1.

T/F (8 Q)
2. Điền khuyết (8Q)
3. Matching (5 PP & 8 mô tả)
4. Multiple choice (8Q)
5. Question & Answer (2 Q)

theory:
+ Behaviorism
+ Cognitivism / Mentalism
+ Constructivism
+ Learning and acquisition + Affective factors
method:
+ Grammar translation
+ The audio lingual method
+ Total physical respond
+ Communicative language teaching
Procedure
+ PPP
+ Harmer’s ESA
+ Pre- / While- / Post-procedure
+ Task-based learning / instruction

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 theory:

+ Behaviorism
+ Cognitivism / Mentalism
+ Constructivism
+ Learning and acquisition + Affective factors

Behaviourism Assumption Behaviorism is an area of psychological study that focuses on observing and
* analysing how controlled environmental changes affect behaviour. *
—----------------------------—----------------------------—----------------
+Psychology should be seen as a science.
+Behaviourism is primarily concerned with observable behaviour. (must be
observable)
+People have no free will
+When born, our mind is ‘tabula rasa’ (a blank slate)
+Behaviourism is the result of the student response.
+ Conditioning is the result of a three-stage procedure:
stimulus - response and reinforcement.
+All the behaviours are learnt from the environment.

- Strict behaviorists hold that all behavior, even breathing and the circulation of
blood, is learned; they believe that animals are, in effect, born as blank slates
upon which chance and experience are to write their messages. *
- In Behaviourist theory, conditioning is the result of a three-stage procedure:
stimulus, response, and reinforcement.
- In a book called Verbal Behaviour the psychologist Bernard Skinner suggested
that much the same process happens in language learning, especially first
language learning (Skinner 1957).
- As we shall see in the next part of the book, Audio-lingual methodology
depended quite heavily on stimulus, response, and reinforcement, and much
controlled practice that still takes place in classrooms all over the world can trace
its heritage back to the influence of Behaviourism.

Theorists/ founders A.Ivan Pavlov (1849 - 1936))

(dog)
Nobel prize Physiology and Medicine in 1904, becoming the first Russian Nobel
Laureate and the 24th most cited psychologists of the 20th century.
Best known for his role in studying “classical conditioning”, the studying of digestion
and the mechanisms of salivation in canine subjects.
_ Classical Conditioning: * learning through association which means two stimuli are
linked together to produce a new learned response in a person/ animal.
_ Classical conditioning terminology:
+ Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): The stimulus that evokes a natural response.
+ Unconditioned Response (UCR): The natural reaction to the unconditioned
stimulus
+ Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously neutral stimulus that, through
conditioning, evokes conditioned response.
+ Conditioned Response (CR): Learned reaction to conditioned stimulus that
occurs because of previous conditioning.

B.John B.Watson (1878 - 1936) (baby)

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 “no instincts” we no longer need the term in psychology. Everything we have been in the
habit of calling an instinct today is a result largely of training - belonging to a man’s
learned behaviour.
Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring
them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type
of specialist I select - doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant, chief and yes, even beggar man
and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and race of
his ancestors.”
He believed that all behaviours, even which appeared instinctive, is the result of
conditioning that occurs in response to a stimulus.
He was popular in the first half of the 20th century.
Conducted the famous and controversial “Little Albert” experiment.

C.Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)

(An American psychologist): He pioneered the law of effect, which presents theory about
how behavior is learned and reinforced.
THORNDIKE’S FIRST THREE LAWS OF LEARNING.
~Law of readiness: implies the degree of preparedness and eagerness to learn.
~ Law of exercise: things that are most often repeated are the best remembered.
~ Law of effect: based on the emotional reaction and motivation of the student. Learning
is strengthened with pleasant or satisfying feelings while unpleasant feeling tend to do
otherwise.
_ Learning is the result of associations formed between stimuli and responses (S-R
framework)
_ Three primary laws: law of effect, law of readiness and law of practice.
_ Audio-lingual methodology depended quite heavily on stimulus, response, and
reinforcement, and much controlled practice that still takes place in classrooms all over
the world can trace its heritage back to the influence of Behaviourism.
~He was the founder of theory of connectionism (forming associations between stimuli
and responses) which was dominant the US during the 1st half of the 20th century.
~Puzzle box (see how animals learned)
~The most basic form of learning is Trial and Error.
~Theory of instrumental learning (Explain how individuals learn voluntary goal-directed
behaviours)

D. B.F. Skinner (1904 - 1990)

~ American psychologist.
~ One of the most pre-eminent behavioural psychologists of the 20th century.
~He believed that behaviour is sustained by reinforcements or rewards, not by free will.
~ Skinner is famous for the Skinner box and teaching machines.
_ Operant conditioning: (instrumental conditioning) focuses on* using either
reinforcement or punishment to increase or decrease a behavior. Through this process, an
association is formed between the behavior and the consequences of that behavior.

Definition/ Behaviorism, also known as behavioural psychology, is a theory of

core principal
learning based on the idea that all behaviours are acquired
through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with
the environment.

Behaviourism:
~ Locus of learning: stimuli in an external environment.
~ Purpose of education: producing change in desired direction.
~ The learning process: changes in behaviour
Application

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 Summary ~ A behaviour will only occur if given the right environment or antecedent.

~ The behaviour is more or less likely to reoccur based on the reinforcement

or consequences that follow, such as rewards and punishments.

Strengths &
Weaknesses

Cognitivism Assumption Cognitivism is a learning theory that focuses on how information is

Mentalism * received, organised, stored and retrieved by the mind. Cognitivism looks
beyond observable behaviours and views learning as an internal mental
process. *

Core concepts *
a. Thinking as rule-governed activity:
~Behaviourists cannot answer the question how the mind was able to transfer what was learnt in
one stimulus - response sequence to other novel situations.
~ The concept of ‘generalisation’ is unworkable.
~ Thinking must be rule-governed: a finite, and fairly small, set of rules enables the mind to deal
with the potentially infinite range of experiences it may encounter.
b. Learning is a rule-governed activity.
~If thinking is a rule-governed activity, learning must also be.
~ Mentalism is the belief that the mind is important for determining human behaviour.
~ Learning consists not of forming habits but of acquiring rules - a process in which individual
experiences are used by the mind to for mulate a hypothesis. This hypothesis is then tested and
modified by subsequent experience
c. Innatism: it’s all in your mind.
~Children are biologically programmed for language and language develops in the child in just the
same way that other biological functions develop.
~The environment makes a basic contribution (the availability of people who speak to the child),
and the child’s biological endowment will do the rest -> innatist position.
~ Children’s minds are not blank slates to be filled merely by imitating language they hear in the
environment.
~ Instead, we are born with a special ability to discover for ourselves the underlying rules of a
language system.
~ The human brain is ready to quickly acquire language at specific stages in the development
process.
Chomsky’s innatist position:
~ Virtually all children successfully learn their native language at a time in life when they would
not be expected to learn anything else so complicated.
~Children successfully master the basic structure of their native language in a variety of
conditions.
~ The language children are exposed to does not contain examples.
~ Animals cannot learn to manipulate a symbol system as complicated as the natural language of a
three or four-year-old boy.
~ Children seem to accomplish the complex task of language acquisition without having someone
consistently point out to them which of the sentences they hear and produce are correct and which
are ungrammatical.
d. Language acquisition device (Black box)
~Humans have a language Acquisition Device (LAD) - a structure within the brain that allows
babies to absorb and understand the rules language they are being exposed to.
~ It contains all and only the principles which are universal to all human languages.
~ The child needs access only to samples of natural language, these samples serve as a trigger to
activate the device.
e. Universal Grammar.
~ Later on Chomsky referred to this as innate knowledge of the principles of Universal Grammar.
~ Universal Grammar is considered to consist of a set of principles and parameters which are
common to all languages.
~ If children are pre-equipped with UG, then what they have to learn is the ways in which their
own languages make use of these principles and the variations on those principals which may exist
in the particular language which they hear spoken around them.
~ A universal set of principles and parameters that control the shape human languages can take,

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 and which are what make human languages similar to one another.
f. Cognitive code: learners as thinking beings:
~ Learning requires learners to think, to apply their mental powers in order to distil a workable
generative rules from the mass of data presented, and then to analyse the situations where the
application of the rule would be useful and appropriate.
~ Learning takes place when the learner has managed to impose some sort of meaningful
interpretation or pattern on the data.
~ We learn by thinking about and trying to make sense of what we see, feel and hear.

Theorists/ founders Chomsky theorized that all children are born with some kind of language processor - a
'black box' or 'language acquisition device' - which allowed them to formulate rules of
language based on the input they received.

Definition/ Mentalism / Cognitivism is a learning theory according to which

core principal mental processes mediate learning.
Mentalism/ Cognitivism dimensions:
~ Locus of learning*: internal mental structuring.
~ Purpose of education: develop capacity and skills to learn better.
~ The learning process: internal mental process

Application +The basic teaching technique associated with a cognitive theory of language
learning is the problem- solving task.
+In ESP, these exercises have often been modelled on activities associated with
the learner's specialism.
Summary +Human beings are born with an innate ‘blueprint’ for language.
+Children acquire language as quickly and effortlessly because they do not
have to figure out all the rules of their language, only those that are specific
to their particular language.
+The brain as a part dedicated to language acquisition.
+General cognitive function is used to acquire language .
+Using mental strategies.
+Learners are invited to analyse language, notice patterns, deduce rules…
+The cognitive code view of learning seems to answer many of the
theoretical and practical problems raised by behaviourism.
+It treats the learners as thinking beings and puts them at the centre of the
learning process.

_ All human beings share a genetic, innate set of language rules.

_ Universal Grammar exits in all the natural languages of the world.
_ Universal Grammar is the reason that human beings understand and create sentence in
their brains.
_ All languages are structure-dependent: all languages are made up of sentences which
consist of at least a Noun-Phrase and a Verb-Phrase.
_ All languages don’t behave in the same way in terms of their structural properties ->
therefore, parameters come in.
_ Cognitivism is a learning theory that focuses on how information is received,
organised, stored and retrieved by the mind. Cognitivism looks beyond observable
behaviours and views learning as an internal mental process.

