Sec. 3 of R.A 9165.
Dangerous Drugs – include those listed in the schedule annexed to the 1961 Single Convention
on Narcotic drugs, as amended by the 1972 Protocol, and in the Schedules annexed to the 1971
Single Convention on Psychotropic substances as enumerated in the attached annex, which is an
integral of this act.
Clandestine Laboratory – any facility used for the illegal manufacture of any dangerous drug
and /or controlled precursors and essential chemicals.
Cannabis or commonly known as “Marijuana” or “Indian Hemp” or by its any other name.
Embraces every kind, class, genus or specie of the plant Cannabis Sativa L. including, but not
limited to, Cannabis Americana, hashish, bhang, guaza, churus and ganjab, and embraces every
kind , class and character of Marijuana, whether dried or fresh and flowering, flowering or
fruiting tops, or any part or portion of the plant or seeds thereof, and all its geographic varieties,
whether as a reefer, resin, extract, tincture or in any form whatsoever.
Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) or commonly knows as “Ecstasy” or by its any
other name. Refers to the drug having such composition, including any of its isomers or
derivatives in any form.
Methamphetamine Hydrochloride or commonly knowns as “shabu”, “ice”, “meth” or by its
any other name. Refers to the drug having such composition, including any of its isomers or
derivatives in any form.
Opium – refers to the coagulated juice of the opium poppy (Papaver Somniferum L.) and
embraces every kind, class and character of opium, whether crude or prepared; the ashes or
refuse of the same, narcotic preparations thereof or therefrom; morphine or any alkaloid or
opium; preparation in which opium, morphine or any alkaloid of opium enters as ingredient;
opium poppy, opium poppy straw and leaves or wrappings of opium leaves; whether prepared
for use or not.
Opium poppy – refers to any part of the plant of the species Papaver Somniferum L., Papaver
Setigerum DC, Papaver Orientale, Papaver bracteatum and Papaver rhoeas, which include the
seeds, straws, branches, leaves or any part thereof, or substances derived therefrom, even for
floral, decorative and culinary purposes.
PDEA – refers to the Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency under Sec. 82, Article IX of this act.
PDEA serves as the implementing arm of the Dangerous Drug Board and is
responsible for the efficient and effective law enforcement of all the provisions on
any dangerous drug and / or controlled precursors and is essential chemical.

