FLAT UNIT 1 Notes

CSE (Software Engineering) (Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad)

Scan to open on Studocu

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Downloaded by syam kumar (syam@mrec.ac.in)
 UNIT 1

Syllabus: Introduction to Finite Automata: Structural Representations, Automata and Complexity, the
Central Concepts of Automata Theory – Alphabets, Strings, Languages, and Problems. Nondeterministic
Finite Automata: Formal Definition, an application, Text Search, Finite Automata with Epsilon-Transitions.
Deterministic Finite Automata: Definition of DFA, How A DFA Process Strings, The language of DFA,
Conversion of NFA with €-transitions to NFA without €-transitions. Conversion of NFA to DFA, Moore and
Melay machines

Introduction toFinite Automata

The term "Automata" is derived from the Greek word "automata" which means "self- acting". An automaton
(Automata in plural) is an abstract self-propelled computing device which follows a predetermined sequence of
operations automatically.
An automaton with a finite number of states is called a Finite Automaton (FA) or Finite State Machine (FSM).

Formal definition of a Finite Automaton

An automaton can be represented by a 5-tuple (Q, Σ, δ, q0, F), where:
 Q is a finite set of states.
 Σ is a finite set of symbols, called the alphabet of the automaton.
 δ is the transition function.
 q0 is the initial state from where any input is processed (q0 ∈ Q).
 F is a set of final state/states of Q (F ⊆ Q).
Structural representation of Finite Automata
 An automaton with a finite number of states is called as Finite Automaton or Finite State Machine.
 The block diagram of finite automaton consists of falling three major components.
 Input tape
 Reading Head
 Finite Control

Downloaded by syam kumar (syam@mrec.ac.in)

 Input Tape:
 The input tape is divided into squares, each square containd a single symbol from input alphabet ∑.
 The end squares of each tape contain end markers at left end and right end.
 Absence of end markers indicates that tape is infinite length.
 The left to right sequence of symbols between end markers is the input string to be processed.

Reading Head:

 The Reading head examines only one square at a time and can move one square towards left till end of
the string.

Finite State Control:

 The FSC is responsible for controlling total functioning of finite automate machine.
 It will decide which input symbol is read next and where to move either to the left or right.
 The input to the finite control will be usually
 Input symbol from input tape
 Present state of machine
 The output may be
 Movement of Reading head along the tape to the next square or to null move
 The next state/new state of FSM

The Central Concepts of Automata Theory

Alphabets
Definition: An alphabet is any finite set of symbols. It is denoted by Σ

Strings
Definition: A string is a finite sequence of symbols taken from Σ.

Example: ‘cabcad’ is a valid string on the alphabet set Σ = {a, b, c,

d}

It is not the case that a string over some alphabet should contain all the symbols from the alphabet. For
example, the string cc over the alphabet { a, b, c } does not contain the symbols a and b. Hence, it is true that a
string over an alphabet is also a string over any superset of that alphabet.

Length of a String
 Definition : It is the number of symbols present in a string. (Denoted by |S|).

 Examples:

o If S=‘cabcad’, |S|= 6

o If |S|= 0, it is called an empty string (Denoted by λ or ε)

Downloaded by syam kumar (syam@mrec.ac.in)

Kleene Star

 Definition: The Kleene star, Σ*, is a unary operator on a set of symbols or strings, Σ, that
gives the infinite set of all possible strings of all possible lengths over Σ including λ.

 Representation: Σ* = Σ0 U Σ1 U Σ2 U……. where Σp is the set of all possible strings

of length p.

 Example: If Σ = {a, b}, Σ*= {λ, a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb,….............}

Positive Closure

 Definition: The set Σ+ is the infinite set of all possible strings of all possible lengths over Σ
excluding λ.

 Representation: Σ+ = Σ1 U Σ2 U Σ3 U…….
Σ+ = Σ* − { λ }

 Example: If Σ = { a, b } , Σ+ ={ a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb,.................}

Language
 Definition : A language is a subset of Σ* for some alphabet Σ. It can be finite or infinite.

 Example : If the language takes all possible strings of length 2 over Σ = {a, b}, then L = {
ab, bb, ba, bb}

Problems

 Construct a Language consisting of a set of strings over {a, b} in which each string of the
language starts with ‘01’
L = {01,011,010,…….}

Graphical Representation of a FA: (same as NDFA, NFA, ε-NFA)

Any Finite Automata is represented by directed graphs called state transition diagram or transition
diagram. Which includes the following
 The vertices represent the states.
 The arcs labeled with an input alphabet shows the transitions i.e δ(q0, 1) = q0.
 In the initial state , there is an arrow with no source.
 The final states or accepting states are indicated by double circles.