Strengths &
Weaknesses

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Constructivism * Assumption
_ Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the premise that, by reflecting
on our experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in. Each of
us generates our own―rules‖ and ―mental models,‖ which we use to make sense of our
experiences. Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our mental models to
accommodate new experiences. *

Constructivism is the theory which claims that learners construct knowledge rather than
just passively take in information. As people experience the world and reflect upon those
experiences, they build their own representations and incorporate new information into
their pre-existing knowledge (schemas)

_ Assimilation: the process of taking new information and fitting in into an existing
schema
_ Accommodation: refers to using newly acquired information to revise and redevelop an
existing schema
_ The emphasis is placed on the learner rather than the teacher/instructor.
-> Learner autonomy and initiative is accepted and encouraged.
_ Learning is the result of mental construction.
_ Learning is affected by the context and the beliefs and attitudes of learners.
_ Cognitive constructivism: Knowledge is actively constructed by learners based on their
existing cognitive structure.
_ Social constructivism: learning is a collaborative process and knowledge develops
from individuals' interactions with their culture and society
_ Radical constructivism: all knowledge is constructed rather than perceived through
senses
—---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Basic ideas:
~ Learning is due to experience.
~ Knowledge and skills are constructed by the learner through active participation in the
development and learning, rather than being derived directly from the environment.
~ Prior knowledge and beliefs play a major role in the meaning that people construct.
~ Learners are the builders and creators of meaning and knowledge.
~ In the classroom: learners are the centre and the teacher has a secondary role in the
learning process.
~ Currently, constructivism is the most supported approach to language learning.
~ Its main contribution to educational psychology is the learner-centred approach, which
emphasises the autonomy of learners in the process of their education.
________________________________________________________________
ASSUMPTIONS:
1. The emphasis is placed on the learner rather than the teacher / instructor. > Learner
autonomy and initiative is accepted and encouraged.
2. Learning is the result of mental construction.
3. Learning is affected by the context and the beliefs and attitudes of learners.
____________________
_ Sensorimotor stage (birth -2 years old)
+ Motor senses: sight, sound, touch, smell and taste - infants understand the world
through motor senses
+ Object permanence - important development Experimenting with trial and error
to get attention

_ Preoperational stage (2 to 7 years)

+ Emergence of language: primary development
+ Using words and pictures to represent objects
+ Being egocentric - not understand the other people's viewpoint

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 _ Concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years)
+ Development of logical reasoning
+ Socio-centric-observing other people's viewpoint and differences Conservation -
when an object is split into 2, the sum of the 2 is still the same object
+ Reversibility - an object can be changed and returned to its original condition

_ Formal operational stage (12 and above)

+ Abstract thought and hypothetical thinking
+ Thinking about consequences of actions
+ Problem-solving without trial and error
+ Performing mental operations
_ Learning is a search for meaning
_ Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts
_ Teachers must understand students' mental models and assumptions
_ The purpose of learning is to construct the meaning

Theorists/ founders Constructivism:

~ Individual Cognitive Constructivism: Jean Piaget: Knowledge is actively constructed by
learners based on their existing cognitive structure.
+ Radical Constructivism Von Glasersfeld all knowledge is constructed rather than perceived
through senes
~ Social Constructivism: Dewey, Lev Vygotsky learning is a collaborative process and knowledge
develops from individuals’ interactions with their culture and society.
+ Cultural Constructivism (Hutchinson)
+ Critical Constructivism (Fleury)
—--------------------------------------------------------------
Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
Cognitive constructivism: Ideas are constructed in individuals through a personal
process.

~ Focused on logical reasoning and the structure of knowledge.

~People are intrinsically motivated to make sense of the world (i.e. learn)
~ There are different “stages” of learning.
~Piaget’s Cognitive Theory: 3 components:
1. Schemas: building blocks of knowledge.
2. Adaptation processes that enable the transition from one stage another.
-Equilibrium
- Assimilation.
- Accommodation.
3. Stages of Cognitive Development:
- Sensorimotor.
- Preoperational
- Concrete operational.
- Formal operational.
Schemas are the basic building blocks of such cognitive models, and enable us to
form a mental representation of the world.
Assimilation uses an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation.
Equilibration is the force which moves development along. Equilibrium occurs when
a child’s schema siam deal with most new information through assimilation.
However, an unpleasant state of disequilibrium occurs when new information cannot
be fitted into existing schemas (assimilation).
Accommodation happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work, and
needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation.
Assimilation - Equilibration - new situation - disequilibrium - Accommodation

Vygotsky (1896-1934):
Social constructivism: Ideas are constructed through interaction with the teacher and
other students.

~ Lev Vygotsky was born in Russia in 1896.

~ He died at the young age of 37 from tuberculosis.
~ Due to his early death, most of his theories were left undeveloped.
~ His work in the last 10 years of his life has become the foundation of much research
and theory in cognitive development.

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Definition/ Constructivism means that a learner actively builds, or constructs, his or
core principal her own knowledge - and continually rebuilds it to account for information
that doesn’t fit the old knowledge.

Principle:
1. Learning is a search for meaning.
2. Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts.
3. Teachers must understand students’ mental models and assumptions.
4. The purpose of learning is to construct the meaning.
___________________________________
Principle:
1.The learner uses sensory input and does something with it, ultimately making
meaning of it.
2.Learning consists of both constructing meaning and constructing systems of
meaning. Learning is layered.
3. Learning occurs in the mind. Physical activity may be necessary, but is not
sufficient alone.
4. Learning involves language. Vygotsky believed that language and learning are
inextricably intermeshed.
5. Learning is a social activity
6. Learning is contextual. We do not isolate facts from the situations and
environment in which they are relevant.
7. Knowledge is necessary for learning. It is the basis of structure and meaning-
making. The more we know., the more we can learn.
8. Learning takes time; it is not spontaneous. Learners go over information, ponder
them, use them, practice, experiment.
9. Motivation is a necessary component, because it causes the learner’s sensory
apparatus to be activated. Relevance, curiosity, fun, accomplishment, achievement,
external rewards and other motivators facilitate learning.

Application
Methods in Constructivist Classroom
1. Modelling an activity.
2. Actively coaching a student.
3. Collaborative learning with peers in order to share views- debates - discussions - peer
- reviews
4. Reflective analysis of a topic.

Summary +Constructivism is a learning theory that ‘equates learning with creating

meaning from experience’
+Learning is more meaningful to students when they are able to interact
with a problem or concept.
+Constructivism can help engage and motivate your students by making
them take a more active role in the learning process.
+ Constructivism utilises interactive teaching strategies to create
meaningful contexts that help students construct knowledge based on their
own experiences.
+ It is often used to teach higher-order thinking skills such as reasoning and
problem-solving and also helps students to transfer knowledge to new and
different situations.
+ Examples include role-playing or stimulating, debating controversial
current counts, cooperative learning groups to teach multiple perspectives
and allowing students to engage in real-world activities like internships.
+ Problem - based learning teacher engages his students by challenging
them to answer a real - world problem.

_ Constructivism ...

· emphasises learning and not teaching

· encourages and accepts learner autonomy and initiative
· sees learners as creatures of will and purpose
· thinks of learning as a process
· encourages learner inquiry
· acknowledges the critical role of experience in learning
· nurtures learners natural curiosity
· takes the learner's mental model into account

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 · emphasises performance and understanding when assessing learning
· bases itself on the principles of the cognitive theory
· makes extensive use of cognitive terminology such as predict, create and
analyse
· considers how the student learns
· encourages learners to engage in dialogue with other students and the
teacher
· supports cooperative learning
· involves learners in real world situations
· emphasises the context in which learning takes place
· considers the beliefs and attitudes of the learner
· provides learners the opportunity to construct new knowledge and
understanding from authentic experience

Strengths & ~ It is often used to teach higher-other thinking skills such as reasoning and problem-solving and
Weaknesses also helps students to transfer knowledge to new and different situations.
~ Examples include role - playing or simulating, debating controversial current event, cooperative
learning groups to teach multiple perspectives and allowing students to engage in real-world
activities like internships.
~ Problem - based learning: teacher engages his students by challenging them to answer a real -
world problem.
Impacts of Constructivism:
~ Curriculum:
Constructivism calls for the elimination of a standardised curriculum. Instead, it promotes using
curricula customised to the students‘ prior knowledge. Also, it emphasises hands-on problem
solving.
~ Instruction:
Under the theory of constructivism, educators focus on making connections between facts and
fostering new understanding in students. Instructors tailor their teaching strategies to student
responses and encourage students to analyze, interpret, and predict information. Teachers also rely
heavily on open-ended questions and promote extensive dialogue among students.
~ Assessment:
Constructivism calls for the elimination of grades and standardized testing. Instead,
assessment * becomes part of the learning process so that students play a larger role in
judging their own progress.

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Learning and acquisition / Affective factors
“Caretaker talk” child’s immediate environment
~Baby talk, motherese, parentese, mommy talk, Stephen Krashen - American linguist.
caretaker speech, infant-directed talk (IDT), or Krashen’s view
child-directed speech (CDS) Acquisition
~A non-standard form of speech that used by adults +Implicit, subconscious
in talking to toddlers and infants. +Informal situations
+uses grammatical ‘feel’
Characteristics of “caretaker talk” +Depends on attitude.
-Slower rate of speech. +Stable order of acquisition.
-Higher pitch Learning:
-More varied tone +Explicit, conscious
-Shorter, simpler sentence pattern +Formal situations
-Frequent repetition. +Uses grammatical rules
-Paraphrase. +Depends on aptitude
-Topics of conversation are often limited to the +Simple to complex order of learning.
Application:
Acquisition is by far the more important process.
Only acquired language is readily available for natural, fluent communication.
Learning cannot turn into acquisition
The Input Hypothesis:
One acquires language by exposure to comprehensible input. If the input contain forms and structures just
beyond the learner’s current level of competence, then both comprehension and acquisition will occur.

Acquisition Learning:
~ Implicit, subconscious. ~ Explicit, conscious.
~ Informal situations. ~ Formal situations
~ Uses grammatical ‘feel’ ~ Uses grammatical rules.
~ Depends on attitude ~ Depends on aptitude.
~ Stable order of acquisition. ~ Simple to complex order of learning.

+ Acquisition is by far the more important process.

+ Only acquired language is readily available for natural, fluent communication.
+ Learning cannot turn into acquisition.

