Module 2

The Research Process:

The Scientific Approach

SHELLA I. SORIO, MSCJ

Subject Instructor
The Research Process: The Scientific Approach
Module 2
Overview: Learning Outcomes:

Research is a method of acquiring At the end of the topic the

knowledge based on the scientific method of
inquiry to enrich the system of objective student should be able to:
knowledge in the fields of natural and social
sciences. Based on the definition it requires Write a Research Title
knowledge and information of how to conduct a Write chapter 1
research study. (introduction). 2,
That is why in this module, we will be (Review of the Related
discussing about the different parts of a research
literature and studies)
paper, focusing on the construction of research
and Chapter 3
title, The introduction, the related literature and
(Methodology)
studies and last but not the least the Methodology
and research designs.

I. The Research problem and its setting

Chapter 1. Introduction

The title
The title summarizes the main idea or
ideas of the study. A good title contains the fewest
possible words needed to adequately describe
the content and/or purpose of the research paper.

Importance of choosing a good title

The title is without doubt the part of a paper

that is read the most, and it is usually read first. If
the title is too long, this usually indicates there are
too many unnecessary words. Avoid language,
such as, "A Study to Investigate the...," this is
obvious, or it does not help the reader understand
the purpose of the paper. On the other hand, a
title which is too short often uses words which are
too general and does not tell the reader what is
being studied.

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Crmgst. Shella I. Sorio, MSCJ
Subject Instructor
The Research Process: The Scientific Approach

Guidelines in writing the title:

1. Generally, the title is formulated before the start of the
research work. It may be refined and revised later if there
is a need.
2. The title must contain the subject matter of the study, the
locale of the study, the population involved, and the
period when the data were gathered or will be gathered.
3. It must be broad enough to include all aspects of the
subject matter studies. Hence, the title is expected to be
In writing your
found inside the thesis report. research remember
4. It must be as brief and concise as possible. the following:
5. Avoid using the term “an analysis of”, “a study of”, “an Font style: Courier
investigation of”, and the like. All these things are new

understood to have been done when research is Font size: 12

conducted. Bond paper (Size)
6. If the title contains more than one line, it must be written :Short

like an inverted pyramid, all words in capital letter. Space : double

Margin: Top -1-inch,
bottom-1 inch, right -
Example of a complete title:
1inch, left – 1.5
inches
PERCEPTIONS ON THE RESTORATION OF DEATH PENALTY AMONG
THE CRIMINOLOGY STUDENTS IN UEP LAOANG CAMPUS
DURING THE SCHOOL YEAR 2013-2014

The contents as required by guideline no. 2 are:

a. Subject matter : perceptions on the restoration of Death Penalty
b. Locale of the study : UEP Laoang campus
c. Population involved : criminology students
d. Period of the study : school year 2013 – 2014

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Crmgst. Shella I. Sorio, MSCJ
Subject Instructor
The Research Process: The Scientific Approach

The Introduction

The introduction of a thesis should contain a

discussion of the following:
1. Presentation of the problem: at the start of the
introduction is the presentation of the problem,
that is, what the problem is all about. This will
indicate what will be covered by the study.
2. The existence of an unsatisfactory condition, a
felt problem that needs a solution.
The following should
3. Rationale of the study: the reason or reasons
be attached before
why it is necessary to conduct the study must be Chapter I:
discussed. • Cover page
4. Historical background of the study. • Title Page
5. A desire to have a deeper and clearer • Approval Sheet
• Table of
understanding of a situation, circumstances, or contents
phenomenon.
6. A desire to find a better way of doing something
or of improving a product.
7. A desire to discover something.
8. Geographical conditions of the study locale.

Research Problem
1. Is any significant, perplexing and challenging
situation, real or artificial, the solution of which
requires reflective thinking.
2. a perplexing situation after it has been translated
into a question or series of questions that help
determine the direction of subsequent inquiry

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Crmgst. Shella I. Sorio, MSCJ
Subject Instructor
 The Research Process: The Scientific Approach

Elements of Research Problem

The term research problem implies that an
investigation, inquiry, or study is to be conducted, or that the
problem is ready for investigation, inquiry or study. There are
Chapter 1 ( Introduction)
certain elements that a problem must possess before it
of a thesis should contain a
becomes a research problem ready for investigation. These discussion of each of the
following topics:
elements are:
1. Aim or purpose of the problem for investigation. This • Background of the
study
answers the question “why?”, why is there and
• Objectives of the
investigation, inquiry, or study? Study
2. The subject matter or topic to be investigated. This • Significance of the
study
answer the question “what?” what is to be • Scope and Limitation
investigated or studied? of the Study
• Theoretical
3. The place or locale where research is to be Framework
conducted. This answer the question “where?” • Conceptual
Framework
where is the study to be conducted? • paradigm
4. The period or time of the study during which the data • Hypothesis
• Definition of Terms
are to be gathered. This answers the question
“when?” when is the study to be carried out?
5. Population or universe from whom the data are to be
collected. This answers the question “who?” or “from
whom?” who are the respondents? From who are the
data to be gathered?

Summarizing, the elements of research problem are aim

or purpose, subject matter or topic, place or locale, period of
time and population or universe. They definitely answer
questions starting with why, what where, when, and who or
from whom

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Crmgst. Shella I. Sorio, MSCJ
Subject Instructor
 The Research Process: The Scientific Approach

Example of a research problem:

To determine the level of academic performance of criminology
students of UEP Laoang campus during the school year 2014-2015
Aim or purpose : to determine the level of
Subject matter : academic performance
Place or locale : UEP Laoang campus
Population : Criminology students
Period or time : during the school year 2014 – 2015
Guidelines in the Selection of a Research Problem or Topic
1. The research problem or topic must be chosen by the
researcher himself. This is to avoid blaming others or
offering excuses for any obstacle encountered.
2. It must be within the interest of the researcher. This is to
make sure that the researcher will focus his full attention on
the research work.
3. It must be within the specialization of the researcher. This
will in some way make the work easier for him because he
is working on familiar grounds. Besides, this may improve
his specialization, skill and competence in his profession.
4. In must be within the competence of the researcher to
tackle. The researcher must know the method of research
and other research procedures applicable to his problem
and he must know how to apply them. He must have a
workable understanding of his study.
5. It is researchable and manageable, that is:
a. Data are available and accessible.
b. The data must meet the standards of accuracy,
objectivity and verifiability.
c. Answers to the specific questions can be found.
d. The hypotheses formulated are testable, that is, they
can be accepted or rejected.

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Crmgst. Shella I. Sorio, MSCJ
Subject Instructor
The Research Process: The Scientific Approach

e. Equipment and instruments for research are

available and can give valid and reliable results.
f. It can be completed within a reasonable period of
time unless it is longitudinal research which takes a
long time for its completion.
g. It is significant, important, and relevant to the present
time and situation, timely and of current interest.
h. The results are practical and implementable
Objectives of the Study
Guideline in formulating the general
objectives and the specific objectives.
1. The general objectives and the specific objectives
should be formulated first before conducting the
research.
2. It is customary to state first the specific objectives in
the descriptive form.
3. Each specific objective must be clear and
unequivocal, that is, it has only one meaning.
4. Each specific objectives is researchable apart from
the other questions, that is, answers to each specific
objectives can be found even without considering the
other objectives.
5. Each specific objectives must be based upon known
facts and phenomena. Besides, data from such
known facts and phenomena must be accessible to
make the specific objectives researchable.
6. Answers to each specific objectives can be
interpreted apart from the answers to other specific
objectives.
7. Answers to each specific objective must contribute to
the development of the whole research problem or
topic.

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Crmgst. Shella I. Sorio, MSCJ
Subject Instructor
 The Research Process: The Scientific Approach

8. Summing up the answers to all the specific objectives

will give a complete development of the entire study.
9. The number of specific objectives should be enough to
cover the development of the whole research problem
or study.
10. Generally, there should be a general statement of the
objectives and then this should be broken up into as
many sub objectives as necessary.

