AE417 (04)

Aircraft Structures 1
Module 2: Aircraft Structural Members
OUTLINE
✓Short History
✓Definition of Aircraft
✓Categories of Aircraft
✓Major parts of fixed-wing aircraft
✓Major stresses acting on aircrafts
✓Major structural parts
✓Wing
✓Fuselage
✓Landing Gear
A Short History
• Cayley studied the center of gravity of flying machines as
well as the effects of wing dihedral.
• He introduced directional controls through his gliders.
 A Short History
• Otto Lilienthal proved that man can fly through
his over 2000 glider flights.
• He made standard use of the vertical and
horizontal fins.
• Late 1800s
A Short History
• He published his work called "Progress in
Flying Machines.”
• Created his own glider using wires as wing
support.
• Late 1890s

Octave Chanute
A Short History

• The work of these men helped the Wright

Brothers build the Wright Flyer on 1903.
• This was made from cloth and wood as
structures
A Short History

• Frenchman Louis Bleriot produced the first

mono wing aircraft.
• He still used wires to support the wings
both from above and below the fuselage.
A Short History

• On 1910, Hugo Junkers built the aircraft

with metal truss and metal skin.
• This was due to stronger powerplant and
the thrust it produced.
A Short History

• The most popular aircraft of this

type is the Fokker Dr1 which
was used by Red Baron.

• During WW1 fabric skin aircraft became

typical due to its lightweight and
reliability.
• This rose due to the high demand for war.
A Short History
• During the 1920s use of metal on aircraft parts increased.
• By 1930s all metal aircraft was used together with lighter engines.
• This is due to the need to carry more loads such as cargo and
passengers.
A Short History
• WW2 saw the improvement on the all metal construction this was
due to pressurization and combat requirements.
• After WW2 Windows were turned into rounded corners to prevent
formation of cracks along the corner.
• Due to increase in wing loading, multispar and box beam were
developed.
FYI:
• The largest flying boat ever built was the Spruce Goose (Hughes H-4
Hercules). This was made by wood specifically birch and not spruce!
• Made its flight on 1947
• Even today it is one of the largest aircraft ever built even larger than
747 and as large as the A380!!
 A Short History
• 1960s saw major breakthroughs as passenger jet were increasingly
becoming popular