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 method:
+ Grammar translation
+ The direct Method
+ The audio lingual method
+ Total physical response
+ Communicative language teaching

Grammar-Translation Definition + a METHOD of foreign or second language teaching which

Method makes use Translation and Grammar study as the main teaching
and learning activities.
+ Originally used to teach Latin and Greek

Characteristic:
~ Classical/traditional Method
~ Students are taught to translate from one language into another.
~ Students study grammar deductively.
~They also learn grammatical paradigms such as verb conjugations.
~They memorise native language equivalents for target language vocabulary words. *
~ Primary skills to be developed are Reading/ Writing.
~ Little attention is paid to pronunciation and listening / speaking skills
~ Use of translation exercises.
~ Mother tongue is used as the medium of instruction.

_ At one time it was called the Classical Method since it was first used in the
teaching of the classical languages, Latin and Greek (Chastain 1988)
_ This method was used for the purpose of helping students read and appreciate
foreign language literature.
_ It was thought that foreign language learning would help students grow
intellectually; it was recognized that students would probably never use the target
language, but the mental exercise of learning it would be beneficial anyway.

Teacher's goals ~ Helping students read and appreciate foreign language

literature.
~ Students need to learn the grammar rules and vocabulary.
~ Language learning provides students with good mental
exercises.
~ Developing student's general mental discipline.

Roles of TS & -The teacher is the authority in the classroom. -> Teacher talking
SS time is more.
-The students do what teacher says so they can learn what she
knows -> students are passive

>> TEACHER-CENTRED

T's Responses Incorrect answers are corrected by the teacher.

to Ss' errors (supplying correct answer)

Lang focus • Vocabulary and grammar rules are emphasised.

• Reading and writing skills are primarily worked on.
Less attention in speaking and listening.
• Pronunciation is not important.

Teaching & .Translatefrom one language to another

learning .Teach Grammar deductively.
process

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 .Memorise Grammar and vocabulary words*
—--------------------
~ Demonstration is needed.
~ Grammar is taught inductively in which students discover the rules.
~ Students practise vocabulary by using new words in complete sentences.
~ The syllabus is topic-based or situation-based.

Techniques 1. Translation of a Literary Passage

Students translate a reading passage from the target language into their native
language. The reading passage then provides the focus for several classes:
vocabulary and grammatical structures in the passage are studied in subsequent
lessons. The passage may be excerpted from some work from the target language
literature, or a teacher may write a passage carefully designed to include particular
grammar rules and vocabulary. The translation may be written or spoken or both.
Students should not translate idioms and the like literally, but rather in a way that
shows that they understand their meaning.
2. Reading Comprehension Questions
Students answer questions in the target language based on their understanding of the
reading passage. Often the questions are sequenced so that the first group of
questions asks for information contained within the reading passage. In order to
answer the second group of questions, students will have to make inferences based on
their understanding of the passage. This means they will have to answer questions
about the passage even though the answers are not contained in the passage itself.
The third group of questions requires students to relate the passage to their own
experience

3.Antonyms/ Synonyms
Students are given one set of words and are asked to find antonyms in the reading
passage. A similar exercise could be done by asking students to find synonyms for a
particular set of words. Or students might be asked to define a set of words based on
their understanding of them as they occur in the reading passage. Other exercises that
ask students to work with the vocabulary of the passage are also possible.

4. Cognates *
Students are taught to recognize cognates by learning the spelling or sound patterns
that correspond between the languages. Students are also asked to memorize words
that look like cognates but have meanings in the target language that are different
from those in the native language. This technique, of course, would only be useful in
languages that share cognates.
5. Deductive Application of Rules
Grammar rules are presented with examples. Exceptions to each rule are also noted.
Once students understand a rule, they are asked to apply it to some different
examples.
6. Fill-in-the-blanks Exercise
Students are given a series of sentences with words missing. They fill in the blanks
with new vocabulary items or with items of a particular grammar type, such as
prepositions or verbs with different tenses
7. Memorization
Students are given lists of target language vocabulary words and their native
language equivalents and are asked to memorise them. Students are also required to
memorize grammatical rules and grammatical paradigms such as verb conjugations.

8.Use Words in Sentences

In order to show that students understand the meaning and use of a new vocabulary
item, they make up sentences in which they use the new words.

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 9. Composition
The teacher gives the students a topic to write about in the target language. The topic
is based upon some aspect of the reading passage of the lesson. Sometimes, instead of
creating a composition, students are asked to prepare a précis of the reading passage.
The Role of the
students’ native
_ The meaning of the target language is made clear by translating it into the students'
language native language. The language that is used in class is mostly the students' native
language.

- L1 in the classroom.
- Two way translation.

classroom _ Most of the interaction in the classroom is from the teacher to the students. There is little
interaction. student initiation and little student-student interaction
T-S: more frequent
S-T: little

>> T-S interaction: dominant.

S-S: little

Strengths & Strengths

Weaknesses: • The easiest for teacher to use.
• Does not require teachers to speak English very well.
• Only use the textbook.
• The least stressful because teaching occurs in the first language.
• Students learn the new language without contacting with native speakers.
Weakness:
• Students only translate word-to-word.
• Does not allow students to creat meaning in English
• Extensive memorization.
• Very little student-teacher and student-student interaction.
GMT leads to the inability to use the language for communication. As a result, the
DM is presented as reaction to the GMT.

The Direct Definition The Direct Method (The Natural method) means that meaning is
to be conveyed directly in the target language.
Method
_ Main characteristics
+ Grammar is taught inductively
+ No_translation is allowed.
+ Classroom instruction is conducted exclusively in the the target language
+ Correction pronunciation is emphasized

+ Natural Method / Reform Method.

+ The goal of instruction is learning how to use a TL/ FL to communicate.
+ The meaning is conveyed directly in the target language through the use of
demonstration and visual aids.
+ The basic rule: No translation is allowed.

Teacher's goals Thinking and Communicating.

Teachers who use the Direct Method intend that students learn
how to communicate in the target language.

Roles of TS & -Teacher: The director in the class activities.

SS -Students: Active , More learner-learner interaction.

Teacher-students: partners in the teaching/learning process

=> Students' role is less passive

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T's Responses The teacher helps students to self-correct.
to Ss' errors

Lang focus • Vocabulary is emphasised over grammar.

• Four skills are worked on, first listening and speaking are taught
and then reading and writing.
• Pronunciation should be taught on right from the beginning.
(receives much attention)

Teaching & • Without translation.

learning Classroom instruction is done in target language.
process
+ Demonstrations are used.
+ Teachers demonstrate the meaning by using realia, pictures, or texts and dialogs …
+ The learners are actively involved in using the language in realistic everyday
situations.

Techniques * 1. Reading aloud

Students take turns reading out loud sections of a passage, play, dialog,..
Teacher uses gestures, pictures, realia, examples,... to make the meaning of the
section clear.

2.Question and answer exercise.

Exercise is conducted only in the target language.
Students are asked questions and answers in full sentences => practise new words
and grammatical structures.

3.Getting students to self-correct.

The teacher has the students self-correct by asking them to make a choice between
what they said and an alternative answer he supplied. There are, however, other ways
of getting students to self-correct. For example, a teacher might simply repeat what a
student has just said, using a questioning voice to signal to the student that something
was wrong with it. Another possibility is for the teacher to repeat what the student
said, stopping just before the error. The student knows that the next word was wrong.

4.Conversation practice
Teacher asks individual students questions in the target language, which the students
have to understand to be able to answer correctly.
The students are able to ask each other their own questions.

5.Fill-in-the-blank exercise
Students fill in the blanks with new vocabulary items or with items of particular
grammar type.

6.Dictation
-First step: Teacher reads it at a normal speed, students listen.
-Second step: Teacher reads the passage phrase by phrase, students write down.
-Third step: Teacher reads again at a normal speed, students check.

7.Map drawing
The class included one example of a technique used to give students listening
comprehension practice.

8.Paragraph writing.
The teacher in this class asked the students to write a paragraph in their own words
on the major geographical features of the United States. They could have done this
from memory, or they could have used the reading passage in the lesson as a model.

14
 The Role of the
students’ native
language

Classroom T-S: supportive

interaction. S-T: teacher-directed
S-S: frequent.

T-S: partners in the teaching/learning process > Students’ role is less passive

Strengths & MERITS:

Weaknesses: • Suitable for private schools.
• An interesting and exciting way of teaching.
• Developing the skill of listening and speaking in very young children.

DEFECTS
• Pay high prices.
• Not suitable for public education.
• Demanding tremendously on the teacher.
• Not sufficient provision for systematic practice of structures.
• Not suitable for less talented students

The Audio Definition In all its variations and adaption, the AM came to be known in the 1950s as the
lingual method Audio-lingual Method (ALM)
Oral-based approach
Based on structural linguistic * and behaviourist psychology: the way to acquire the
sentence patterns of the target language is repetition of dialogues about everyday
situations.

Main Characteristic:
~ New materials are presented in dialogue form.
~ There is little grammatical explanation.
~ Teaching structural patterns is conducted by means of repetitive drills.
~ Great importance is attached to pronunciation.
~ There is imitation and memorization of set phrases.
~ Common techniques; dialogue memorization, backward build up, transformation
drill, substitution.
~ Immediate reinforcement of correct responses.

Teacher's Enable students to use the target language communicatively

goals

Roles of TS & -Teacher: provide model and direct language behaviour.

SS (orchestra leader, directing and controlling the language
behaviour of the students)

-Students: imitators of the teacher’s model.

T's Responses Students’ error are avoided

to Ss' errors

Some _ New vocabulary and structural patterns are presented through

characteristics dialogs
of the _ The dialogs are learned through imitation and repetition
teaching/learn _ Grammar is induced from the examples given; explicit grammar
ing process. rules are not provided
_ Cultural information is contextualized in the dialogs or
presented by the teacher. Students' reading and written work is
based upon the oral work they did earlier.

15
Lang focus • Oral activity - pronunciation/pattern drills/ conversation
practice.
• Grammar and translation.
__________________________________________________________________
+ The oral/aural skill receives most of the attention.
+ Pronunciation is taught from the beginning.
+ The natural order of skills presentation: listening, speaking,
reading and writing.
+ Vocabulary is kept to a minimum.

Teaching & -Use of authentic materials ( dialogs)

learning -Students use the language through communicative activities.
process
—------------------------
+ New vocabulary and structural patterns are presented through dialogues.
+ There is imitation and memorization of set phrases.
+ There is little or no grammatical explanation.
+ Audios, videos, visual aids, and language labs are used extensively.
+ Great importance is attached to pronunciation.
____________________
a. Classroom procedure.
1. Model dialogue, Repeat, Correction of Mistakes,....
2. Dialogues are adapted and then acted out.
3.Key structures are selected and used for pattern drills.
4. Follow-up reading and writing or vocabulary activities may be introduced.
5. Follow-up activities in a language laboratory.
b. Classroom activities.
+The ALM is called mim-mem method since mimicry and memorization are the
basic principles.
+______ make up the basic classroom practices.