Example:
This study was conducted to determine the academic
performance of the criminology students of University of
Eastern Philippines Laoang campus during the year 2014 -
2015. (General objective)

Specifically, this aims to attain the following

1. To determine the profile of the respondents in
terms of
a. sex,
b. age,
c. year level
2. To know level of academic performance of the
respondents.
3. To determine the factors affecting the level of
academic performance of the respondents.
Importance of the Study
The importance of the whole study must contain
explanations or discussion of any or all of the following:
1. The rationale, timeliness, and/or relevance of the
study.
2. Possible solutions to existing problems or
improvement to unsatisfactory conditions

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Crmgst. Shella I. Sorio, MSCJ
Subject Instructor
The Research Process: The Scientific Approach

3. Who are to be benefited and how they are going to be

benefited. It must be shown who are the individuals,
groups, or communities who may be placed in a more
advantageous position on account of the study.
4. Possible contribution to the fund of knowledge.
5. Possible implications; it should be discussed here that
the implications include the possible causes of the
problems discovered, the possible effects of the
problems, and the remedial measures to solve the
problems. Implications also include the good points of a
system which ought to be continued or to be improved
if possible.
Scope and Limitation of the Study
Guidelines in writing the scope and delimitation
1. A brief statement of the general purpose of the study.
2. The subject matter and topics studied and discussed.
3. The locale of the study, where the data gathered or the
entity to which the data belong.
4. The population or universe from which the respondents
were selected. This must be large enough to make
generalizations significant.
5. The period of the study; this is the time, either months
or years, during which the data were gathered.
Example: this study was conducted to determine the
academic performance of the criminology students of the
University of Eastern Philippines Laoang campus during
the year 2014 – 2015. This looked into the profile of the
respondents in terms of sex, age, and year level, this also
dealt with their level of academic performance and the
factors that affect their academic performance.

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Crmgst. Shella I. Sorio, MSCJ
Subject Instructor
 The Research Process: The Scientific Approach

General purpose:to determine the academic

performance of the criminology students
Topics (aspect) studied :profile of the respondents,
level of academic performance and factors affecting
academic performance
Population or universe :criminology students
Locale of the study :University of Eastern
Philippines Laoang Campus
Period of the Study :School Year 2014 – 2015
Limitations of the Study
Limitations of the study include the weaknesses of the
study beyond the control of the researcher. This is especially
true on descriptive research where the variables involved are
uncountable or continuous variables such as adequacy,
effectiveness, efficiency, extent etc. The weaknesses spring
out of the inaccuracies of the perceptions of the respondents.
For instance, factors affecting level of academic performance
of the respondents may be rated always by 50 students, often
by 10 students or seldom by 100 students. Certainly, with
these ratings, not all of them could be correct in their
assessment. Some could have inaccurate if not entirely wrong
in their perceptions.
Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a tentative conclusion or answer to a
specific question raised at the beginning of the investigation. It
is an educated guess about the answer to a specific question.
Forms of hypothesis
a. Operational form: is stated in the affirmative, it
states that there is a difference between two
phenomena.
b. Null form: stated in negative form, expresses
equality between two phenomena. This is more
commonly used.
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Crmgst. Shella I. Sorio, MSCJ
Subject Instructor
The Research Process: The Scientific Approach

Example:
Specific Question: Is there a significant
relationship between the factors affecting academic
performance and the level of academic performance of the
respondents?

Operational hypothesis : there is a

significant relationship between the factors affecting
academic performance and the level of academic
performance of the respondents.
Null hypothesis : there is no
significant relationship between the factors affecting
academic performance and the level of academic
performance of the respondents.
Purpose, functions, and importance or hypothesis or
specific questions
1. They help the researcher in designing his study:
what methods, research instruments, sampling
design, and statistical treatments used, what data
to gather.
2. They serve as bases for determining assumptions
3. They serve as bases for determining the relevance
of study.
4. They serve as bases for the explanation or
discussion about the data gathered.
5. They help or guide the researcher on consolidating
his findings and in formulating his conclusions.
Generally, findings and conclusions are answers to
the hypotheses or specific questions raised at the
start of the investigation

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Crmgst. Shella I. Sorio, MSCJ
Subject Instructor
 The Research Process: The Scientific Approach

Theoretical Framework
Theories are statements about the mechanism
underlying a particular behavior. Theories help organize
and verify different observations related to the behavior
and good theories will generate predictions about the
behavior.

A theory is constructed to explain, predict and

master phenomenon (e.g. relationship, events, or the
behavior). In many instances, we are constructing models
of reality. A theory generalizes about observations and
consists of an interrelated, coherent set of ideas and
models.

A theoretical framework is similar to the frame of

the house just as the foundation supports a house, a
theoretical framework provides a rationale for predictions
about the relationship among variables of a research
study, (Mehta, n.d.).

Theoretical framework identifies the variables

investigated in the study. It illustrates how the variables
interact with each other as hypothesized in the research
by the aid of diagrams.

Theory provides patterns for the interpretation of

data, links one study to another, supplies framework
within which concepts and variables acquire special
significance and allows us to interpret the larger meaning
of our findings for ourselves and others.

Theoretical framework states the central

concept(s) integral to the study. Connecting the study to
theory.

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Crmgst. Shella I. Sorio, MSCJ
Subject Instructor
 Understanding the Nature and Ethics of Research

Conceptual Framework

Conceptual framework is the basic structure that

serves as a mental window of the researcher because it
depicts the research design and the relationships of the
variables involved.

A conceptual framework is a written or visual

presentation that explains either geographically, or in
narrative form, the main things to be studied, the key factors,
concepts or variables and the presumed relationship among
them. What specific forms might a conceptual framework
take?

The possibilities include: flowcharts, tree diagram,

shape-based diagram, triangles, concentric circles,
overlapping circles, mind maps, and software systems.

A "flow chart" of innovation decision making prior

conditions.

1. Previous practice
2. Felt needs
3. Innovativeness
4. Norms of the social system communication channels

A conceptual framework provides direction for programs,

courses, teaching and others. Granatin (n.d.) states that
"conceptual framework is the researcher's own position on the
problem and gives direction to the study." Aside from showing
the direction of the study, through the conceptual framework,
the researcher is able to show the relationships of the different
constructs that he wants to investigate.

The conceptual framework utilizes the independent-

dependent model used in behavioral sciences. In the context
of the study, the identified independent variables-factors

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Crmgst. Shella I. Sorio, MSCJ
Subject Instructor
 Understanding the Nature and Ethics of Research

affecting the behavior of pupils within the public-school

setting are: family, community, teachers and learning
environment. The dependent variables include the behavior
problems within the public-school setting-internalizing
behavior inattentive, uncooperative, inactive) and
externalizing behavior (aggression, disobedience.
impulsiveness).

Independent Variables Dependent Variables

Factors Affecting the Behavior Problems within

Behavior of Pupils within the the Public-school Setting
Public-school setting
• Internalizing Behavior
• Family ▪ inattentive,
• Community
• teachers ▪ uncooperative,
• learning environment ▪ inactive
• Externalizing Behavior
▪ aggression,
▪ disobedience.
▪ impulsiveness).

Figure 1 Conceptual Framework

Paradigm
A paradigm is a diagrammatic representation of a conceptual
framework. It depicts in a more vivid way what the conceptual
framework wants to convey.

Definition of Terms
Guidelines in defining terms
1. Only terms, words or phrases which have special or unique
meanings in the study are defined.
2. Terms should be defined operationally, that is, how they are
used in the study.
3. The researcher may develop his own definition from the
characteristics of the term defined.