• The Boeing 707: the first

passenger jet by Boeing!
• First flew by 1958!
• The Boeing 747: The
largest of its kind and first
flew by 1969.
Aircraft Structures
What is an Aircraft?
• An aircraft is a device that is used for, or is intended to be used for,
flight in the air. (AMT Airframe Vol.1)
• Any machine that can derive support in the atmosphere from the
reactions of the air other than the reactions of the air against the
earth's surface. (PCAR)
Major Categories of Aircraft
• Airplane. power-driven heavier-than-air
aircraft, deriving its lift in flight chiefly
from aerodynamic reactions on surfaces
which remain fixed under given conditions
of flight.(PCAR 2008)
Major Categories of Aircraft
• Rotorcraft. A power-driven
heavier-than-air aircraft
supported in flight by the
reactions of the air on one or
more rotors. (PCAR 2008)
Major Categories of Aircraft
• Glider. A non-power-driven
heavier-than-air aircraft,
deriving, its lift in flight chiefly
from aerodynamic reactions on
surfaces which remain fixed
under given conditions of
flight. (PCAR 2008)
Major Categories of Aircraft
• Lighter than air Aircraft. This
includes hot air balloons, free
balloons, weather balloons,
airships or blimps.
Fixed wing Aircraft
• The wings on this type of flying machine are attached to the
fuselage and are not intended to move independently in a
fashion that results in the creation of lift.
• The airframe of a fixed-wing aircraft consists of five principal
units: the fuselage, wings, stabilizers, flight control surfaces,
and landing gear.
The five major stresses
• Tension
• Compression
• Torsion
• Shear
• Bending
The five major stresses
Major Structural Parts (Fixed Wing)
• Fuselage
• The fuselage is the main structure or body of the fixed-wing
aircraft. It provides space for cargo, controls, accessories,
passengers, and other equipment. In single-engine aircraft,
the fuselage houses the powerplant. In multiengine aircraft,
the engines may be either in the fuselage, attached to the
fuselage, or suspended from the wing structure. There are
two general types of fuselage construction: truss and
monocoque.
Truss Type
• A truss is a rigid
framework made up of
members, such as
beams, struts, and bars
to resist deformation by
applied loads.
• The truss-framed
fuselage is generally
covered with fabric.
Monocoque Type
• The monocoque (single shell) fuselage relies largely on the strength of
the skin or covering to carry the primary loads.
• The design may be divided into two classes:
1. Monocoque
2. Semimonocoque
Which is which?
Effects of Pressurization
• Pressurization causes significant stress on the fuselage
structure and adds to the complexity of design. In addition to
withstanding the difference in pressure between the air
inside and outside the cabin, cycling from unpressurized to
pressurized and back again each flight causes metal fatigue.
Major Structural Parts (Fixed Wing)
• Wings are airfoils that, when moved rapidly through the air,
create lift. They are built in many shapes and sizes.
• Wing design can vary to provide certain desirable flight
characteristics.
Wing Structure
•Cantilever vs Semi-Cantilever
Wing Construction
1. Monospar
2. Multispar
3. Box beam
Which is which?
Typical Wing Spar Type of Construction
Wing Ribs
Wing Skin Design
Wet Wing Design
Honeycomb Skin Structure
Honeycomb Skin Structure
• Aramid-such as Kevlar®, Nomex® and Twaron®
• Fiberglass
• Carbon Fiber
• Phenolic
Uses of Honeycomb on Aircraft Wing
Structure
Honeycomb Leading Edge
Nacelles Structure
• Houses the engine and its accessories
• Sometimes houses the landing gears
A. Typical Opposed Engine Nacelle B. Orange Peel Cowlings
Cowling on Large Transport Category Aircraft
Empennage Design
Control Surfaces
•Aileron
•Elevator
•Rudder
Dual Purpose Flight Control Surfaces

Elevons
Dual Purpose Flight Control Surfaces

Stabilator
Dual Purpose Flight Control Surfaces

•Ruddervator
Dual Purpose Flight Control Surfaces

•Flaperons
Secondary/Auxiliary Control Devices

•Flaps
Secondary/Auxiliary Control Devices
• Kinds of Flaps
Secondary/Auxiliary Control Devices
• Triple Slotted Flaps
Secondary/Auxiliary Control Devices
•Leading Edge Flaps
Secondary/Auxiliary Control Devices

•Krueger Flaps
Secondary/Auxiliary Control Devices

•Slats
Secondary/Auxiliary Control Devices
•Spoilers
•Speed Brakes
Secondary/Auxiliary Control Devices
Secondary/Auxiliary Control Devices
•An example of
“Trim Tab”
Secondary/Auxiliary Control Devices
•An example of
“Trim Tab”
Secondary/Auxiliary Control Devices
•Servo Tab
Secondary/Auxiliary Control Devices
•Spring Tab
Secondary/Auxiliary Control Devices
•Anti-Servo Tab
Secondary/Auxiliary Control Devices
Other Wing Features
• Winglet
Other Wing Features
• Vortex Generators
Other Wing Features
•Stall Fence
Other Wing Features
•Aileron Gap Seal
Other Wing Features
•Tab Gap Seal
Aircraft Landing Gear
Examples of Landing Gear
Do Landing Gears need Wheels?
Not Really!
An example of Flying Boat
Dual Purpose Landing Gear
Basic Types of Landing Gears

Conventional or
Tail Wheel
Basic Types of Landing Gears
• Advantages of Conventional Type
• Greater Propeller Clearance
• Bigger Propellers
• Automatic Positive Angle of Attack of the wing
• Lighter than the Modern design
• Disadvantages
• Poor Vision for the Pilot
• High Tendency of Ground Looping
Basic Types of Landing Gears
• Tricycle Gear
Basic Types of Landing Gears
• Advantages of Tricycle Type
• Good Pilot view
• Ground Looping eliminated

It is the most used configuration today!