Techniques * 1.Dialogue memorization.

Students memorise an opening dialogue using mimicry and then apply to role-play.
2.Backward build-up (expansion) drill
-Teacher: breaks a line into several parts.
-Students: repeat each part starting at the end of the sentence and “expanding”
backward through the sentence, adding each part in sequence.
3.Repetition drill
Students repeat the teacher's model as quickly and accurately as possible.
4. Chain drill
1. Teacher: begins the chain by greeting a particular student, or asking him a
question.
2. Students: ask and answer the question of each other one by one in a circular chain
around the classroom.
5. Single - slot substitution drill
1. Teacher: states a line from the dialogue. Next, the teacher says a word or a phrase
(called the cue).
2. Students: repeat the line the teacher has given them, substituting the cue into the
line in its proper place.
6. Multiple-slot substitution drill
1. Teacher: gives cue phrases, one at a time, that fit into different slots in the dialogue
line.
2. Students: recognize what part of speech each cue is, or at least, where it fits into
the sentence, and make any other changes, such as subject–verb agreement. They
then say the line, fitting the cue phrase into the line where it belongs.
7. Transformation drill.
1. Teacher: gives students a certain kind of sentence pattern, an affirmative sentence

16
 for example.
2. Students: transform this sentence into a negative sentenctie, change a statement
into a question, an active sentence into a passive one, or direct speech into reported
speech.
8. Question & answer drill
1. Teacher: ask students questions.
2. Students: answer the teacher’s questions very quickly.
9. Use of minimal pair.
1. Teacher: works with pairs of words which differ in only one sound; selects the
sounds to work on after doing a contrastive analysis, a comparison between the
students’ native language and the language they are studying.
2. Students: are asked to perceive the difference between the two words and later to
be able to say the two words.
10. Complete the dialogue
1. Teacher: give the dialogue with missing words.
2. Students: complete the dialogue by filling the blanks with the missing word.
11. Grammar game.
1. Teacher: designs various games to get students to practise a grammar point within
a context, using lots of repetition.
2. Students: express themselves

The Role of the

students’
native
language

Classroom _ There is student-to-student interaction in chain drills or when students take different
interaction roles in dialogs, but this interaction is teacher-directed
_ Most of the interaction is between teacher and students and is initiated by the
teacher.

S-S: in chain drills or take different role in dialogs.

T-S: teacher - directed.
T-S: main interaction.
S-S: teacher-directed

Strengths & Advantages:

Weaknesses: ~ It made language learning accessible to a large group of ordinary learner.
~ It was the 1st method to lay stress on the development of syntax.
~ Developing simple techniques and making use of the language lab.
~ Developing separation of the language skills.
~ Emphasising sentence production, control over grammatical structures and
development of oral ability of the learner.
Disadvantages:
- No creativity: Student repeat what they don’t understand.
- Techniques: “tedious + boring” -> fatigue.

17
Total physical Definition Comprehension approach
~Comprehension approach emphasises the importance of listening
response comprehension.
~ In the 1960s James Asher’s research gave rise to the hypothesis that
language learning starts first with understanding and ends with
production, just like a baby acquires a language.
~ After the learner internalises an extensive map of how the target
language works, speaking will appear spontaneously.

Methods from comprehension approach:

~ Natural Approach (Krashen and Terrell)
~ The Learnables (Winitz and Reed’s self-instructional program)
~ Lexical Approach (Michael Lewis)
~ Total Physical Response (TPR) (James Asher)

1, Natural approach
_ The natural approach shares certain features with the Direct Method.
_ Emphasis is placed on student’s developing basic communication skills through
receiving priority over form and thus vocabulary acquisition is stressed.
2, Comprehension approach
_Students listen to tape-recorded words, phrases, and sentences while they look at
pictures.
_ The meaning of the utterance is clear from the context the picture provides.
3, Lexical approach
_ Less concerned with student production and more concerned that students receive
and comprehend abundant input.
=> Asher reasoned that the fastest, least stressful way to achieve understanding of
any target language is to follow directions uttered by the instructor (without native
language translation).

Teacher's goals -To have students enjoy their experience of learning to communicate in
other language.
-To reduce the stress people feel when they are studying other language.
=> to base foreign language learning upon the way children learn their
native language.

Roles of TS & -Initially, the teacher is the director of all student behaviour.
SS The students are imitators of her nonverbal model.

-At some point (usually after 10-20 hours of instruction), some students will be 'ready
to speak'. At that point, there will be a role reversal with individual students directing
the teacher and the other students.

Some + The first phase of a lesson is one of modeling => the teacher issues commands to a
characteristics few students, then performs the actions with them.
of the teaching/
learning + The second phase, these same students demonstrate that they can understand the
process. commands by performing them alone.
+ The teacher next recombines elements of the commands to have students develop
flexibility in understanding unfamiliar utterances.
=> After learning to respond to some oral commands, the students learn to read and
write them. When students are ready to speak, they become the ones who issue the
commands. After students begin speaking, activities expand to include skits and
games.

T's Responses It is expected that students will make errors when they first begin
to Ss' errors speaking. Teacher should be tolerant of them and only correct major
errors.

18
 Lang focus -Vocabulary and grammatical structures are emphasised over other
language areas. These are embedded within imperatives.
-Understanding the spoken word should precede its production. The
spoken language is emphasised over written language.

Teaching & +The first phase: modelling.

learning +In the second phase, students demonstrate that they can understand the commands
process by performing them alone.
+The teacher next recombines elements of the commands to have students develop
flexibility in understanding unfamiliar utterances.
+After learning to respond to some oral commands, the students learn to read and
write them. When students are ready to speak, they become the ones who issue the
commands. After students begin speaking, activities expand to include skits and
game

Techniques * 1. Using Commands to Direct Behaviour

_ The use of commands is the major teaching technique of TPR.
_ The commands are given to get students to perform an action; the action makes the
meaning of the command clear.
_ Steps:
+ At first, the teacher performs the actions with the students.
+ Later the teacher directs the students alone.
+ The students’ actions tell the teacher whether or not the students understand.
_ Teachers should vary the sequence of the commands so that students do not simply
memorize the action sequence without ever connecting the actions with the language.
_ Asher claims that all grammar features can be communicated through imperatives.

2. Role reversal
_ This technique reverses the role of the first technique.
_ Students command their teacher and classmates to perform some actions.
_ Students should not be encouraged to speak until they are ready

3. Action Sequence
_ When the students learn more and more of the target language, a long series of
connected commands can be given, which together comprise a whole procedure.
_ This series of commands is called an action sequence or operation.
_ Many activities can be broken down into an action sequence that students can be
asked to perform.

The Role of the The native language is rarely used after the introduction.
students’
native
language

Classroom ~ The teacher interacts with the whole group of students and with individual students.
interaction. ~ Students perform the actions together. Students can learn by watching each other.
~ Initially, the interaction is characterized by the teacher speaking and the students
responding nonverbally. Later on, the students become more verbal and the teacher
responds nonverbally.
~ As students begin to speak, they issue commands to one another as well as to the
teacher.

Strengths & The Advantages of the TPR

Weaknesses: +It is fun, easy and memorable.
+It is a good tool for building vocabulary.
+ It can facilitate students with the meaning in real context.
+ It does not require a great deal of preparation.

19
 + Help the students immediately understand the target language.
+ TPR is inclusive and works well a class with mixed ability levels.
+ Help learners achieve fluency faster in learning language.
+ It benefits the Struggling students.
+Creates positive thinking.
The Disadvantages of the TPR
• Students are not generally given the opportunity to express their own thoughts in a
creative way.
• It can be a challenge for shy students
• It is not a very creative method.
• Overusing TPR causes someone easily bored.
• Certain target languages may not be suited to this method.
• It is limited, since everything cannot be explained with this method.

Communicative Definition Creating such an environment that helps maximising the

communicative abilities of students. *
language
teaching Characteristic:
(CLT) ~ - Almost everything that is done with a communicative intent. Communicative
activities have three features in common (Johson and Morrow 1981): information
gap, choice, and feedback (differentiate with display question, chain drill,
transformation)
+ Information gap: one person knows something, the other does not.
+ Choice: the speaker has a choice of what to say and how to say it
+ Feedback: the purpose is achieved based upon the information that is received from
the listener.
~ the use of authentic materials
~ group work.
________________
-Can be determined by the extent to which learners are dependent on the teacher
-Teachers give clear instructions and provide the appropriate environment for
learners to interact and exchange information.
-Communicative activities are motivating and meaningful
-Communicative tasks are realistic.
-Performance in communicative tests reflects an underlying competence .

_Linguistic competence: the knowledge of forms and meanings of a language

Communicative competence: the ability to use a language appropriately (knowing
when to say what to whom and how)
_ CLT is a pedagogical approach: which has enhanced the way language is taught
and learned
_ CLT is a methodology: by which learners learn language through interaction
_ Primary objective of CLT is: enable learners to communicate effectively in their
target language
_ A shift from a Linguistic Structure-centered Approach to Communicative Approach
_ Communicative competence is the goal of language teaching and learning
_ Communicative Language Teaching aims broadly to apply the theoretical
perspective of the Communicative Approach by making communicative competence
the goal of language teaching and by acknowledging the interdependence of language
and communication.

Teacher's goals - Enable students to communicate in the target language.

- to help students to understand the communication process which consists of the
linguistic forms, meanings, and functions.
- Students need knowledge of the linguistic forms, meanings and functions.

Roles of TS & -Teacher: facilitator, an advisor, a ‘co-communicative’

20
SS -Students: communicators, manager
>> learner-centred
—---------------------
- Teacher:
+ facilitator: The teacher facilitates communication and creates an ideal
communication environment by performing several activities within the classroom
where students can interact among themselves and promote communication
+ advisor/ co-communicator: The teachers participate in the interaction
process as independent participants with the students to maintain a healthy
environment

- Students:
+communicator: Students are actively engaged in negotiating meaning—in
trying to make themselves understood—even when their knowledge of the target
language is incomplete
+manager, (more responsible for their own learning.)
>> >>> CLT is a learner-centred approach in which the learners are given
importance.