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Crmgst. Shella I. Sorio, MSCJ
Subject Instructor
 The Research Process: The Scientific Approach

Chapter II. Review of the Related literature

and studies

Organizing the Review of Related Literature and

Studies

Organized related literature and studies inform the

reader of what is a known and conflicting area. The word
"review" means that the research goes over the
materials, books, journals articles, theses, dissertations,
and internet presentations. The purpose is to determine
what has been written about the problem. The word
"related" means "similar" especially on the problem
dimension.
Chapter II- Review of
The purpose of this review is to inform the reader related literature
about what already is know what is not known or research
blank spots (unexplored areas) and blind spots
(conflicting areas) in the literature.

Here are the major steps in a literature review

according to Gale, Gale and Borg

STEP 1: Search preliminary sources such as books,

articles, theses, etc.

STEP 2: the secondary sources a document written by

someone who do not actually the research.

STEP 3: Read primary sources-obtain and study the

original outputs of at least those studies that are most
central to your proposed investigation.

STEP 4: Synthesize the literature-synthesize what you

have learned in order to write little literature review.

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Crmgst. Shella I. Sorio, MSCJ
Subject Instructor
 The Research Process: The Scientific Approach

STEP 5: Identify recommendations for further research.

Researchers often conclude their reports with a discussion
of issues raised by them and the recommendations for
other research that might be done. These issues and
recommendations should be considered carefully because
they represent insights gained by the researcher after
considerable study of a given problem.

STEP 6: Seek support for grounded theory. Many research

studies are designed to test a new theory that has been
developed to explain the learning process or other
educational phenomena. Glaser (1978), however proposed
that studies also can be designed such that data are
collected first, and then a theory is derived i from these
data. The resulting theory is called grounded theory
because it is "grounded in a set of used data.

Related Literature

Related literature is also called conceptual literature.

The gathering of literature related i to the research clarifies
the different variables being studied. The related literature
removes any vagueness in the concepts central to the
study. As the related literature and studies are gathered,
the different variables of the study are clarified, and the
limitation of the study is determined. The indicators per
variable are clearly based on read articles from different
published reference books, textbooks, manuals, and other
materials, (Cristobal & Cristobal, 2013).

By organizing, integrating, and evaluating such

materials, the author of a review article considers the
progress of current research towards clarifying a problem.

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Crmgst. Shella I. Sorio, MSCJ
Subject Instructor
The Research Process: The Scientific Approach

The different variables used in the study are the

focus of the literature search. The title, statement of the
problem, scope and limitation, including the paradigm of the
study are the elements that give the research an idea of the
relevance of the thesis to his/her own investigation,

The number of materials to be gathered for the

literature review depends upon the researcher's judgement.
The review of related literature is considered sufficient if the
researcher believes that important concepts and variables
have been adequately explained and established.

Related Studies

Determining whether the research is objective and

empirically based includes surveying previous studies that
involve similar variables (Cristobal & Cristobal, 2013), It is
important to note that even if previous research used the
same variables as his or hers, the two studies may vary in
the limitation in terms of the sub-variables investigated or in
terms of focus and purpose.

An adequate review of related studies is needed.

This serves as the basis of the analysis of results because
it allows the researcher to compare and contrast his/her
findings with the those of previous studies. The results of a
study are verified by similar findings or negated by different
findings of previous researchers.

The studies are in the form of theses, dissertations,

or journal articles. These are collectively called research
literature.

The collected studies are related to the present

study when the author uses the same variables, sub-
variables, concepts, or constructs; and have same subject
or topic of the study.

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Crmgst. Shella I. Sorio, MSCJ
Subject Instructor
The Research Process: The Scientific Approach

In the review of a related study, the following are

indicated: 1. the name of the author, the date and the setting
the study was conducted; 2. the title; and 3. the salient findings.

Documentation Style

Throughout the research, the published research of

other researchers are cited to credit those who prepared the
foundation for your work. To present someone else's ideas or
work as your own is to commit plagiarism. Plagiarism is a
serious breach of ethics. Reference citations (giving others
credit when credit is due) must be included in your paper
wherever else's ideas or work has influenced your thinking and
writing. (Gravetter & Forzano, 2006).

The American Psychological Association (APA) is a

popular style commonly used by researchers in documentation
or reference citation. The APA format is also called the author
date method of parenthetical documentation or in-text citation.

Documentation refers to the acknowledgement of

sources. These sources are cited as direct quotations or as
indirect quotations (paraphrases).

Colleges, universities, and institutions make their own

choice of documentation style. This may be defined as style of
citation or acknowledgement of authorities or sources.

Footnotes

Footnotes are notes that are placed at the end of a page

and used to reference parts of the text (generally using
superscript numbers). Writers use footnotes for several
purposes, including citations, parenthetical information,
outside sources, copyright permissions, background
information, and more.

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Crmgst. Shella I. Sorio, MSCJ
Subject Instructor
The Research Process: The Scientific Approach

Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing is using or putting in one's own words

to restate the author's ideas and acknowledging the source
to give credit to the original author (de Belen, 2015).

Paraphrasing

• is used when we want to express someone else's idea

in our own words.
• uses different words to express the same idea.
• is rewriting the text in order to simplify focusing not
only on what is said but also on how it is said.
• makes the understanding of the source text less
difficult by breaking down the information into
manageable units.

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Crmgst. Shella I. Sorio, MSCJ
Subject Instructor
The Research Process: The Scientific Approach

Paraphrasing Techniques:

• Replace a word with a synonym.

• Paraphrasing can be longer or shorter than the
original. Concentrate on the meaning not on the
words. Chapter 3 (Methodology)
of a thesis should contain
• Verbs and adjectives have counterparts that are
the following:
interchangeable with the authors' original words.
• Locale of the
• Not all synonyms have exact meanings (look at a
study
thesaurus and double check with a dictionary). • Research Design
• Avoid using abstract words they come as weak • Variables and
words. Use of is a problem in scientific writing their measures
• Population and
because often there is only one word to describe a
Sampling
certain action or object. It is better to keep the • Respondents of
important words and change the sentence structure. the study
• Research
Instrument
CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY
• Scoring and
Interpretation
The methodology generally describes the way the • Validation of
Research
research work is carried and the equipment (tools) an Instrument
materials to be used in the process. It is geared towards • Data Gathering
provide answers to the research questions as stated in the Procedure
• Statistical
significance of the research and the objectives as set. The
Treatment of the
measurement of the expected outputs that the research will data
produce, the set of indicators, and expected values should
also be included in the methodology. Th specifies the
approach adopted by the researcher in his research which
often consist of the following

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Crmgst. Shella I. Sorio, MSCJ
Subject Instructor
The Research Process: The Scientific Approach

LOCALE OF THE STUDY

Locale of the study (Similar to the scope and delimitation

but only in locale, it is concentrated on the area where the study
is conducted) this determines the area where the study is to be
conducted, it may be presented in a Map or description of the
place which includes total area, total population and all other
pertinent information regarding the area.

RESEARCH DESIGN

This is referred to the approach used in the study:

Example: "this study uses the descriptive and correlation
research design since it measures the extent of enforcement of
the Land Transportation and Traffic Rules by the traffic enforcers
and drivers". You observed that the design is descriptive and
correlation" this is the requirement by the nature of the study.

Meaning and Functions of a Research Design

According to Kerlinger (cited in Kumar, 2011), a research

design is a plan, structure and strategy of investigation so
conceived as to obtain answers to research questions or
problems. It is the complete scheme or programme of the
research. It includes an outline of what the investigator will do
from writing the hypotheses and their operational implications to
the final analysis of data.

As implied in the statement above, after the research topic

has been finalized, the researcher has to plan the details of what
design to use, what type of data will provide answers to the
problems of the study, and how the data will be gathered,
presented, analyzed. and interpreted.