ARTICLE II
UNLAWFUL ACTS AND PENALTIES

Sec. 4 – Importation of Dangerous drugs and /or Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals
– life imprisonment to death and a fine ranging from PhP500,000.00 to PhP10,000,000.00.
Sec. 5 – Sale Trading, Administration, Dispensation, Delivery, Distribution and Transportation
of Dangerous Drugs and /or Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemical – life imprisonment to
death and a fine ranging from PhP500,000.00 to PhP10,000,000.00.
Sec. 6 – Maintenance of Den, Dive or Resort - life imprisonment to death and a fine ranging
from PhP500,000.00 to PhP10,000,000.00.
Sec. 7 – Employees and Visitors of a Den, Dive or Resort - imprisonment ranging from 12 years
and one day to 20 years and a fine ranging from PhP100,000.00 to PhP500,000.00.
Sec. 8. – Manufacture of Dangerous Drugs and /or Controlled Precursors and Essential
Chemicals – life imprisonment to death and a fine ranging from PhP500,000.00 to
PhP10,000,000.00.
Sec. 9 – Illegal Chemical Diversion of Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals -
imprisonment from 12 years and one day to 20 years and a fine ranging from PhP100,000.00 to
PhP500,000.00.
Sec. 10 – Manufacturer of Delivery of equipment, Instrument, Apparatus and other Paraphernalia
for Dangerous Drugs and /or Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals – imprisonment
from 12 years and one day to 20 years and a fine ranging from PhP100,000.00 to PhP500,000.00.
Sec. 11 – Possession of Dangerous Drugs – penalty of life imprisonment to death and a fine
ranging from PhP500,000.00 to PhP10,000,000.00 shall be impose upon any person, who, unless
authorized by law, shall possess any dangerous drug in the following quality.
10 grams or more opium
10 grams or more of morphine
10 grams or more of heroine
10 grams or more of cocaine or cocaine hydrochloride.
50 grams or more of methamphetamine hydrochloride or shabu
10 grams or more marijuana resin or marijuana resin oil.
500 grams or more of marijuana, and
10 grams or more of other dangerous drugs, such as but not limited to, MDMA or Ecstasy,
trimethoxyamphetamine (TMA), lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)
Otherwise, if the quantity involved is less than the foregoing quantities, the penalties shall be
graduated as follows:
10 grams or more but less than 50 grams – life imprisonment and a fine ranging from
PhP400,000.00 to PhP500,000.00.
5 grams or more but less than 10 grams of opium, morphine, heroin, cocaine or cocaine
hydrochloride, marijuana resin or marijuana resin oil – imprisonment of 20 years and one day to
life imprisonment and a fine ranging from PhP400,000.00 to 500,000.00.
Less than 5 grams of opium, morphine, heroin, cocaine or cocaine hydrochloride, marijuana
resin or marijuana resin oil – 12 years and one day to 20 years imprisonment and a fine ranging
from PhP300,000.00 to 400,000.00.
Sec. 12 – Possession of Equipment, Instrument, Apparatus and other Paraphernalia for dangerous
drugs.
Sec. 13 – Possession of Dangerous Drugs during parties, social gatherings or meetings.
Sec. 14 – Possession of Equipment, Instrument, Apparatus and other Paraphernalia for
Dangerous Drugs during parties, social gatherings or meetings.
Sec. 15 – Use of Dangerous Drugs – A person apprehended or arrested, who is found to be
positive for use of any dangerous drugs after a confirmatory test, shall be imposed a penalty of a
minimum of 6 months rehabilitation in a government center for the first offense. If apprehended
for the second time, he or she will suffer the penalty of imprisonment ranging from 6 years and
one day to 12 years and a fine ranging from PhP50,000.00 to PhP200,000.00.
Sec. 16 – Cultivation or Culture of Plants Classified as Dangerous drugs and are source thereof.
Sec. 17 – Maintenance and Keeping of Original Records of Transactions on Dangerous Drugs
and / or Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals.
Sec. 18 – Unnecessary Prescription of Dangerous Drugs.
Sec. 19 – Unlawful Prescription of Dangerous Drugs.
Sec. 21 – Custody and Disposition of Confiscated, Seized and / or Surrendered Dangerous
Drugs, Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals, Instruments/ Paraphernalia and/or
Laboratory Equipment
Sec. 22 – Grant of Compensation, Reward and Award
Sec. 23 – Plea Bargaining Provision
Sec. 31 – Additional Penalties if Offender is Alien

ANNEXES
 1961 UNITED NATION SINGLE CONVENTION ON NARCOTIC DRUGS AS
AMENDED BY THE 1972 PROTOCOL

SOME DRUGS INCLUDED IN SCHEDULED I

Cannabis and cannabis resin and extract 5. Heroin
and tinctures of cannabis 6. Morphine
Coca leaf 7. Methadone
Cocaine 8. Opium
Ecgonine 9. Thebane

SOME OF THE DRUGS INCLUDED IN SCHEDULE II

Codeine 3. Ethylmorphine 5. Dihydrocodeine
Dextropropoxyphene 4. Nicodine

SOME OF THE DRUGS INCLUDED IN SCHEDULE III

Preparations of codeine, dihydrocodeine, ethylmorphine, propivam, dextropropoxyphene,
cocaine, opium, difenoxine, diphenoxylate

SOME DRUGS INCLUDED IN SCHEDULE IV

Acetorphine 3. Desomorphine
Cannabis and cannabis resin 4. Heroin
1971 UNITED NATIONS SINGLE CONVENTION ON PSYCHOTROPIC DRUGS
SOME SUBSTANCES IN SCHEDULE I
DMA – Dimethoxymethylphenethylamine
MDMA - Methylenedioxymethamphetamine
Mescaline – Trimethoxy phenethylamine
MMDA – Methylenedioxyphenethylamine
Psilocybin
THC – Tetrahydrocannabinol
TMS - Trimethoxyamphetamine

SOME OF THE SUBSTANCES IN SCHEDULE II

Amphetamine 4. Methamphetamine
Methaqualone 5. Methylphenidate
Secobarbital 6. Ziperol

SOME OF THE SUBSTANCES IN SCHEDULE III

Amobarbital 4. Glutethimide
Butalbital 5. Pentobarbital
Cyclobartbital

SOME OF THE SUBSTANCES IN SCHEDULE IV

Alprazolam 6. Diazepam
Barbital 7. Ethchlorvynol
Bromazepam 8. Flurazepam
Chlordiazepoxide 9. Lorazepam
Clobazam 10. Meprobamate
1988 UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION AGAINST ILLICIT TRAFFIC IN NARCOTIC
DRUGS AND PSYCHOTROPIC SUBSTANCES