T's Responses Students’ Errors are tolerated during fluency- based activities
to Ss' errors and are seen as a natural outcome of the development of
communication skills.
The teacher may note the errors during fluency activities and
return to them later with an accuracy- based activity.

Errors of form are seen as natural outcome of the development of

communication skills.

Lang focus -Acquisition is by far the more important process.

-Only acquired language is readily available for natural, fluent
communication.
-Learning cannot turn into acquisition.
______________________________________________________
+ Language functions might be emphasised over forms.
(Functional syllabus) A variety of forms are introduced for each
function depending on the students’ level.
+ Students work with language at the discourse or
suprasentential level. They learn about cohesion and coherence.
+ Students work on all four skills from the beginning.
+ Fluency are emphasised over accuracy

7, The feeling of the student dealt with

_ By learning to communicate students will be more motivated to study a foreign
language since they will feel they are learning to do something useful.
_ Teachers give students an opportunity to express their individuality by having them
share their ideas and opinions on a regular basis.
_ Student security is enhanced by the many opportunities for cooperative interactions
with their fellow students and the teacher.
8, Language viewed & culture viewed
_ Culture is the everyday lifestyle of people who use the language.
_ There are certain aspects of it that are especially important to communication—the
use of nonverbal behavior.
_ Language is for communication.
_ Linguistic competence is just one part of communicative competence.
_ Knowledge of the functions language is used for.

9, Language areas & language skills

_ Students work on all four skills from the beginning

21
 _ Language functions might be emphasized over forms. Typically, a functional
syllabus is used.
_ Students work with language at the suprasentential or discourse level. They learn
about cohesion and coherence.

Teaching & -Use of dialogs

learning -Students learn the language by imitating and repeating dialogs.
process —---------------------—---------------------—---------------------
-Everything is done with a communicative intent, concluding 3 features: information
gap, choice and feedback.
-Students must use authentic materials.
-Activities in CLT are often carried out by students in pairs/groups in order to
promote communication

Techniques * 1. Authentic Materials

_ Advocating the use of language materials authentic to native speakers of the target
language
_ Helping students transfer what they learn in the classroom to the outside world and
to expose students to natural language in a variety of situations
_ For students with lower proficiency in the target language use more accessible
materials
_ With a lower level class use realia that do not contain a lot of language, but about
which a lot of discussion could be generated.
Enables S to transfer what they learned inside the classroom to outside the world,
exposing students to a variety of real life situations.
e.g: newspaper articles, magazines, TV programs, songs,...
2. Scrambled Sentences
Teach S about the cohesion and coherence properties of language.
_ The students are given a passage (a text) with scrambled sentences
_ They are told to unscramble the sentences
_ Purpose: Teaching students about the cohesion and coherence properties of
language.
_ In addition to written passages, students might also be asked to :
+ Put the pictures of a picture strip story in order and write lines to accompany
the pictures.
+ Unscramble the lines of a mixed-up dialog.
3. Language Games
Give to S valuable communicative practice.
_ Games are used frequently in Communicative Language Teaching.
_ If games are properly designed, they give students valuable communicative
practice.
_ Morrow's three features of communicative activities were manifested in the card
game we observed in the following way:
+ An information gap existed because the speaker did not know what her
classmate was going to do the following weekend.
+ The speaker had a choice as to what she would predict (which sport) and
how she would predict it (which form her prediction would take).
+ The speaker received feedback from the members of her group.
+ If her prediction was incomprehensible, then none of the members of her
group would respond. If she got a meaningful response, she could presume
her prediction was understood.

22
 4. Picture Strip Story
S share information or work together to arrive at a solution.
_ Many activities can be done with picture strip stories.
_ The activity is an example of using a problem-solving task as a communicative
technique.
_ Problem-solving tasks can be structured so that students share information or work
together to arrive at a solution.
5. Role-play
Give to S the opportunity to practise communicating in different social contexts and
indifferent social roles.
_ Role plays are very important in Communicative Language Teaching
Role plays can be set up in two ways:
+ In a very structured way: The teacher tells the students who they are and
what they should say
+ In a less structured way: The teacher introduces the context, but the students
determine what they will say
_ The latter is more in keeping with CLT because it gives the students more of a
choice.

The Role of the + Judicious use of the students’ native language is permitted in CLT.
students’
+ Whenever possible, the target language should be used not only during
native
language communicative activities, but also for explaining the activities to the students or in
assigning homework.

Classroom S-S: dominant

interaction. Various configurations: pairs / small groups / whole group.
—------------------------
Students interact a great deal with one another. They do this in various
configurations: pairs, triads, small groups, and whole group.

Teacher: establishes situations for students’ communication.

_____________________

+ The teacher establishes situations that prompt communication between and among the students.
+ Students interact a great deal with one another. They do this in various configurations: pairs, triads, small
groups, and whole group.

Strengths &
Weaknesses:

23
Procedure:
+ PPP (present- practice, production)
+ Harmer’s ESA
+ Pre- / While- / Post-procedure
+ Task-based learning / instruction

PPP (present - practice - production)

_ The PPP acronym stands for Presentation, Practice and Production.
_ Each letter means a stage of the learning process.
_ The first stage is called Presentation, where the teacher gives an explanation
on the topic. The Practice Stage is the time for the students to use the
language in a semi-controlled activity. And the Production stage gives the
students the opportunity to use the language freely.
_ Nowadays, a new version of this method has been developed; this is called
ESA. It stands for Engage, Study and Activate.
_ They are almost the same stages with different names.
_ It works in combination to create an effective communicative language
learning

PRESENTATION: Teacher presents an item of language in a clear context to get

across its meaning.
PRACTICE: Teacher give students opportunities to apply new language with
guidance and support
PRODUCTION: Teacher encourages students to demonstrate use of new language in
context.

PRESENTATION:
- Using pictures, objects or other material, present a real life situation that will
serve as the context for the language lesson.
- Give model sentences.
PRACTICE:
- Students do individual and choral repetition of the model sentences.
- Correct students mistakes
- Repeat drills: model - repetition.
PRODUCTION:
- Students create their own sentences applicate to the context.
=> Similar to Audio-lingual drills, but PPP comes more meaning than a simple
substitution drill.

*Teacher’s role:
In the presentation stage:
- The teacher speaks up to 75% of the time, as they are presenting information.
- The teacher focus on accuracy when correcting students at this stage.
- The teacher asks concept check questions to see if students have

24
 understood.
In the practice stage:
- The teacher uses activities to practise the new language orally and in written
format.
- The teacher models and corrects when mistakes occur.
- The teacher encourages lots of pair work and group work during this stage.
In the Production stage:
- The teacher monitors but does not correct until the end.
- Focus is now on fluency and rather than accuracy.

*Learner’s role:
In the presentation stage:
- Students is the listener.
In the practice stage:
- Students speak up to 60% of the time, teacher up to 40%.
In the Production stage:
- Students speak up to 90% of the time, teacher up to 10%.
- Students use the language in a natural, everyday context, through a
practical task within minimal input from the teacher.

1. The presentation stage

This is where the language is introduced, or presented to the learners, Usually by
introducing a context or situation.
_ Keys
1. Attention in the Classroom.
2. Perception and Grading of Language.
3. Target Language Understanding.
4. Short-term Memory in the Classroom.
_ Activities
+ Tell or act out a short story or anecdote.
+ Play a short audio clip.
+ Show objects you've brought.
2. The Practice Stage
_ The practice stage is when students use the language in a controlled way.
_ Divided in two
1. A controlled practice
2. Free practice.
_ Keys how is used to teach
+ Pre-learning
+ Practice Validity
+ Volume (Amount) of Practice
+ Success Orientation
_ Activities
+ Drill sentences or sounds, chorally or individually
+ Substitution drill in pairs
+ Sentence matching activities
+ Gap fill exercises
+ Pair work asking and answering questions
3. The Production Stage
_ The production stage is where the language is used in a more open
_ Keys

25
 1. Volume (Amount) of Production
2. Production Validity
3. Production Contextualization
4. Student Autonomy
_ Activities
+ Role-plays
+ Communication tasks
+ Collaborative tasks
+ Discussion activities

_PROS
+ It's easy to learn for new teachers
+ It's very flexible
+ It's easy to plan for, and has a logical progression
+ It works for most types of class, including larger classes
_ CONS
+ Weaker learners may overuse the target language from the practice session, so it
sounds unnatural
+ Learners may not be sure how to use target language in different contexts
+ It can be boring if used repeatedly for higher level students
Weak Points:
- Teacher-centred
- For beginner and elementary students, less likely for higher levels.
- Students do not learn in straight lines.
Solutions:
- Keep teacher talking time (TTT) to a minimum
- Promote student Talk time (STT)
- Demonstrate how to do something
- Reduce and simplify language.
- Break instruction into steps.
- Encourage independence during production.

ARC
Keith Johnson offered the “deep-and-strategy” as an alternative, where by
encouraging the students into immediate production, you turn the procedure on its
head.
Authentic use
Restricted use
Clarification use.

OHE
Observe (read or listen to language)
Hypothesise (about how the language works)
Experiment (on the basic of the hypothesis)

III
Illustration (where they show students examples of language like the transcript of
conversations)
Interaction (they give them discovery a activities and questions about the
knowledge; e.g How would you write this spoken language formally?)
Induction: (through such noticing routine students will grasp new fact about

26
language)

27
 Engage Study Activities (ESA)
_ Engage
+ This means getting the students interested in the class. Engaging students is important for the
learning process.
+ Teachers should focus on facilitating engagement and making sure that every student has at least
spoken once before moving on.
_ Study
+ Every lesson usually needs to have some kind of language focus. The study element of a lesson
could be a focus on any aspect of the language, such as grammar or vocabulary and pronunciation. A
study stage could also cover revision and extension of previously taught material.
_ Activate
+ Telling students about the language is not really enough to help them learn it. For students to
develop their use of English they need to have a chance to produce it. In an activate stage the
students are given tasks which require them to use not only the language they are studying that day,
but also other language that they have learnt.

I. Definition:
- The teacher tries to arouse the students interest, thue including their emotions. This could be done by using
pictures, objects, posters, cartoons, audios, videos, stories games.
- Study activities are these where the student are asked to focus on language and how it is constructed. They
range from the study and practice of a single sound to an investigation of how a writer achieves a particular
effect in a long text.
- This refers to activities which are designed to get the students using language as freely and communicatively
as they can the objects is not focus on language construction and for practice specific lots of language, but for
students to use all language which may be appropriate for a given situation or topic.