The research design guides the researcher in planning

the following aspects of procedures of research:

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Crmgst. Shella I. Sorio, MSCJ
Subject Instructor
The Research Process: The Scientific Approach

• identifying the population of the study

• decision on whether to take the whole population or just
select a sample
• how the sample of the study will be selected
• ethics in the selection of samples and data gathering
• choice of method in data collection
• considerations in the use of questionnaires how
interviews will be conducted

Research designs in quantitative method

The choice of a study design would depend largely on the

philosophical perspective, objective of the study, the inquiry
mode, and the applicability of research findings. in quantitative
research, some of the commonly used designs are classified by
examining them from three different perspectives: 1) the number
of contacts with the study population; 2) the reference period of
the study; and the nature of the investigation, (Kumar, 2011).

1. Research Designs Based on the Number of Contacts

1.1. Cross-sectional studies are commonly used
in the social sciences. These studies aim to find out
the prevalence of a phenomenon, situation,
problem, attitude, or issue, by taking a cross-
section of the population.

The cross-sectional study is simple in design. The

researcher decides what he wants to find out,
identify the study population, select a sample if
needed, and contact the respondents to find out
the required information.

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1.2. The before and after design (also known as the pre-test
/post-test design). This design can measure change in a
situation, phenomenon, issue, problem or attitude. The before
and after design can be described as two sets of cross-
sectional data collection points on the same population to find
out the change in the phenomenon or variable between two
points in time. The change is measured by comparing the
difference in the phenomenon or variable before and after the
intervention. Depending upon how it is set up, a before-and-
after study may be either an experiment or non-experiment. It
is a commonly used design in evaluation studies. The
difference between the two sets of data collection points with
respect to the dependent variable is considered to be the
impact of the program or process evaluated.

1.3. The longitudinal study design. This is useful to

determine the pattern of extent of change in a phenomenon,
situation, problem or attitude in relation to time. Under this
design, the study population is visited a number of times at
regular intervals, usually over a longer period. Intervals may
be as short as a week or longer than a year. Irrespective of
the size of the interval, the type of information gathered each
time is identical. The data collected may come from the same
study population but it may or may not be from the same
respondents. A longitudinal study can be characterized as a
series of repetitive cross-sectional studies.

2. Research Designs Based on the Reference Period

The reference period refers to the time frame in which a study

is exploring phenomenon, situation, event or problem and may be
categorized as 1) retrospective prospective and 3) retrospective-
prospective,

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2.1. The retrospective study design is used to

investigate a phenomenon, situation problem or issue that
has happened in the past. The study may be conducted
either on the basis of the data available for that period or
on the basis or respondents recall of the situation.

2.2. The prospective study design attempts to establish

the outcome of an event or what is likely to happen, such
as the likely prevalence of a phenomenon, situation,
problem, attitude or outcome in the future. Experiments
are usually classified as prospective studies since the
researcher must wait for an intervention to register. its
effect on the study population.

2.3. The retrospective-prospective study design. This

applies to a study wherein available data are analyzed
and used as bases of future projections. It does not
involve a control group. Trend studies fall under this
category.

3. Research Designs Based on the Nature of the

Investigation

The following are classified under this category: 1)

experimental 2) non-experimental 3) quasi-or semi-
experimental.

3.1. The experimental design has an assumption of a

cause-and-effect relationship. In this design, the
researcher introduces the intervention that is assumed to
be the cause of change and waits until it has produced the
change.

3.2. In the non-experimental design, the researcher

observes a phenomenon and attempts to establish what

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The Research Process: The Scientific Approach

caused it. In this instance, the research starts from the

effect or outcome and attempts to determine causation.

3.3. A semi-experimental or quasi-experimental study

has the properties of both experimental and non-
experimental studies; part of the study may be
experimental and the other part non-experimental.

Research designs in qualitative method

1. Case Study

This is a dominant qualitative study design but also

prevalent in quantitative research. A case could be an
individual, a group, a community, an instance, an episode, an
event. a subgroup of a population, a town or a city. To be
called a case study, it is important to treat the total study
population as one entity.

It is a very useful design when exploring an area where

little is known or where you want to have a holistic
understanding of the situation, phenomenon, episode, site,
group, or community. This design is relevant when the focus
of the study is on extensively exploring and understanding
rather than confirming and quantifying. (Kumar, 2011)

2. Grounded Theory

This is an approach to qualitative research data

collection and analysis in the social sciences. As cited by
Hennink, Hutter and Bailey (2011), grounded theory is not
a theory itself; but a process for developing empirical
theory from qualitative research that consists of a set of
tasks and underlying principles through which theory can
be built up through careful observation of the social world.

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3. Phenomenology
This is a qualitative research design which studies
all possible appearances in human experience using
empirical methods (ie, asking, observing analyzing data,
etc.) to make empirically grounded statements that can be
generalized. Various aims can be pursued such as
describing a phenomenon, or to evaluate an intervention
or institution in the interest of knowledge production (Flick,
2011)..
4. Ethnography
This is a research process which deals with the
scientific description of individual cultures involving the
origins, development and characteristics of humankind,
including social customs, beliefs and cultural
development (Wiersma and Jurs, 2009).
5. Mixed Methods

Refers to the research design that uses both

quantitative and qualitative data to answer a particular
question or sets of questions. In the mixed methods design
"words, pictures and narratives can be used to add meaning
to numbers" (in Biber, 2010).

SAMPLING

Sampling Procedure this consist of measuring portions of

a population and from the measured sampling units, obtaining
estimates that are considered representatives of the percent of
the population. While a complete enumeration is desirable,
sampling is done to save time and resources.

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One of the fundamental concepts in sampling that a

researcher should consider is the sampling intensity which is the
ratio of the sampling units for a given probability and allowable
sampling error to the population to which estimates are obtained.

Depending on the degree of homogeneity or

heterogeneity of the population and the degree of required
accuracy, the sample size is the determined using either simple
random sampling, stratified random sampling or simply,
systematic or purposive sampling. The researcher should be
able to find the relative strength of the most appropriate sampling
techniques to be used in the research.

The Concept of Sampling

According to Kumar (2011), sampling is the process of

selecting a few (a sample) from higher group (the population) to
become the basis for estimating or predicting the prevalence of
an unknown piece of information, situation, or outcome,
regarding the bigger group. Selecting a sample rather than the
total population has advantages and disadvantage On the
advantage side, it saves time, financial and human resources.
But on the disadvantage side, the researcher finds only an
estimate or a prediction of information about the population’s
characteristics or other data, which are essential to the research
study.

Two factors may influence the degree of certainty about

the inferences drawn from a sample:

1. Findings based upon larger samples have more

certainty than those based on smaller ones. As a rule,
"the larger the sample size, the more accurate the
findings."

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2. The greater the variation in the study population with

respect to the characteristics under study for a given
sample size, the greater the uncertainty.

Bias must be avoided in the selection of the sample in order

to achieve maximum precision in estimates within a given
sample size.

Examples of bias in the selection of a sample:

1. When sampling is done by a non-random method such

as if the selection is consciously or unconsciously
influenced by human choice.
2. When the sampling frame (list, index or other population
records) which serves as the basis of selection, does not
cover the sampling population accurately and completely
3. When a section of a sampling population is impossible to
find or refuses to cooperate

Types of Sampling (Kumar, 2011)

There are three major types of sampling designs:

A. Probability Sampling
B. Non-probability Sampling
C. Mixed Methods Sampling

A. PROBABILITY SAMPLING
1. Random/Probability Sampling Design
This is a sampling design wherein each element in
the population has an equal and independent chance of
selection in the sample. The concept of independence
means that the choice of one element is not dependent
upon the choice of another element in the sampling or the

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or the selection or rejection of the element does not affect

the inclusion or exclusion of another For example, if one
of the close friends in a class was chosen but refuses to
participate in the survey if the other four are not chosen,
and the researcher therefore is forced to select either the
five or none, then that sample will not be considered as
independent sample since the selection of one is
dependent upon the selection of the others

Main Advantages of the Random/Probability Samples

• As they represent the total sampling population, the

inferences drawn from such samples can be
generalized to the total sampling population.
• Some statistical tests based upon the theory of
probability can be applied only to data collected from
random samples. Some of these tests are important
for establishing conclusive correlations.