Extended transition function:

 We define the extended transition function ˆδ.
 It takes a state q and an input string w to the resulting state.
 The definition proceeds by induction over the length of w.
 We define ˆδ (q, x) by induction ˆδ : Q × Σ* → Q
Downloaded by syam kumar (syam@mrec.ac.in)
  BASIS ˆδ (q, ε) = q for |x| = 0
 INDUCTION suppose x = ay ( y is a string, a is a symbol)
ˆδ (q, ay) = ˆδ ( δ (q, a ), y )
 Notice that if x = a we have ˆδ (q, a) = δ (q, a) since a = aε and
ˆδ ( δ (q, a ), ε) = δ (q, a )
 δ : Q × Σ* → Q We write q.x instead of ˆδ (q, x ) We can now define mathematically the
language accepted by a given automaton (Q, Σ, δ, q0, F)
L = { x ∈ Σ ∗ | q 0.x ∈ F }
Finite Automaton can be classified into two types:
 Non-deterministic Finite Automaton (NDFA / NFA)
 Deterministic Finite Automaton (DFA)

Non-deterministic Finite Automaton

In NDFA, for a particular input symbol, the machine can move to any combination of the states in
the machine. In other words, the exact state to which the machine moves cannot be determined.
Hence, it is called Non-deterministic Automaton. As it has finite number of states, the machine is
called Non-deterministic Finite Machine or Non- deterministic Finite Automaton.

Formal Definition of an NDFA

An NDFA can be represented by a 5-tuple (Q, Σ, δ, q0, F) where:
 Q is a finite set of states.

 Σ is a finite set of symbols called the alphabets.

 δ is the transition function where δ: Q × Σ → 2Q

(Here the power set of Q (2Q) has been taken because in case of NDFA, from a state,
transition can occur to any combination of Q states)

 q0 is the initial state from where any input is processed (q0 ∈ Q).

 F is a set of final state/states of Q (F ⊆ Q).

The language of an NFA:

A= (Q, Σ, δ, q0, F)
L(A) ={w/ˆ δ(q0 , w) П F ≠ Ф}
L(A) is the Language accepted by NFA A.

Problem 1: Construct a NFA accepting a set of strings over {a, b} in which each string of the language
ends with ‘01’

Solution: The desired language is L1 = {01, 001, 101, 1101.............}

The state transition diagram of the desired language is

Downloaded by syam kumar (syam@mrec.ac.in)

 The transition table for the above NFA is
δ 0 1
->q0 {q0, q1} q0
q1 Ф q2
*q2 Ф Ф

The 5-tuple representation for the desired automata is

M = {{q0, q1, q2},{0, 1}, δ , {q0} , {q2}}
String acceptance :
Take any string from the language L , let w=001
ˆδ (q0,001) =q0,0
q0,0 q0,1
q1,0 q1,1 q0

q2
ˆδ (q0, 001) = {q0,q2}
So the above string w=001 is accepted by the automata. Since { q0, q2 }∩{q2}(i.e Final state F) ≠Ф

An Application: Text Search

 Finding Strings in Text

– Searching Google for a set of words is equivalent to just finding strings in

documents

– Techniques

Using inverted indexes

Using finite automata

– Applications unsuitable to use inverted in dexing:

Document repository change rapid ly.

Documents to be searched cannot be catalogued.

NFA’s for Text Search

– use an NFA to search two keywords “web” and “eBay” among text

Downloaded by syam kumar (syam@mrec.ac.in)

 Non-Deterministic Finite Automata with ε transitions (ε-NFA)

• A Non-Deterministic Finite Automata with ε transitions is a 5-tuple (Q, Σ, qo, δ, F)

where – Q is a finite set (of states)

– Σ is a finite alphabet of symbols

– qo ∈ Q is the start state

– F ⊆ Q is the set of accepting states

– δ is a function from Q x (Σ ∪ {ε}) -> 2Q (transition function)

 We extend the class of NFAs by allowing instantaneous (ε) transitions:
1. The automaton may be allowed to change its state without reading the input symbol.
2. In diagrams, such transitions are depicted by labeling the appropriate arcs with ε.
3. Note that this does not mean that ε has become an input symbol. On the contrary, we assume that
the symbol ε does not belong to any alphabet.
The language of an NFA with epsilon:
A= (Q, Σ, δ, q0, F)
L(A) ={w/ˆ δ(q0 , w) П F ≠ Ф}
L(A) is the Language accepted by NFA with epsilon A.