II. Variations:
According to Jeremy Harmer, ESA builds flexibility through 3 lesson procedures:

Straight arrow lessons:

Engage -> Study -> Activate. (ESA straight arrows sequences)
- Engage: students and teacher look at a picture of robots.
- Study: students are introduced to “can” and “can’t”
- Activate: students design their own robot.

+ A ‘Straight Arrow’ lesson is where the teacher takes the lesson in the ESA order.
+ First the teacher Engages the students, then they Study the language, finally they try to Activate the
language by putting it into production.
+ Straight Arrows lessons can work very well with certain structures.
+ The above example shows students the meaning of can/can’t and how they are constructed, allows them
to use the language in a controlled way (in the study sequence) and then gives them a chance to activate
the language in a fun way.
+ However, such lessons may not be the best way to deal with more complex language. ( The lessons will
also become very predictable and potentially boring if this is the only way we teach.)
Boomerang lessons:
ESA (A) Boomerang sequence:
- Engage: Teacher and students watch a video about famous action.
- Activate: one students acts as the interviewer and one as the interviewee.
- Study: Students write a sentence correctly after being shared with some common mistakes.
- Activate: students will perform another practice interview.

28
+ A ‘Boomerang’ sequencing of the lesson gives us more possibilities, while still incorporating ESA.
+ This variance on the ‘Straight Arrow’ technique ensures that the teacher is only supplying the students
with language when they have already demonstrated that they do not know it and have need of it.
+ The difficulty with this sequence is that the teacher has to try and predict what problems the students are
likely to have in the first activate stage in order to have materials/ideas for helping students in the study
phase.
+ Such a lesson might be more useful for higher level students as they will need quite a lot of language for
the activate stages.

Patchwork lesson
EAASASEA (etc) Patchwork sequence.
E.g:
- Engage: Teacher and students look at a picture of seen bathers.
- Activate: Students act out a dialogue.
- Study: The teacher does vocabulary work.
- Activate: Students describe themselves.
- Study: the teacher focuses the student’s attention on the relative clause construction.
- Engage: the teacher discusses advertisements with the students.
- Activate: The Ss write a radio commercial for a sunscreen.

+ The ‘Straight Arrow’ sequence is useful as the teacher knows what the students need and will take them
logically to the point where they can use that language.
+ The ‘Boomerang’ sequence is also useful as it allows the teacher to see what the students need before
teaching the language.
+ However, many lessons aren’t as straightforward as this and will require a lot of mini- sequences
building to a whole. This is a ‘Patchwork’ ESA lesson.
+ Such lessons allow for a greater deal of flexibility and provide a nice balance between study and
activation.

_ Ideas for engage phase

+ Typical engage phases include discussion and prompting based around pictures, drawings, mime,
video, short tape extract, short reading text, headline, real objects brought into class, etc.
+ It can also involve a general discussion without prompts (for example if the students are going to
read a text about Bill Gates in the study phase the teacher may ask “What do you know about Bill
Gates?”; “What would you like to know about him?”, etc.)
+ The most important element is to plan this stage so the teacher doesn’t run out of
ideas/prompts and is able to fully engage the students before moving on to the next
phase of the lesson.

Ideas for study phase

+ Common study activities include:
+ Explanation/elicitation – teacher explains or elicits from the students the structure/formation/meaning of
new language.
+ Pronunciation – language drills (choral and individual repetition), tongue- twisters, mouth diagrams to
show how we form particular sounds.
+ Spelling – hangman, word searches, crosswords, unscrambling jumbled words.
+ Meaning – gap fills (students fill in missing words in sentence), matching exercises such as matching

29
 pictures to definitions, matching answers to questions, words to definitions, true or false activities etc.
+ Word order – unscrambling jumbled sentences into the correct sentence order and inserting words into
sentences in the correct place.
+ Analysis – looking at texts/dialogues and analyzing typical constructions.

Ideas for activate phase

+ Role-play – students act out everyday roles in realistic situations. For example, doctor and patient, lost
person asking local resident for directions, shop assistant and customer, etc. It is vital when doing role-
play to allow the students enough time to plan their roles and develop what they are going to say.
+ Surveys – students conduct surveys as to how many/which of the students do a certain thing, etc.
+ Producing materials – students, in pairs or groups, put together an advertisement, brochure, news
broadcast ,etc, relating to the language point.
+ Communication games – there are many resource books full of games that will practice particular
language points. Many of these games have been adapted from games we have all played such as
monopoly, clue/cluedo etc. Most good schools will have copies of these books. The key word here is
communication.
+ Debate/discussion – this can be whole class or group debate on a particular topic.
+ Story building – students create stories based on topics, headlines, picture prompts, etc.

*Engage: this is the points in a teaching sequence where teacher try to arouse the Ss's interest, thuế involving
their emotions.
Activities and materials which frequently engage students include:
- Games
- Music
- Discussions
- Stimulating pictures.
- Dramatic stories
- Amusing….. , etc
.When students are engaged, they learn better than when they are partly or wholly disengaged.
*Study: means any stage at which the construction or language is the main focus. Study activities are those
where the students are asked to focus in on language and how it is constructed.
Some typical areas for study might be.
- The study and practice of the vowels sound in ship and sleep.
- The study and practice of the third person singular of the present simple.
=> The study and practice of inviting patterns.
=> The study and practice of the way we use pronouns written discourse.
=> The study and practice of paragraph organisation.
=> The study and practice of the rules for using make and do.
*Activated: this element describes exercises and activities which are designed to get students using language
as freely and communicatively as they can.
Some example are:
- Role - play
- Advertisement design
- Describe and draw
- Story and poem writing
- Writing in groups.
.These ESA elements need to be present in most lessons in most lessons or teaching sequences.

SUGGESTIONS:

30
- Lesson often begin with warm-up activities.
- Watch a short video.
- Listen to an audio file.
- Discuss a picture.
- Engage in an introducing activity.
- Students enjoy rewards use the trophy award system.
- Help all students stay engaged throughout the class.
- Choose correction methods that guide students without making them feel that they have done something
wrong.
- Praise and reward students often for effort rather than accuracy.

31
Pre-While-Post procedure:

Pre While Post

Rationale ~ Ss need to develop an ~ Ss focus their attention on the ~ Ss extend and integrate the
interest and desire to work listening or reading text and understanding and knowledge
with it complete tasks which develop and they gained into other skills areas
~ Ss need to know key deepen their understanding of the or contexts.
vocabulary they will hear or text progressively. ~ Ss need an opportunity
see. ~ They can also do tasks that help to personalise what they have
~ Ss need to understand them develop specific listening heard and read
why they are going to listen and reading skills/ ~ Ss need to see how the text
to/ watch/ read the text. ~ Ss need to check their answer in relates or is applicable to them
pairs or small groups before and the world outside the
sharing answer with the whole classroom.
class.

They can: ~ talk about their

knowledge or and
experience with the topic of
the listening or reading.
~ make predictions about
what the text will be about
~ work on the meaning of
key vocabulary in the text

Activities ~ Word splash ~ Listen/ read and draw ~ Discussion questions

~ Match vocabulary to ~ Answer general information ~ Role-plays
picture. (gist) question. ~ Project (ex. Creat a …)
~ Categorise vocabulary ~ Listen/ read and arrange pictures ~ Make and tell a similar or
under headings. or events in order personal story.
~ Predict from a headline, ~ Listen/ read and find the ~ Complete and discuss a
title, group of words, mistakes. noticing task such as “Find all of
pictures, etc. ~ Listen/ read and answer detail the verbs in the past tense” or
~ Arrange pictures in the questions “Underline the parts of the
order to be confirmed or ~ Listen/ read and fill in the blank questions that make them polite”
changed after listening to, ~ Complete a grid ~ Speculate about what happened
reading to the text. before or after the events in the
~ Talk about the main text
topics. ~ Speculate about the people in
the text

32
33
Task-based learning:
~ Defining task: “A Task is an activity where the target language is used by the learner
for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome.” (Willis, 1996)

~ Pre-task
+ Introduction to topic and task.
+ Teacher explores topic with the class, helps students to understand
instructions and prepare.
~ Task Cycle
+ Task: Students do the task in pairs or small groups while teacher monitors.
+ Planning: Students prepare to report to the whole class (oral or written) how
they did the task, and/or what they decided or discovered.
+ Report: Some groups present their reports to the class, or exchange written
reports and compare results.
~ Language Focus
+ Analysis: Students examine and discuss specific features.
+ Practice: Teacher conducts practice of new words, phrases, and patterns that
occur in the data.
____________________________________________________________________
~ PRE-TASK:
+ The teacher introduces the topic and gives the students clear instructions on
what they will do at the task stage and helps the students to recall some
language useful for the task.
+ The pre-task stage can also often include playing a recording of people
doing the task.
~ TASK CYCLE:
+ Task: The students complete a task in pairs or groups using the language
resources that they have as the teacher monitors and offers encouragement.
+ Planning: Students prepare a short oral or written report to tell the class
what happened during their task.
They then practise what they are going to say in their groups. Meanwhile, the
teacher is available for the students to ask for advice to clear up any
language questions they may have.
+ Report: Students then report back to the class orally or read the written
report. The teacher chooses the order of when students will present their
reports and may give the students some quick feedback on the content. At
this stage the teacher may also play a recording of others doing the same
task for the students to compare.
~ LANGUAGE FOCUS:
+ Analysis: The teacher then highlights relevant parts from the text of the
recording for the students to analyse. They may ask students to notice
interesting features within this text. The teacher can also highlight the
language that the students used during the report phase for analysis.
+ Practice: Finally,the teacher selects language areas to practise based upon
the needs of the students and what emerged from the task and report
phases. The students then do practise activities to increase their confidents and
make a note of useful language.
~ Willes (1996’) proposes 6 task types.
- Listing
- Ordering & sorting
- Comparing
- Problem solving