Steps in Selecting a Simple Random Sample

• Define the target population.

• Identity an existing sampling frame of the target
population of develop a new one.
• Assign a unique number to each element in the
frame.
• Determine the sampling size
• Randomly select the targeted number of population
elements.

Techniques in Drawing Random Samples (Daniel, 2012)

a. Lottery method (also known as fishbowl technique).

The numbers representing each element in the
target population are placed on chips, cards, rolled
paper, etc.

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These are then placed in a container and thoroughly

mixed. Next, blindly select chips from the container until
the desired sample size has been obtained.
b. Table of random numbers. The numbers in a table of
random numbers are not arranged in any particular
pattern. In using this technique, the researcher should
blindly select a starting point and then systematically
proceed in the table. The number of digits that are used
should correspond to the total size of the target
population. Since this process is tedious and time
consuming, a statistical software may be used for large
populations.
c. Randomly generated numbers using a computer
program [.e. random number generator). Activate the
computer program with random number generator Key in
a specific range of numbers from hundreds, thousands, or
millions and the random numbers will appear from which
you will pick your choices.

2. Stratified Sampling (sometimes called quota random

sampling) This is a probability sampling procedure in which
the target population is first separated into mutually
exclusive, homogenous segments (strata), and then a simple
random sample is selected from each segment (stratum).
The samples selected from the various strata are then
combined into a simple sample (Daniel, 2012).

3. Systematic Sampling (or interval random sampling)In this

sampling procedure, a random selection is made of the first
element for the sample, then subsequent elements are
selected using a fixed or systematic interval unt the desired
sample size is reached. For example, after a random start,

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the researcher may systematically select from a group of

100 students every third name appearing on the list of
community volunteers from the school to be able to get a
targeted sample of thirty-three students.

4. Cluster Sampling This is a probability sampling

procedure wherein elements of the population are
randomly selected in naturally occurring groupings or
clusters. In this kind of sampling, the selection of
population elements is not individually but in aggregates.
The clustering of sampling units may be based on
geographical locations (i.e. regional groupings), type of
organization or classes (i.e. school districts, grade 10
classes, etc)

B. NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

The four major types of non-probability sampling designs

are: availability sampling purposive sampling quota sampling,
and respondent-assisted sampling (Daniel, 2012)

1. Availability Sampling Under this sampling design, the

sample elements are selected from the target population
based on their availability, on the convenience of the
researcher, and/ or voluntary /self-selection. According to
Daniel (2012), availability sampling is the most frequently
used sampling procedure in research. Some reasons for
this are: it is the least complicated sampling procedure.
However, availability sampling has its weaknesses, such
as it cannot target specific elements of the population. It
is least reliable; it does not represent population elements
that are not readily accessible. that are uncooperative and
are hidden. Moreover, it underestimates the variability in
the population.

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2. Purposive Sampling This is a non-probability sampling

procedure in which the elements are selected from the
target population on the basis of their fit with the purposes
of the study and specific inclusion and exclusion criteria.
3. Quota Sampling This is a type of non-probability
sampling procedure in which the population is divided into
mutually exclusive subcategories, and the researcher
solicits participation in the study from members of the
subcategories until a target number of elements to be
sampled from the subcategories have been met.
4. Respondent-Assisted Sampling In this sampling
procedure, the elements are selected from a target
population with the assistance of previously selected
population elements. This sampling procedure is often
used in studying social networks, rare populations, and
hidden populations such as drug dealers and users and
other criminals or commercial sex workers, etc.

C. MIXED-METHODS SAMPLING

This is a sampling method that combines different types

of sampling method into a single design. This is supported by the
idea that the weaknesses of one method may be compensated
by the strengths of the other method that is used. The use of
mixed methods research designs was spurred by the application
of two key concepts. "multi method, multi-trait matrix and
triangulation" which were introduced by Campbell & Fiske in
1959 (multi-method-multi-trait) and the four types of triangulation
by Denzin (2009): "data triangulation, method logical
triangulation, investigator triangulation, and theory triangulation"
(in Daniel, 2012).

Through the years, researchers have made adjustments

in their sampling procedure as a response to change in
technology, lifestyles, the legal environment, and nonresponse
rates.
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1. Telephone-Based Sampling This is a sampling

procedure that utilizes telephone numbers as sampling
units, According to research, telephone surveys were the
dominant survey methodology since the 1980s. There are
two subtypes of telephone-based sampling, list-based
sampling taken from telephone directories, lists of
employees, customers, etc. and random digit dialing
(RDD). The random sampling procedures previously
discussed can also be applied in the telephone-based
sampling procedure.
2. Web-based Sampling In this sampling procedure, email
addresses, website visits, and recruited users of the
internet are utilized as sampling units. There are three
categories of web-based sampling, namely: list-based
sampling sampling of website visits, and sampling from
recruited panels of potential participants in research
projects.
3. Address-based Sampling (ABS) In this kind of sampling
procedure, postal addresses are utilized as sampling units
The ABS sampling is used mostly in national surveys.
4. Time-based Sampling Units of time are used as
sampling units in this type of sampling. This is used in
studying repeated outcomes that vary a great deal over
time. The units of time may be time of the day, days of the
week, months of the year, or some other time unit. The
time intervals may be the sampling units. The length of the
interval would depend in part on the rate of occurrence of
what is to be observed. Preparation for this type of
sampling typically involves visits to the locations where
the data will be collected, observing the density of the
target population over time and gathering information from

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informants. Using the information obtained, a sampling

frame of time units is developed. Data might be collected
several times per day at time periods selected using
simple random sampling or systematic sampling, upon the
occurrence of a specific event, or at specifically scheduled
time intervals.
Subtypes of time-based sampling according to Daniel
(2012) are experience sampling method; events sampling
methodology, and the use of time by employee’s
equipment, and facilities, known as work sampling. The
variables that may be studied are social interactions,
mood swings, level of stress, or factors that have impact
on work experiences and productivity
5. Space-based Sampling This refers to a set of sampling
procedures that utilize space as a sampling unit. This type
of sampling is also referred to as area sampling, spatial
sampling, location-based sampling, venue-based
sampling and facility-based sampling. The space may be
geographical units or various locations or venues. It is the
principal mode of sampling utilized in nationwide personal
interview surveys, environmental sampling, and
ecological sampling, (Daniel, 2012).

RESPONDENTS/INFORMANT/PARTICIPANTS

Respondents/informant/participants of the study these

terms are a matter of nomenclature, it rests on what you want to
use. These include the subjects for the investigation where
pertinent information as required by the research problems. The
whole population is the subject where the sample size is being
determined by way of sampling in consideration of what is
appropriate in the research.

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INSTRUMENTATION

Instrumentation or tools used in the study- refers to those

instruments used in the gathering of data, may it be in the form
of questionnaire or in any other form. In whatever form the tool
must have been validated or relevant to the subject of the
research. It should have been framed in a manner that it directly
answers the issues required in the objectives.

DATA GATHERING PROCEDURES

Data gathering procedures this provides answers to the

nature and extent of data to be collected, how the researcher
proposes to collect them and how the data should be processed
to provide necessary information for analysis. Note that the
information to be generated for analysis should be limited but
large enough to enable the proponent to be confident that the
data collected is trustworthy and serves the needs of the
research. They may be obtained from primary to secondary
sources by actually gathering them from the field in terms of
experiments of through the use of personal interviews, interview
schedules or questionnaires in instance of social research.

Approaches to Data Gathering

In research, the required information could be taken from

either primary or sources, or both. The information from primary
sources are called primary data, while those coming from
secondary sources are referred to as secondary data.