Problem: Construct a NFA with epsilon, accepting a Language consists a set of strings with any number
of 0’s followed by any number of 1’s followed by any number of 2’s over {0, 1, 2}.

L = {0,1, 2, 00, 11,22,01, 02, 12, 012, 0012,……}

Epsilon (∈) – closure :

 Epsilon closure for a given state X is a set of states which can be reached from the states X with only
(null) or ε moves including the state X itself.

Downloaded by syam kumar (syam@mrec.ac.in)

  In other words, ε- closure for a state can be obtained by union operation of the ε-closure of the states
which can be reached from X with a single ε move in recursive manner.
 ∈ – closures for the above automata are
 ∈ – closure(q0) = {q0,q1,q2}
 ∈ – closure(q1) = { q1,q2}
 ∈ – closure(q2) = {q2}
Deterministic Finite Automaton (DFA)
In DFA, for each input symbol, one can determine the state to which the machine will move. Hence, it is
called Deterministic Automaton. As it has a finite number of states, the machine is called Deterministic
Finite Machine or Deterministic Finite Automaton.

Formal Definition of a DFA

A DFA can be represented by a 5-tuple (Q, Σ, δ, q0, F) where:
 Q is a finite set of states.
 Σ is a finite set of symbols called the alphabet.
 δ is the transition function where δ: Q × Σ → Q
 q0 is the initial state from where any input is processed (q0 ∈ Q).
 F is a set of final state/states of Q (F ⊆ Q).
The language of an DFA:
A= (Q, Σ, δ, q0, F)
L(A) ={w/ˆ δ(q0 , w) П F ≠ Ф}
L(A) is the Language accepted by DFA A.

Problem : Construct a DFA accepting a set of strings over {0, 1} in which each string of the language
ends with ‘01’

Solution: The desired language is L1 = {01, 001, 101, 1101............}

The state transition diagram of the desired language is

The transition table for the above automata is

δ 0 1
->q0 q1 q0
q1 q1 q2
*q2 q1 q0

Downloaded by syam kumar (syam@mrec.ac.in)

 The 5-tuple representation for the desired automata is
M = {{q0, q1, q2},{0, 1}, δ , {q0} , {q2}}
String acceptance :
Take any string from the language L , let w=001
ˆδ (q0,001) =q0,0 q1,0 q1,1 q2
ˆδ (q0,001) = {q2}
So the above string w=001 is accepted by the automata. Since { q2 } ∩ { q2} ≠Ф
Processing of Strings:
A string is accepted by a DFA/NDFA iff the DFA/NDFA starting at the initial state ends in an
accepting state (any of the final states) after reading the entire string.
A string S is accepted by a DFA/NDFA (Q, Σ, δ, q0, F), iff ^δ(q0, S) ∈ F

The language L accepted by DFA/NDFA is

{S | S ∈ Σ* and ^δ(q0, S) ∈ F}

A string S′ is not accepted by a DFA/NDFA (Q, Σ, δ, q0, F), iff δ*(q0, S) ∉ F

The language L′ not accepted by DFA/NDFA (Complement of accepted language L) is

{S | S ∈ Σ* and ^δ(q0, S) ∉ F}

Conversion of NFA with €-transitions to NFA without €-transitions

Problem Statement
Let X = (Qx, Σ, δx, q0, Fx) be an €-NFA which accepts the language L(X). We have to design an
equivalent NDFA Y = (Qy, Σ, δy, q0, Fy) such that L(Y) = L(X). The following procedure converts
the NFA with €-transitions to NFA without €-transitions

Algorithm
Input: An NFA with €-transitions
Output: An equivalent NFA without €-transitions
Step 1: Find out all the ε transitions from each state from Q. That will be called as ε-closure{q1}
where qi ∈ Q.

Step 2: Then δ' transitions can be obtained. The δ' transitions mean a ε-closure on δ moves.

δ'(q, a) =ε-closure(δ(ε-closure(q),a))

step 3: Repeat Step-2 for each input symbol and each state of given €-NFA.

Step 4: Find the final states F for the NFA ( F={q}, where ε-closure(q) П Final states of €-NFA )

Step 5: Using the resultant states, the transition table and transition diagram for equivalent NFA
without ε can be built.

Downloaded by syam kumar (syam@mrec.ac.in)

Problem: Convert the following NFA with ε to NFA without ε.