34
 - Sharing personal experiences
- Creative tasks.
~ LISTING AND/ OR BRAINSTORMING:
+ Students can list people, places, things, actions, reasons, everyday problems,
things to do in various circumstances etc.
+ Examples:
- In pairs, agree on a list of four or five people who were famous in the
20th century and give at least one reason for including each person.
- Can you guess your partner’s busiest day? On your own, make a list of
all the things he/ she did. Then check with your partner. Were there
any things you forgot.
~ ORDERING AND SORTING.
+ This can be sequencing, ranking or classifying.
+ Example:
- In pairs, look at your list of famous people. Which people are most
popular to least popular, and be prepared to justify your order to
another pair.
- Look at the four pictures. They are mixed up. Work in pairs. Put the
four pictures in a sequence so that they tell a story to another pair.
~ COMPARING:
+ Finding similarities and differences.
+ Example:
- Compare your list of possible 20th century icons with your partner’s
list. Did you have any people in common? Tell each other why you
chose them. How many reasons did you both think of? Finally, combine
your two lists, but keep it to five people.
- Tell your picture story to another pair and listen to their. Compare
stories - make a list of the main similarities and differences.
- Spot the differences between the two pictures.
~ PROBLEM - SOLVING:
+ Example: Think of a town centre where there is too much traffic. In twos, think
of three alternative solutions to this problem. List the advantages and
disadvantages of each alternative. Then decide which alternative would be
the cheapest one, the most innovative one, the most environmentally friendly
one. Report your decisions to another pair/ group/ the class, and discuss
with them which solution would be the best one to put forward to the local
government.
SHARING PERSONAL EXPERIENCE:
+ Learners are asked to recount their personal experiences and tell stories.
+ Teachers need to add a clear goal.
+ Example:
Think about a best friend and tell your partner about him/ her. Discuss why
he/ she is so special to you.
CREATIVE TASKS
+ Example:
Make a poster about the famous people in the 20th century that reveals your
attitude towards them. Then, prepare to talk about one aspect of your poster
to the rest of the class.
Ex: Listing ~ Ordering and sorting ~ Comparing ~ Problem-solving ~ Sharing personal
experience ~ Creative tasks.

_ What is task-based learning?

35
 + A different way to teach languages by placing learners in real-life situations oral ->
communication is essential for doing a special task.
+ Getting students to use their skills at the current level -> developing language
through its use.
+ Placing the focus of students toward achieving a goal where language becomes a
tool, making the use of language a necessity.
_ Why choosing TBL as a language teaching method
+ Teaching does not and can not determine the way the learners’ language develop” ,
“teachers and learners can not simply choose what is to be learned”.
+ The elements of the target language do not simply slot into place in a predictable
order à Teachers have to let go of the control of the learning process.
_ Teacher’s goal: increasing learner activity (student-centered)
_ The importance of teacher’s role:
+ Producing and supplying different tasks as the learner have the opportunity to
experiment spontaneously, individually and originally with the foreign language
(new personal experience)
+ Taking responsibility for the consciousness raising process :
●Helping learners to recognize differences and similarities.
●Helping learners to correct, clarify, deepen learners’ perceptions of the foreign
language.
_ The process of the learner:
Be exposed to observe it -> Hypothesize at the individual level -> Experience
_What is a task ?
Tasks are activities where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative
purpose in order to achieve an outcome ( Willis ).
_A task-based approach to language
+ Allows for a needs analysis to be matched to identified student needs
+ Supported by the research findings of classroom-centered language learning
+ Allows evaluation to be based on testing referring to task-based criteria
+ Allows for form-focussed instructions
_ How to select topics?
+ •Motivate learners
+ •Engage learners’ attention
+ •Promote learners’ language development
_ Advantages:
+ It gives the student a different way of understanding language as a tool instead of as
a specific goal.
+ It can take teaching from abstract knowledge to real world application
+ A task is helpful in meeting the immediate needs of the learners and provides a
framework for creating classes that are interesting and that can address student
needs.
=> A class can be more boring and inefficient when lacking necessary tasks at the
right time.
+ Students’ communication skills can be improved by doing tasks and presenting
them to the class.
+ Students’ confidence can also be improved due to the same reason.
+ Students’ understanding of the language also increases profoundly as it’s used in
real-life scenarios.
=> TBL is useful for moving the focus of the learning process from the teacher to

36
 the student.

_ Pre-task
+ Teacher identifies and introduces the topic à Help students understand the theme
and objectives of the task -> Learners feel motivated to perform the task.
+ Teacher recalls and activates existing knowledge by exploring the topic and
highlighting useful words and phrases needed during task performance.
_ Task Cycle:
+ Consisting of task, planning and report.
+ -Giving learners the opportunity to perform real world tasks with teacher’s
monitoring.
+ Having students work in pairs or in small groups
_ Planning:
+ Teacher should provide all the necessary input by acting as a facilitator.
+ Learners plan how to present the outcome of their work, generally by exchanging
and comparing final products.
+ The emphasis is on clarity, organization and accuracy
_ Report:
+ Students report the conclusions they have reached
+ -Teacher listens and comments on the content of students’ reports.
+ -Teachers takes note language items that are still causing problems to address them
in language focus.
=> This component gives learners practice in public, prestige use of language and
increases students’ exposure to spoken language.
_ Language Focus:
+ Emphasis on language features used during the two previous stages.
+ Provides opportunities for students to analyze and practice specific linguistic
features arising from the task.
_ How to analyze ?
+ Teacher may ask students what words or phrases were used in a particular part of
the presentations.
+ Teachers may simply repeat the phrases used by students in the presentations.

37
 + If errors occur, there should be corrections on them
_ How to practice:
+ Choral repetition of the phrases identified and classified
+ Memory challenge games based on partially-erased examples
+ Sentence completion
+ Kim’s games with new words and phrases
+ Homework to practice new words or structures
_ Teacher and students’ roles change within a task-based approach.
_ Learning and teaching are regarded as collaborative work.
_ Classes are student- centered.
_ TEACHER’S ROLES:
+ Facilitators
+ Leader and organizers of discussion
+ Manager of groups/ pair work
+ Motivators
_ TEACHER’S ACTIVITIES:
+ Address student’s needs and interests.
+ Promote real language use.
+ Engage students in performing a task and language experts.
+ Provide language feedback.
_ STUDENT’S ROLES: leader, risk taker, participant
_ STUDENT’S ACTIVITIES:
+ work in pairs/ in groups
+ decide which topics among teacher’s option to begin with
+ face challenges in use of target language
+ make the most of opportunity to develop target language
_ TASK-BASED LESSON
_ TOPICS TO TASKS
+ Going from topics to tasks is the best way for integrating a task - based
approach.
_ SUGGESTION OF STUDENTS
+ Students need encouraging to suggest their own topics from a given list of a teacher,
which enhances awareness.
+ Students are more motivated and engaged in the learning process.
+ Students make decisions based on their interest which ends in meaningful learning.
_ TASK CLASSIFICATION
+ Various types of tasks should be classified according to cognitive process after
choosing the topic.

38
 Behaviourism * Cognitivism Constructivism *
Mentalism

Assumption Behaviorism is an area of Cognitivism is a learning theory that focuses Constructivism is the theory which claims that
psychological study that on how information is received, organized, learners construct knowledge rather than just
focuses on observing and stored and retrieved by the mind. Cognitivism passively take in information. As people experience
analyzing how controlled looks beyond observable behaviors and view the world and reflect upon those experiences, they
environmental changes affect learning as internal mental process. build their own representations and incorporate new
behaviour information into their pre-existing knowledge
(schemas)

Theorists/ A.Ivan Pavlov (1849 - 1936)) Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

(dog) Vygotsky (1896-1934):
founders B.John B.Watson (1878 - 1936)
(baby)
C.Edward Thorndike (1874-
1949)
D. B.F. Skinner (1904 - 1990)

Definition/ Behaviorism, also known Mentalism / Cognitivism is a learning Constructivism means that a learner actively
core principal as behavioral theory according to which mental builds, or constructs, his or her own
psychology, is a theory of processes mediate learning. knowledge - and continually rebuilds it to
learning based on the account for information that doesn’t fit the
old knowledge.
idea that all behaviors
are acquired through Principle:
conditioning. 1. Learning is a search for meaning.
Conditioning occurs 2. Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts.
3. Teachers must understand students’ mental models and
through interaction with assumptions.
the environment. 4. The purpose of learning is to construct the meaning.

Application +The basic teaching technique associated with a 1. Modeling an activity.

cognitive theory of language learning is the 2. Actively coaching a student.
problem- solving task. 3. Collaborative learning with peers in order to share
+In ESP, these exercises have often been modeled views- debates - discussions - peer - reviews
on activities associated with the leaner’s specialism. 4. Reflective analysis of a topic.

Summary ~ A behavior will only +Human being are born with an innate +Constructivism is a learning theory that
occur if given the right ‘blueprint’ for language. ‘equates learning with creating meaning from
environment or +Children acquire language as quickly experience’
antecedent. and effortlessly because they do not +Learning is more meaningful to students
when they are able to interact with a problem
have to figure out all the rules of their or concept.
~ The behavior is more or language, only those that are specific to +Constructivism can help engage and
less likely to reoccur their particular language. motivate your students by making them take
based on the +The brain as a part dedicated to a more active role in the learning process.
reinforcement or language acquisition. + Constructivism utilizes interactive teaching
consequences that follow, +General cognitive function is used to strategies to create meaningful contexts that
help students construct knowledge based on
such as rewards and acquire language .
their own experiences.
punishments. +Using mental strategies. + It is often used to teach higher-order
+Learners are invited to analyze thinking skills such as reasoning and
language, notice patterns, deduce problem-solving and also helps students to
rules… transfer knowledge to new and different
+The cognitive code view of learning situations.
seems to answer many of the theoretical + Examples include role-playing or
stimulating, debating controversial current
and practical problems raised by
counts, cooperative learning groups to teach
behaviorism. multiple perspectives and allowing students
+It treats the learners as thinking beings to engage in real-world activities like
and puts them at the center of the internships.
learning process. + Problem - based learning teacher engages
his students by challenging them to answer a
real - world problem.

Grammar-Translation The Direct Method The Audio lingual Total physical Communicative
Method, method response language teaching

Definition + a METHOD of The Direct Method In all its variations Comprehension Creating such an
foreign or second (The Natural method) and adaption, the AM approach environment that
language teaching means that meaning came to be known in ~Comprehension helps maximizing

39
 which makes use is to be conveyed the 1950s as the approach the communicative
Translation and directly in the target Audio-lingual Method emphasises the abilities of
Grammar study as language. (ALM) importance of students.
the main teaching Oral-based approach listening .
and learning Based on structural comprehension.
activities linguistic and ~ In the 1960s James
+ Originally used to behaviourist Asher’s research
teach Latin and psychology: the way gave rise to the
Greek to acquire the hypothesis that
sentence patterns of language learning
the target language is starts first with
repetition of understanding and
dialogues about ends with
everyday situations. production, just like
a baby acquires a
language.
~ After the learner
internalises an
extensive map of
how the target
language works,
speaking will
appear
spontaneously.