Primary Data

Primary data can be gathered through observation,

interview process or questionnaire

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1. Observation
As Kumar (2011) defines it, observation is a
"purposeful, systematic and selective way of watching
and listening to an interaction or phenomenon as it takes
place." In many situations, observation is a very
appropriate method of data collection, especially when
respondents are not cooperative or are unaware of the
answer as they could not detach themselves from the
interaction. In short, when the researcher is more
interested in the behavior than in the perceptions of
individuals, observation is the best approach to collect
the required information.
There are two types of observation:
• Participant Observation - when the
researcher participates in the activities of
the group being observed in the same
manner as its members whether they know
that they are being observed or not.
• Non-participant Observation- this is the kind
of observation wherein the researcher does
not get involved in the activities of the group
but remains a passive observer, watching
and listening to the group's activities and
drawing conclusions from these.
2. The Interview

This refers to any person-to-person interaction,

either face-to-face or otherwise, between two or more
individuals with a specific purpose in mind (Kumar, 2011).
When interviewing a respondent, the researcher has the
freedom to decide the format and content of questions to be
asked from the respondents. Two different categories of
interview:

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• Unstructured Interview. This is dominantly used in

qualitative research. Under this category the researcher
has complete freedom to use the words, content, and
structure of the interview, and the order or sequence of
questions according to the context of the study.
• Structured Interview. In this category, the researcher
asks a predetermined set of questions as specified in the
interview schedule prepared by the
researcher/interviewer for a person-to-person interaction
which may be done face-to-face, through telephone, or
by other electronic media. The main advantage of the
structured interview is that it provides uniform information
which assures the comparability of data.

3. The Questionnaire

This is a written list of questions intended to provide

answers to the problems of the study. Most surveys are based
on questionnaires. The respondents read and interpret what are
expected in the questions then write down the answers. It is
important that questions in the questionnaire are clear and easy
to understand. It has to undergo content and construct validation
before it is administered to respondents. Likewise, the layout of
the questionnaire should be such that it is easy to read and
pleasant to the eye. Also, a good questionnaire is one which is
developed in an interactive style. According to Flick (2011),
questionnaire studies aim at receiving comparable answers
from all participants. Therefore, the questions, as well as the
interview situation, are designed in an identical way for all
participants.

Choosing between an Interview and a Questionnaire

The following criteria may be observed in the choice

between using the interview or the questionnaire:

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a. The nature of the investigation. Since questionnaire

ensures anonymity, it is preferred for studies that involve
issues which respondents may feel reluctant to discuss
with an investigator, such as drug use, sexuality,
criminal activities, personal finances, etc. However,
depending on the type of study population and the skills
of the interviewer, there are situations wherein better
information about sensitive issues can be obtained by
interviewing respondents. Hence, in this situation, both
questionnaire and interview may be utilized.
b. The geographical distribution of the study population. In
cases wherein the potential respondents are scattered
over a wide geographical area, using the questionnaire
is a better choice since interviewing would entail high
costs.
c. The type of study population. For study populations that
are illiterate, very young, very old, or handicapped, the
interview or observation is the best option.

Advantages of the Questionnaire

• It is less expensive.
• It offers greater anonymity since there is no face-to-
face interaction between the researcher and the
respondent.

Advantages of the Interview

• It is more appropriate for complex situations as the

interviewer has the opportunity to prepare a respondent
before asking sensitive questions and to explain complex
ones to respondents in person.
• It is useful for collecting in-depth information by probing.
• It can supplement information obtained from responses
gathered through observation of non-verbal reactions.

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• The interviewer can explain the questions or put them in a

form that is understood by the respondent
• Interviewing has a wider application since it can be used with
almost any type of population: children, the handicapped,
illiterate, or very old.

Guidelines in Constructing a Research Instrument

To ensure the validity of the instrument, make sure that the

questions relate to the objectives of the study

1. Clearly define and individually list all the specific

objectives, research questions or hypothesis, if any,
to be tested.
2. List all the relevant questions or hypothesis that need
to be answered through your study.
3. For each question identified in Step 2, list the
information required to answer it.
4. Construct the questions that you want to ask of your
respondents to obtain the required information.
5. Use simple language to be easily understood.
6. Do not use ambiguous questions, or those that
contain more than one meaning and which can be
interpreted differently by different respondents.

Validation of the Research Instrument

In order to establish the content validity and reliability of a

non-standardized questionnaire, certain procedures and
techniques need to be carried out.

• Consultation with experts is one, in order to ensure that

theoretical constructs directly related to the major concepts
of the study are fully established. Comments and
suggestions from the experts are closely observed and
considered in improving the questionnaire and making it a
valid tool for data collection.

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• Pre-testing of the revised questionnaire to thirty (30)

individuals who resemble the characteristics of the intended
respondents of the study but who will not be the actual
respondents. The purposes of this trial run are to determine
the language suitability and comprehensibility of the items,
ease in following directions from the point of view of the
respondents, the average length of time required to finish
answering the questionnaires, as well as to determine other
problems relevant to the activity. These purposes have to
be explained to the "try-out" respondents before they are
given the questionnaire. They will also be instructed to
underline words and/or encircle the item numbers which are
not clear to them, and finally, to write their suggestions, if
any.
• Item-analysis is done after the pre-testing. The
accomplished questionnaires are scored and subjected to a
test of reliability; Reliability is one very important criterion
against which the merits of a research instrument is judged.
It refers to the degree of consistency and precision or
accuracy that a measuring instrument demonstrates.
According to Coales (2013) the test for reliability has several
different models, but the one most commonly used is the
Cronbach's Alpha, a test for internal consistency, which is
based on the average correlation of items within a test.
Since Cronbach's Alpha can be interpreted as a correlation
coefficient, it ranges i value from 0 to 1. Alpha values
ranging from 0.70 or higher are considered acceptable;
hence those items in the questionnaire with acceptable
alpha values may be retained. Those items that do not meet
acceptable standards have to be revised to fit into the
context of the study before the questionnaire is
administered in its final form.

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Secondary Data

Data from Secondary Sources through Document Analysis

• Demographic information, census, surveys on labor force,

health reports, and economic forecasts are examples of data
found in government or semi-government publications.
• Preview of researches done by others could also provide
some required information.
• Historical and personal records and diaries could also provide
some needed information.
• Published reports in newspaper, magazines or on the internet
could also be sources of secondary data.

DATA ANALYSIS OR STATISTICAL TREATMENT

Data analysis or statistical treatment (if it requires statistics

example, quantitative research)- this is the process of transforming
the collected data into useful information. Data analysis involves
three major steps: data preparation, descriptive statistics and
inferential statistics.

• Data preparation-involves the checking of the collected data

for accuracy, data encoding or data entry into an appropriate
computer, transforming the data into desired structure, and
developing a database that integrates the various data into a
usable form.
• Descriptive statistics-refers to the description of the basic
features of the data for the study. Describing what the data is
all about, descriptive statistics generally provides simple
summaries about the collected data and includes tables,
graphs, charts, photographs, diagrams generally called
figures, these figures are essential as they give inordinate deal
of information more easily seen than text and therefore readily
understandable by the reader especially when they are
visually attractive. Diagrams shows the most relevant or
important information.
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• Inferential statistics in many researches, the analysis extends

beyond descriptive statistics especially when testing
hypothesis or in modelling. Through inferential statistics, the
researcher tries to infer from a given sample data what the
population really is or make probability declarations on the
differences between groups as a dependable judgement or
had simply happened by chance. Hence, inferential statistics
is used to make inferences about the data to the general
conditions and these are linked to specific research questions
or hypothesis that were formulated in significance of the
project.

Quantitative Data Analysis

Several authors sound off the idea that research is a scientific

process to verify idea and theories by gathering information in order
to answer the research questions Statistic analysis is relevant for
research projects wherein numbers represent the information
gathered. The numerical information gathered to describe age,
income, or levels of agreement or disagreement are referred to as
data. According to Healey (2010), statistics are mathematical
techniques used to examine data in order to answer questions and
the theories. For any researcher, data can be the most trustworthy
information which, if properly collected and thoroughly analyzed,
become the most objective foundation about the topic of research.