SOME OF THE SUBSTANCES IN TABLE I

Acetic anhydrite 4. Lysergic acid
Ephedrine 5. Potassium permanganate
Ergotamine 6. Pseudoephedrine

SOME OF THE SUBSTANCES IN TABLE II

Acetone 4. Hydrochloric acid
Anthranilic acid 5. Sulfuric acid
Ethyl ether 6. Toluene
Some Definition of Terms in Connection with Drugs:
Drugs – is a substance that has an effect upon the body or mind.
Hallucinogenic drugs – drugs that cause mental disorder causing a person to perceive objects or
experience feeling that have no cause outside one’s mind.
Narcotic drugs – drugs that dull the senses, induces sleep, and with prolong use becomes
addictive.
Sedatives – agents or drugs that cause calmness, relieves tension or irritability. Retards or
depress the physiological action of an organ.
Stimulants – drugs that temporarily increase the functional activity of an organ or any of its part.
Hypnotic drugs – are sleep-inducing agents.
Tranquilizers – drugs that reduce anxiety and tension. Relieves emotional stress.
Drug dependence – is a state of physiological dependence or physical dependence or both which
results from chronic, periodic or continuous use.
Habituation – is the psychological desire to repeat the use of a drug intermittently of
continuously because or emotional reason.
Addiction – physical dependence upon a drug. Its scientific definition includes the development
of tolerance and withdrawal.

MARIJUANA

In the United States, marijuana ordinarily refers to any part of the hemp plant that is used
to induce psychic changes. The most active ingredient in marijuana is a tetrahydrocannabinol,
which is found in highest concentration in the rain (hashish) of the top of female Cannabis sativa
plants. Hashish differs from marijuana only in its physical form and concentration of active
ingredients. When marijuana is smoked, its effects are experienced within minutes and are of
brief duration; oral consumption of the drug (“tea”; cookies) has a delayed onset and longer
duration of action.
Subjective effects produced by marijuana depend upon the dose consumed, personality of the
consumer, his anticipations, and the social setting in which the drug is experienced. The usual
reported effect is a pleasurable state of well being with variable distortions of time and space.
Large doses may induce hallucinations and panic states, but this is far less frequent than in case
with LSD. Marijuana is not an aphrodisiac and does not ordinarily precipitate violent or
assaultive behavior. We are unaware of a single, well-documented, toxic fatality from an
overdose of marijuana.
Prolonged used of marijuana may produce some degree of tolerance to its effects, but
typical physical dependence does not occur. Some individuals become overwhelmingly
preoccupied with the substance and neglect themselves and their responsibilities. We do not
know if this represents a direct effect of marijuana abuse in its instance is only one facet of a
personality disorder that could just as easily have sought escape in alcohol, tranquilizers,
sedative, narcotics, or other chemicals. Likewise, the allegation that the use of marijuana leads to
experimentation with an addition to narcotics has numerous uncontrolled assumptions.

AMPHETAMINE AND METHAMPHETAMINE

Amphetamine products from licit manufacture contain the drug in the form of the sulfate
or phosphate salt. They are marketed in different countries as tablets, spansule capsulesm syrups,
and elixir.
Methamphetamine, as the hydrochloride salt, is available as a tablet and as a sterile
solution for injection. Analysts should refer to various pharmaceutical compendia for a pictorial
description and information on specific products legally available in their country.
Illicit amphetamine sulfate varies in color from white powder, similar to material from
licit manufacture, to pink to yellow to brown depending upon the type and amount of impurities
and adulterants. It is often damp with a characteristics unpleasant odor owing to the presence of
solvent residues.
Illicit methamphetamine HCI is usually in the form of a cake or gummy powder. It
maybe white, brown or violet in color, again depending on the presence of impurities.
The medico-legal importance of amphetamine is derived in part from its wide use and
misuse in dietary programs for the control of weight and by other individuals for its stimulating
or “thrill” effect and in part from its high toxicity rating (fatal dose range is between 5 and 50 mg
per kg body weight).
Methamphetamine (“speed”) is a frequently abused drug of this class and is especially
hazardous because of its pronounced cardiovascular effects. “Speed kills” is an accurate slogan.
Common adverse reactions to amphetamine include nervousness, restlessness, insomnia, and
tremors. Confusion, hallucinations, panic states, and assaultiveness can occur. A degree of
physical dependence is produced by habitual amphetamine use and abstinence can induce typical
withdrawal reactions. Also, prolonged amphetamine use leads to severe depressive reactions in
some individuals.