Teacher's goals ~ Helping students Thinking and Enable students to -To have students - Enable students
read and appreciate Communicating. use the target enjoy their to communicate in
foreign language language experience of the target
literature. Teachers who use communicatively learning to language.
~ Students need to the Direct Method communicate in - to help students
learn the grammar intend that students other language. to understand the
rules and learn how to -To reduce the communication
vocabulary. communicate in the stress people feel process which
~ Language learning target language. when they are consists of the
provides students studying other linguistic forms,
with good mental language. meanings, and
exercises. -> to base foreign functions.
~ Developing language learning - Students need
student's general upon the way knowledge of the
mental discipline. children learn their linguistic forms,
native language. meanings and
functions.

Roles of TS & -The teacher is the -Teacher: The -Teacher: provide -Initially, the teacher -Teacher: an
SS authority in the director in the class model and direct is the director of all advisor, a ‘co-
classroom. -> activities. language behaviour. student behaviour. communicative’
Teacher talking time (orchestra leader, The students are -Students:
is more. -Students: Active , directing and imitators of her communicators
More learner-learner controlling the nonverbal model.
-The students do interaction. language behaviour -At some point (usually
what teacher says so of the students) after 10-20 hours of
they can learn what instruction), some
she knows -> -Students: imitators of students will be 'ready to
students are passive the teacher’s model. speak'. At that point,
>> TEACHER- there will be a role
CENTRED reversal with individual
students directing the
teacher and the other
students.

T's Responses to Incorrect answers The teacher helps Students’ error are It is expected that Students’ Errors
Ss' errors are corrected by the students to self- avoided students will make are tolerated
teacher. correct. errors when they during fluency-
(supplying correct first begin speaking. based activities
answer) Teacher should be and are seen as a
tolerant of them natural outcome of
and only correct the development of
major errors. communication
skills.
The teacher may
note the errors
during fluency
activities and

40
 return to them
later with an
accuracy- based
activity.

Errors of form are seen

as natural outcome of
the development of
communication skills.

Lang focus • Vocabulary and • Vocabulary is • Oral activity - -Vocabulary and -Acquisition is by
grammar rules are emphasised over pronunciation/patter grammatical far the more
emphasised. grammar. n drills/ conversation structures are important process.
• Reading and writing • Four skills are practice. emphasised over -Only acquired
skills are primarily worked on, first • Grammar and other language language is readily
worked on. Less listening and translation. areas. These are available for
attention in speaking speaking are taught embedded within natural, fluent
and listening. and then reading imperatives. communication.
• Pronunciation is and writing. -Understanding the -Learning cannot
not important. • Pronunciation spoken word should turn into
should be taught on precede its acquisition.
right from the production. The __________________
beginning. (receives spoken language is + Language
much attention) emphasised over functions might be
written language. emphasized over
forms. (Functional
syllabus) A variety
of forms are
introduced for
each function
depending on the
students’ level.
+ Students work
with language at
the discourse or
suprasentential
level. They learn
about cohesion
and coherence.
+ Students work on
all four skills from
the beginning.
+ Fluency are
emphasized over
accuracy

Teaching & .Translate from one • Without translation. -Use of authentic +The first phase: -Use of dialogs
learning language to another Classroom materials ( dialogs) modelling. -Students learn the
.Teach Grammar instruction is done in -Students use the +In the second phase, language by
process
deductively. target language. language through students demonstrate that imitating and
.Memorize Grammar communicative they can understand the repeating dialogs.
and vocabulary activities. commands by performing —---------------------
words* them alone. -Everything is done with
+The teacher next a communicative intent,
recombines elements of
concluding 3 features:
the commands to have
students develop information gap, choice
flexibility in and feedback.
understanding unfamiliar -Students must use
utterances. authentic materials.
+After learning to respond
to some oral commands, -Activities in CLT are
the students learn to read often carried out by
and write them. When students in pairs/groups
students are ready to in order to promote
speak, they become the communication
ones who issue the
commands. After students
begin speaking, activities
expand to include skits
and games.

Techniques 1. Translation of a 1.Reading aloud 1. Using Commands 1. Authentic

Literary Passage 1.Dialogue to Direct Behaviour Materials

41
 2.Question and
2. Reading answer exercise. memorization. 2. Role reversal 2. Scrambled
Comprehension Sentences
Questions 3.Getting students to 2.Backward build-up 3. Action Sequence
self-correct. (expansion) drill 3. Language
3.Antonyms/ Games
Synonyms 4.Conversation 3.Repetition drill
practice 4. Picture Strip
4. Cognates Story
5.Fill-in-the-blank
exercise 5. Role-play
5. Deductive 4. Chain drill
Application of Rules 6.Dictation
5. Single - slot
6. Fill-in-the-blanks 7.Map drawing substitution drill
Exercise
8.Paragraph writing. 6. Multiple-slot
7. Memorization substitution drill
8.Use Words in 7. Transformation
Sentences drill.

9.Composition 8. Question & answer

drill

9. Use of minimal pair.

10. Complete the

dialogue

11. Grammar game.

The Role of the - L1 in classroom. + Judicious use of the

students’ - Two way translation. students’ native language
native is permitted in CLT.
+ Whenever possible, the
language
target language should
be used not only during
communicative
activities, but also for
explaining the activities
to the students or in
assigning homework.

Classroom T-S: more frequent T-S: supportive S-S: in chain drills or ~ The teacher —------------------------
interaction. S-T: little S-T: teacher-directed take different role in interacts with the Students interact a
S-S: frequent. dialogs. whole group of great deal with one
>> T-S interaction: students and with another. They do
dominant. T-S: partners in the T-S: teacher - individual students. this in various
S-S: little teaching/learning process > directed. ~ Students perform configurations:
Students’ role is less the actions pairs, triads, small
passive. T-S: main interaction. together. Students groups, and whole
S-S: teacher-directed can learn by group.
watching each
other. Teacher:
~ As students begin establishes
to speak, they issue situations for
commands to one students’
another as well as communication.
to the teacher.

Strengths & Strengths MERITS: Advantages: The Advantages of

• The easiest for teacher to • Suitable for private ~ It made language learning the TPR
Weaknesses: use. schools. accessible to a large group of +It is fun, easy and
• Does not require teachers • An interesting and ordinary learner. memorable.
to speak English very well. exciting way of teaching. ~ It was the 1st method to +It is a good tool for
• Only use the textbook. • Developing the skill of lay stress on the building vocabulary.
• The least stressful listening and speaking in development of syntax. + It can facilitate students
because teaching occurs in very young children. ~ Developing simple with the meaning in real
the first language. techniques and making use context.
• Students learn the new DEFECTS of the language lab. + It does not require a
language without • Pay high prices. ~ Developing separation of great deal of preparation.

42
contacting with native • Not suitable for public the language skills. + Help the students
speakers. education. ~ Emphasizing sentence immediately understand
Weakness: • Demanding tremendously production, control over the target language.
• Students only translate on the teacher. grammatical structures and + TPR is inclusive and
word-to-word. • Not sufficient provision development of oral ability works well a class with
• Does not allow students to for systematic practice of of the learner. mixed ability levels.
creat meaning in English structures. Disadvantages: + Help learners achieve
• Extensive memorization. • Not suitable for less - No creativity: Student fluency faster in learning
• Very little student-teacher talented students repeat what they don’t language.
and student-student understand. + It benefits the
interaction. - Techniques: “tedious + Struggling students.
GMT leads to the inability boring” -> fatigue. +Creates positive
to use the language for thinking.
communication. As a The Disadvantages
result, the DM is presented of the TPR
as reaction to the GMT. • Students are not
generally given the
opportunity to express
their own thoughts in a
creative way.
• It can be a challenge for
shy students
• It is not a very creative
method.
• Overusing TPR causes
someone easily bored.
• Certain target languages
may not be suited to this
method.
• It is limited, since
everything cannot be
explained with this
method.

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COMPARISON

Behaviorism Cognitivism

Learner: passive receiver of information. Learner: active processor of information.

Audio lingual method Problem-solving task

Grammar Translation Method Direct Method

Use of Mother Tongue (L1) Use of Target Language (L2)

Grammar is taught deductively Grammar is taught inductively

Vocab and gram rules are emphasized Vocab is emphasized over gram rules

Reading & Writing are primarily worked on, 4 skills are worked on, first, Listening &
less attention on S-L Speaking, and the R-W

Reading & Writing Listening & Speaking,

PRONUNCIATION IS NOT importance PRONUNCIATION IS important

Use of translation No translation is allowed

Learn isolated vocabulary items Vocabulary is learned in full sentences

Errors: Teacher’s correction Errors: self - correction

Direct Method Audio-lingual Method

Use texts and dialogs as materials Use dialogs as learning materials

Teacher and students: partners Teacher as orchestra leader | students; imitator.

Meaning is focused more than grammar Vocabulary is kept to a minimum

Errors: self - correction Errors: teacher’s correction.

1. Native language is not used in the classroom.

2. Teacher’s goal is to help students communicate in the target language.
3. Accurate pronunciation is required and translation is not allowed in lesson.
4. No explicit grammar rules are given.

Communicative Language Audio-Lingual Method

Teaching (CLT)

Teacher’s goal Enable students to communicate Enable students to use the target
in the target language. language communcatively.

The roles of - Teacher: an adviser, a co- - Teacher: provide model and direct
teacher & students communicator. language behavior.

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 - Students: communicators - Students: imitators of the teacher’s
model.

Teaching / - Use of authentic materials - Use of dialogs.

learning process - Students use the language - Students learn the language by
through communicative imitating and repeating dialogs.
activities.

Emphasized areas Language functions might be Emphasized areas: vocabulary.

& language skills emphasized. Language skills:
Students work on all four skills ~ The oral / aural skills receive most of
from the beginning the attention.
~ Pronunciation is taught from the
beginning.

The role of Judicious use of the students’ The target language is used in the
students’ native native language is permitted but classroom, not the students’ native
language target language should be used. language.

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 PPP ESA Pre-While-Post Task-based
procedures learning

Teacher’s role

Learner's role

Characteristics

Swot ~ Strengths
.
~ Weaknesses
~

Model

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