Statistics must be applied effectively to organize, evaluate,

and analyze the research data in order to come up with meaningful
information that serves to answer the research problems. The two
classes of statistical techniques are descriptive statistics and
inferential statistics

Descriptive Statistics
According to Coakes (2013), descriptive statistics are used to
explore the data collected and to summarize and describe those data.

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Crmgst. Shella I. Sorio, MSCJ
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 The Research Process: The Scientific Approach

Research results may be represented in terms of percentages,

proportions, ratios rates. The following statement which is a research
finding may be considered:

There were 300 students in the school who were

surveyed regarding their opinions about the effects of
prohibited drugs. Of this number, 200 said that prohibited
drugs are dangerous; 55 said that drugs have some good
effects in the body; while 45 said they had no idea. There
seems to be nothing wrong with the statement, but the same
finding could be better conveyed in terms of percentages;
Le, almost 67% of the 300 total respondents said that
prohibited drugs are dangerous, 18% said that drugs have
some good effects in the body; while 15% said they have no
idea.

As pointed out by Healey (2010), percentage and proportion

provide a frame of reference for reporting research results by
standardizing the raw data, that is, percentage to the base 100 and
proportion to the base 1.00. The mathematical definitions of
percentage and proportion are:

Proportion: P = f/n
Percentage: %= (f/n) x 100
where:
f = frequency or the number of cases in any category
n = the number of cases in all categories
Table A
Opinions of 300 Students on the Effects of Prohibited Drugs
Opinions of
Frequency (f) Proportion (p) Percentage (%)
Respondents
1. Prohibited drugs
are dangerous to
198 0.66 66%
the health of at
person
2. Drugs have
some good effects 60 0.20 20%
in the body
3. No idea 42 0.14 14%
Total 300 1.00 100%

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Module 2- The Research Process: The Scientific Approach Page 42 of 51
Crmgst. Shella I. Sorio, MSCJ
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 The Research Process: The Scientific Approach

Research results may also be summarized simply and clearly

through ratios and rates. Ratios are useful for comparing the number
of cases in the categories of a variable. In this statistic, the frequency
of one category is divided by the frequency in another category.
instead of standardizing the distribution of the variable to the base
100 or 1.00 as what is done in computing percentages and
proportions. Below is the mathematical definition of a ratio:

Ratio = f1/f2

where: f1 = the number of cases in the first category

f2= the number of cases in the second category

To Illustrate: Suppose the researcher wants to know the

relative sizes of the various elementary schools in a district, and he
found that there are 130 public elementary school and 85 private
elementary schools. To determine the ratio of the public schools (f1)
to private schools (f2), we divide 130 by 85, thus:

Ratio=f1/12 = 130/85= 1.529 or 1.53

The computation shows that the ratio is 1.53 which means that
for every private elementary school, there are 1.53 public schools in
the district covered by the study. Th result can be expressed thus:
based on a unit or ones, the ratio of public elementary school to
private elementary schools is 1.53:1.

On the other hand, rates provide yet another way of

summarizing the distribution of a single variable. Rates are defined
as "the number of actual occurrences of some phenomenon divided
by the number of possible occurrences per some unit of time"
(Healey, 2010). For example, the percentage of passing rate of board
passers in a university refers to the number of passers in that
university (actual occurrences) divided by the number of takers
graduates who took the board exam (possible occurrence). This
quantity is then multiplied by 100.

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Crmgst. Shella I. Sorio, MSCJ
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 The Research Process: The Scientific Approach

Formula:
Percentage of Passing Rate = number of passers (95)
X 100
number of takers (120)

=95/120-0.7916 x 100 = 79.16%

Thus, based on the results of these computations, it is
observed that the subject university obtained a 79.16 percent) rate of
passing in the board examination.

Another technique of presenting large sets of data is through

the frequency distribution. As discussed by Johnson and Kuby
(2013), a frequency distribution is a listing, often expressed in chart
form, that pairs values of a variable with their frequency, or the
number of times the value (x) occurs in the sample. For instance, a
study concerns the number of females with varying ages in a group
of twenty contestants in a song contest. The data may be presented
as follows:

Table B
Frequency Distribution of 20 Female Contestants According to Age
Age (x) Frequency (f)
10 - 1
15 - 2
17 - 5
20 - 7
25 - 2
27 - 2
30 - 1
Total = 20

At a glance, the data in Table B gives a picture of the number

of female contestants in every age category. However, when dealing
with a larger set of data, the grouped frequency distribution is more
practical. For example, the research is about determining the number
of male evacuees in a relocation center, categorized according to
their ages. Table C is shown as sample.
Criminology 7- Criminological Research and Statistics Course Module
Module 2- The Research Process: The Scientific Approach Page 44 of 51
Crmgst. Shella I. Sorio, MSCJ
Subject Instructor
 The Research Process: The Scientific Approach
Table C
Grouped Frequency Distribution of 100 Males in a Relocation Center
Age (x) Frequency (f)
0-5 - 20
6-11 - 15
12-17 - 15
18-23 - 10
24-29 - 5
30-35 - 3
36-41 - 3
42-47 - 2
48-53 - 3
54-59 - 10
60 and above - 14
Total = 100

In this grouped frequency distribution, the arrangement of data

makes it easier to detect how many males have been relocated
according to their age groupings.

Measures of Central Tendency

According to Johnson and Kuby (2013), these are numerical

values that locate, in some sense, the center of a set of data.
Measures of central tendency are expressed as the mean, median,
mode and midrange.

1. The Mean, which is also called arithmetic mean, is

represented byx (or "x-bar"). This is computed by adding all
the values of the variable x, (The sum of the x values is
symbolized by 𝚺x or summation of x) and dividing the sum by
the total number of samples, represented by n. The formula
for this is expressed as:

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Crmgst. Shella I. Sorio, MSCJ
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 The Research Process: The Scientific Approach

Σx
X=
n

The sample shows the ages of seven students enrolled in an

alternative class. After computing the mean value, it is determined
that the average age of the seven students in that class is 20.57.
After Chapter III (
Another description for the mean value is that it represents the middle methodology). The
point of a group of values according to weight following should be
attached:
2. The Median. When the data are ranked in proper order according
• Literature Cited
to size, the value of the data that occupies the middle position is the • Questionnaire
median. The sample median it represented by 𝒙. (or’’x-tilde’’) or
sample median. To find the median, three steps have to be followed:
(1) rank the data (2) determine the depth of the median (or number
of positions from either end); depth of median d( x.)= sample + size,
divided by 2. In our given example, the depth of the median is d( 3 )
= 4. (3) Determine the value of the median by counting the ranked
data, locating the data in the d( x. ) position.

To illustrate: the median of the given data.

(10,15,17.20.25,27,30) is the fourth value from the lowest rank and
likewise from the highest rank. Therefore, in this case the sample
median age is 20 ( x.=20)

3. The Mode. This refers to the value of x that occurs most frequently
in a set of data. If there is no number that occurs more than once, the
sample has no mode.

4. Midrange. This refers to the number which is found exactly midway

between a lowest data value(L) and a highest data value (H). To find
the midrange, get the average of the low and the high value. In our
given example, the lowest value is 10 and the highest

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Crmgst. Shella I. Sorio, MSCJ
Subject Instructor
 The Research Process: The Scientific Approach

10+30 40
value is 30, thus L=10 and H=30 = = =20. In this example,
2 2
the midrange is 20.
The values representing the four measures of central
tendency may be similar, but more likely they will be different.
However, the four values can be used to describe the center in a set
of data

Evaluation:
1. Supposed you were asked to decide on what sampling technique to use,
what would it be---give the following situation:
a. You need to get the opinions of parents who represents 60% of
the school population ( with a total of 5,000.00 students) on the issue
of K12 Basic Education Program.
2. When is observation appropriate to use as a data-gathering technique?
3.Having learned the two general types of research data, what type of
research would you like to pursue- quantitative or qualitative? State your
reason.
4.Compute the percentage of students who are interested in taking the HRM
class: Given: 68 students said they are interested. The total number of
samples is 100.
5. Prepare a frequency distribution of 36 students whose ages ranges from
15 to 20 years old and who are willing to participate in ROTC activity.