Other Landing Gear Arrangements

Bicycle
Other Landing Gear Arrangements
Location Number System
• Fuselage Station or Body Station
Location Number System
• Buttock Line or Butt Line
Location Number System
• Water Line
Location Number System
• Aileron station (AS) is measured outboard from, and parallel to, the
inboard edge of the aileron, perpendicular to the rear beam of the
wing.
• Flap station (KS) is measured perpendicular to the rear beam of the
wing and parallel to, and outboard from, the inboard edge of the flap.
• Nacelle station (NC or Nac. Sta.) is measured either forward of or
behind the front spar of the wing and perpendicular to a designated
water line.
Aircraft Zoning
Forces acting on an aircraft
• What are the different forces acting on an aircraft?
• Weight - the force that pulls the aircraft toward the earth. Weight is the
force of gravity acting downward upon everything that goes into the
aircraft, such as the aircraft itself, crew, fuel, and cargo.
• Lift - the force that pushes the aircraft upward. Lift acts vertically and
counteracts the effects of weight.
• Thrust—the force that moves the aircraft forward. Thrust is the forward
force produced by the powerplant that overcomes the force of drag.
• Drag—the force that exerts a braking action to hold the aircraft back. Drag
is a backward deterrent force and is caused by the disruption of the airflow
by the wings, fuselage, and protruding objects.
Forces acting on an aircraft
Forces acting on an aircraft
Key Points!
❑Remember it is only during straight level unaccelerated flight these 4
forces are equal!
❑Tests show that lift and drag forces acting on a wing are roughly
proportional to the wing area. This means that if the wing area is
doubled, all other variables remaining the same, the lift and drag
created by the wing is doubled. If the area is tripled, lift and drag are
tripled.
Forces acting on an aircraft
Key Points!
❑Before the aircraft begins to move, thrust must be exerted. The
aircraft continues to move and gain speed until thrust and drag are
equal. In order to maintain a steady speed, thrust and drag must
remain equal, just as lift and weight must be equal for steady,
horizontal flight.
Forces acting on an aircraft
❑Parasite Drag
- this is due any exposed component in the air stream.
- can be reduced by streamlining a part.
- Difficult to eliminate due to skin friction drag.
❑Induced Drag
- Tendency of air to move to area of low pressure
- Creates vortices on the tip
Forces acting on an aircraft
Center of Gravity
Stability
➢What is Stability?
It is the ability of an aircraft to maintain its
flight path without the help or being
controlled by the pilot.
Controllability
• Controllability is the quality
of the response of an aircraft
to the pilot’s commands while
maneuvering the aircraft.
Maneuverability
• Maneuverability is the
characteristic of an aircraft to
be directed along a desired
flightpath and to withstand the
stresses imposed.
Types of Static Stability
Dynamic Stability
• It can be said that a
dynamically stable aircraft
is already statically stable
but a statically stable
aircraft is not always
dynamically stable!
Dutch Roll
Aircraft Control Systems
• Mechanical Control This is the
basic type of system that was
used to control early aircraft
and is currently used in smaller
aircraft where aerodynamic
forces are not excessive. The
controls are mechanical and
manually operated.
Aircraft Control Systems
• Hydromechanical Control
This becomes desired as
aircraft speed range increases
due to the harder load
imposed to pilot.
Aircraft Control Systems
• Fly-By-Wire Control
• The fly-by-wire (FBW) control
system employs electrical signals
that transmit the pilot’s actions
from the flight deck through a
computer to the various flight
control actuators. The FBW system
evolved as a way to reduce the
system weight of the
hydromechanical system, reduce
maintenance costs, and improve
reliability.