“ECSTACY”
General Facts:

Popular Name: Ecstasy – is a synthetic amphetamine related to substance. It has gain

popularity as a recreational drug, first in the United States, later in Europe and now increasingly
also in other parts of the world.
Scientific Name: 3, 4-Methylene – Dioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)
Street Names: X, Rave, Love Drug, Flying Saucer, LBD, “Libido”, jagged Little Pill, Artist
Drug, MDA, MDEA, Dance Drug
Dance Drug – a drug associated with the “rave” or “dance party” scene that grew out of the “acid
house” scene in the United Kingdom in the late 1980’s. Raves are now also a popular form of
entertainment among young people in mainland Europe, North America, Australia and
elsewhere. Most notable of the “danced drugs” are MDMA (ecstasy), amphetamine and LCD,
ketamine, cocaine and alkyl nitrate have also been associated with raves.

Chemical Combination: Mescaline – hallucinogenic

LCD – hallucinogenic
Methamphetamine – stimulant

Physical Form: Tablet, Capsule, Powder (from capsule)

Shape: Round, flat, oval
Color: White (most potent, pure) yellow, brown
Taste: Bitter
Dose: Whole tablet – 1 “hit” (last for about 3-5 hours) – typical dose is between 5 mg and 250
mg
One half tablet – half a “hit”
Cost: PhP1,200 per tablet (depending on its purity)

Immediate Physical Effects Felts by Users: Mild hallucinogenic effects. Increased physical
energy and emotional closeness to others (empathy), the senses being enhance and mood
lightening. Its facilities communication and increases sociability.

Long Term Regular Use:

Can lead to same effects as with other synthetic stimulants
Potential for neurotoxicity
Brain Damage
Liver Damage
Speed becomes groggy, gregarious, talkative, happy; everything seems beautiful and glaring,
increase heart rate and causes palpitation, reverberating feeling, glassy eyes, heighten tactile
(sense of touch) feeling, floating, heighten sex urges, “sunset superman” effect (sustained and
prolonged erection). Delayed ejaculation, increased sweating.

After feeling of ecstasy, sudden drop of euphoria and depression comes in.
Long Term Physical Effects:
Psychosis 4. Psychological dependence Depression
Arrythmia
Same effects as with amphetamine
Activities Indulge into After Taking:
Sex (with single or multiple partners)
Mental intercourse (jamming) sex talk
Music trip
Dance trip

Short Term Effects:

Restlessness
Anxiety
Pronounce visual and auditory hallucination at larger doses
Increased the blood pressure and heart rate
Causes nausea
Vomiting
Route of Administration:
Oral ingestion – more popular
Snorting – user can feel faster effect but painful and irritating to the nostrils
Reasons for Preferred by Users:
As compared to other drugs:
Supersedes the effects of other drug
They become friendlier
They can eat and sleep well if they want to
Easy to conceal
Sources: Place: USA, Europe, Canada, Australia
People: Airline employees, elite, users themselves who can frequently travel, no
local manufacturers.
Profile of Users:
“Class A” people
“Yuppies (Young Urban Professionals
Spoiled Brats
Recreational drug users (party goers, night owls)
Age range: 20’s – 40’s
Extent of Use: Estimated to be about 400 – 500 people in Metro Manila alone
Hang-Out of Users: Confidential
Disco houses – frequently by “Class A” people (Ex. Euphoria, Mars, Kampo, Chatterbox)
Beach Resorts (frequented by tourists like Boracay, Puerto Galera)
Penalty:
Unauthorized possession or use, illegal manufacture, sale, administration, dispensing,
distribution, delivery, transportation of the substance the penalty thereof if reclusion Perpetua,
life to death and fine of PhP500,000.00 to PhP10,000,000.00.

GUIDE QUESTIONS:
Define the following terms under Article I, Section 3 of R A 9165.
PDEA

Dangerous drugs

Methamphetamine Hydrochloride
Clandistine Laboratory

Narcotic drugs

Stimulata

Hallocinogen drugs

Enumerate the different drugs included in the following schedule:

Schedule 1

Schedule 2

Schedule 3

Schedule 4

Prepared by:
MR. NOEL S. PENETRANTE
Forensic Chemistry Instructor