For Pre 0ral defense: Prepare the following:

1. Submit three Research Title for approval. Use the form uploaded in our
google classroom. Each Title should be presented with rationale.
2. Once the title is approved you may start writing chapters 1 to 3.

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Module 2- The Research Process: The Scientific Approach Page 47 of 51
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 The Research Process: The Scientific Approach

SUMMARY:

To aid you in reviewing the concepts in this module, here are the highlights:

• Chapter 1- consists of the following:

A. Introduction- an introduction may be presented in two ways, background or rationale.
The main function of this part is to catch the interest of the readers. It provides the
background information to make the readers understand the study. This section also
explains the reason for conducting the study or the justification why the study is important
as viewed on its usefulness to the community. It should spell out the problem by pointing
out the information gaps based on literatures or reports of recognized agencies.

B. Theoretical or conceptual framework- the theoretical framework is a set of interrelated

concepts that guides a researcher on the things that he wants to measure and the
statistical relationships he is looking for. Generally, used in the social science, the
conceptual framework is equivalent to research design in the other sciences. It shows how
the problem is viewed and how the proposed interventions will lead to the solutions of the
problem under study. The review of related literature will guide the researcher in
contextualizing the problem and identifying the variables to look into.

C. Objectives of the study or Statement of the problem- the research objectives state what
the research expects to achieve and why it should be undertaken. Many proposals
suggests that the articulation of the objectives should use the SMART guide. By SMART,
we refer to the proposed objectives to be specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, result
oriented and time bound.

D. The importance of the whole study must contain explanations or discussion of any or
all of the following: The rationale, timeliness, and/or relevance of the study; Possible
solutions to existing problems or improvement to unsatisfactory conditions ;Who are to be
benefited and how they are going to be benefited. It must be shown who are the
individuals, groups, or communities who may be placed in a more advantageous position
on account of the study; Possible contribution to the fund of knowledge.; Possible
implications; it should be discussed here that the implications include the possible causes
of the problems discovered, the possible effects of the problems, and the remedial
measures to solve the problems. Implications also include the good points of a system
which ought to be continued or to be improved if possible.

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 The Research Process: The Scientific Approach

E. Limitations of the study include the weaknesses of the study beyond the control of the
researcher. This is especially true on descriptive research where the variables involved are
uncountable or continuous variables such as adequacy, effectiveness, efficiency, extent etc.

F. Theoretical framework identifies the variables investigated in the study. It illustrates how the
variables interact with each other as hypothesized in the research by the aid of diagrams.

G. Conceptual framework is the basic structure that serves as a mental window of the researcher
because it depicts the research design and the relationships of the variables involved.

H. A paradigm is a diagrammatic representation of a conceptual framework. It depicts in a more

vivid way what the conceptual framework wants to convey.

I. A hypothesis is a tentative conclusion or answer to a specific question raised at the beginning

of the investigation. It is an educated guess about the answer to a specific question.

J. Definition of Terms- list of terms, words or phrases which have special or unique meanings in
the study are defined.

• Chapter II. Review of Related literature- The review of related literature briefly synthesizes past
and current research findings and the recommendations on the problem being investigated. It
generally presents and discusses what has been done about the problem. The literature reviews
to be presented in a research proposal may at least be within the five to ten years recentness
from which the research proposal will take off.
• Chapter III. Consist of the following:
A. Locale of the study (similar to the scope and delimitation but only in locale, it is concentrated
on the area where the study. is conducted) this determines the area where the study is to be
conducted, it may be presented in a Map or description of the place which includes total area,
total population and all other pertinent information regarding the area.

B. Research design- this is referred to the approach used in the study: Example; "this study uses
the descriptive and correlation research design since it measures the extent of enforcement of
the Land Transportation and Traffic Rules the traffic enforcers and drivers". You observed that
the design is "descriptive and correlation" this is the requirement by the nature of the study.

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 The Research Process: The Scientific Approach

C, Sampling procedure this consist of measuring portions of a population and from the measured
sampling units, obtaining estimates that are considered representatives of the percent of the
population. While a complete enumeration. is desirable, sampling is done to save time and
resources.
D. Respondents/informant/participants of the study- these terms are a matter of nomenclature, it
rests on what you want to use. These include the subjects for the investigation where pertinent
information as required by the research problems. The whole population is the subject where the
sample size is being determined by way of sampling in consideration of what is appropriate in the
research.
E. Instrumentation or tools used in the study- refers to those instruments used in the gathering of
data, may it be in the form of questionnaire or in any other form. In whatever form the tool must
have been validated or relevant to the subject of the research. It should have been framed in a
manner that it directly answers the issues required in the objectives.
F. Data gathering procedures- this provides answers to the nature and extent of data to be
collected, how the researcher proposes to collect them and how the data should be processed
to provide necessary information for analysis. Note that the information to be generated for
analysis should be limited but large enough to enable the proponent to be confident that the data
collected is trustworthy and serves the needs of the research. They may be obtained from primary
to secondary sources by actually gathering them from the field in terms of experiments of through
the use of personal interviews, interview schedules or questionnaires. in instance of social
research.
G. Data analysis or statistical treatment (if it requires statistics example, quantitative research)-
this is the process of transforming the collected data into useful information. Data analysis
involves three major steps: data preparation, descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.
• In writing your research remember the following: Font style: Courier new; Font size: 12; Bond
paper (Size) :Short; Space: double and Margin: Top -1-inch, bottom-1 inch, right -1inch, left – 1.5
inches
• The following should be attached before Chapter I: Cover page; Title Page; Approval Sheet and
Table of contents
• After Chapter III ( methodology). The following should be attached: Literature Cited and
Questionnaire
•
Criminology 7- Criminological Research and Statistics Course Module
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Crmgst. Shella I. Sorio, MSCJ
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The Research Process: The Scientific Approach

References:
▪ The Conceptual Framework. College of Education. Alabama State University;
Conceptual Framework: What Do You Think is Going On? College of
Engineering. University of Michigan;Drafting an Argument. Writing@CSU.
Colorado State University;
▪ Lynham, Susan A. “The General Method of Theory-Building Research in
Applied Disciplines.” Advances in Developing Human Resources 4 (August
2002): 221-241;
▪ Tavallaei, Mehdi and Mansor Abu Talib. "A General Perspective on the Role of
Theory in Qualitative Research." Journal of International Social Research3
(Spring 2010);
▪ Ravitch, Sharon M. and Matthew Riggan. Reason and Rigor: How Conceptual
Frameworks Guide Research. Second edition. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2017;
▪ Reyes, Victoria.Demystifying the Journal Article. Inside Higher Education;
Trochim, William M.K. Philosophy of Research. Research Methods Knowledge
Base. 2006;
▪ Weick, Karl E. “The Work of Theorizing.” InTheorizing in Social Science: The
Context of Discovery. Richard Swedberg, editor. (Stanford, CA: Stanford
University Press, 2014), pp. 177-194.
▪ Singh, Michael; Li, Bingyie “Early career researcher originality: Engaging
Richard Floridas International competition for creative workers (PDF), Centre
for Educational Research, 2016.
▪ Wilfredo R. Beralde, Reviewer in Criminology Licensure Examination, 2013
▪ Mercedez Foronda, Criminological Research and Statistics, 2010
▪ Research Fundamentals from concept to output (A guide for researchers and
thesis writers) Almeida, Et,al, 2016
▪ Criminological Research and Statistics.Foronda,2020
▪ Criminological Research Made Simple: A practical Research guide for
criminology students. Garcia. 2019

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Crmgst. Shella I. Sorio, MSCJ
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