Solution:

Step 1 : We will first obtain ε-closures of q0, q1 and q2 as follows:

ε-closure(q0) = {q0}

ε-closure(q1) = {q1, q2}

ε-closure(q2) = {q2}

step2: Now the δ' transition on each input symbol is obtained as:
δ'(q0, a) = ε-closure(δ(δ^(q0, ε),a))

= ε-closure(δ(ε-closure(q0),a))
= ε-closure(δ(q0, a))
= ε-closure(q1)
= {q1, q2}
δ'(q0, b) = ε-closure(δ(δ^(q0, ε),b))
= ε-closure(δ(ε-closure(q0),b))
= ε-closure(δ(q0, b))
=Ф
Now the δ' transition on q1 is obtained as:
δ'(q1, a) = ε-closure(δ(δ^(q1, ε),a))
= ε-closure(δ(ε-closure(q1),a))

= ε-closure(δ(q1, q2), a)

= ε-closure(δ(q1, a) ∪ δ(q2, a))

= ε-closure(Ф ∪ Ф)

=Ф
δ'(q1, b) = ε-closure(δ(δ^(q1, ε),b))

= ε-closure(δ(ε-closure(q1),b))

= ε-closure(δ(q1, q2), b)

= ε-closure(δ(q1, b) ∪ δ(q2, b))

= ε-closure(Ф ∪ q2)

= {q2}

The δ' transition on q2 is obtained as:

δ'(q2, a) = ε-closure(δ(δ^(q2, ε),a))

Downloaded by syam kumar (syam@mrec.ac.in)

 = ε-closure(δ(ε-closure(q2),a))
= ε-closure(δ(q2, a))

= ε-closure(Ф)

=Ф

δ'(q2, b) = ε-closure(δ(δ^(q2, ε),b))

= ε-closure(δ(ε-closure(q2),b))

= ε-closure(δ(q2, b))

= ε-closure(q2)

= {q2}

Step3: Now we will summarize all the computed δ' transitions:

δ'(q0, a) = {q0, q1}
δ'(q0, b) = Ф
δ'(q1, a) = Ф
δ'(q1, b) = {q2}
δ'(q2, a) = Ф
δ'(q2, b) = {q2}

Step 4: State q1 and q2 become the final state as ε-closure of q1 and q2 contain the final state q2.

The NFA can be shown by the following transition diagram:

The transition table can be:

States a b
→q0 {q1, q2} Ф
*q1 Ф {q2}
*q2 Ф {q2}

The 5- tuple representation of equivalent NFA is

M={{ q0,q1, q2,},{a,b}, δ, {q0},{q1, q2}}

Downloaded by syam kumar (syam@mrec.ac.in)

NDFA to DFA Conversion
Problem Statement
Let X = (Qx, Σ, δx, q0, Fx) be an NDFA which accepts the language L(X). We have to design an
equivalent DFA Y = (Qy, Σ, δy, q0, Fy) such that L(Y) = L(X). The following procedure converts
the NDFA to its equivalent DFA:

Algorithm
Input: An NDFA
Output: An equivalent DFA
Step 1 Create state table from the given NDFA.
Step 2 Create a blank state table under possible input alphabets for the equivalent
DFA. Step 3 Mark the start state of the DFA by q0 (Same as the NDFA).
Step 4 Find out the combination of States {Q0, Q1,... , Qn} for each possible input
alphabet.
Step 5 Each time we generate a new DFA state under the input alphabet columns, we have
to apply step 4 again, otherwise go to step 6.
Step 6 The states which contain any of the final states of the NDFA are the final states of
the equivalent DFA.
Example
Let us consider the NDFA shown in the figure below.
q δ(q,0) δ(q,1)
a {a,b,c,d,e} {d,e}

b {c} {e}

c ∅ {b}

d {e} ∅

e ∅ ∅

Using the above algorithm, we find its equivalent DFA. The state table of the DFA is shown in
below.

Q δ(q,0) δ(q,1)
[a] [a,b,c,d,e] [d,e]
[a,b,c,d,e] [a,b,c,d,e] [b,d,e]
[d,e] [e] ∅
[b,d,e] [c,e] [e]
[e] ∅ ∅
[c,e] ∅ [b]
[b] [c] [e]
[c] ∅ [b]

Downloaded by syam kumar (syam@mrec.ac.in)

 State table of DFA equivalent to NDFA

The state diagram of the DFA is as follows:

State diagram of equivalent DFA

DFA vs NDFA
The following table lists the differences between DFA and NDFA.

DFA NDFA

The transition from a state is to a single The transition from a state can be to multiple
particular next state for each input symbol. next states for each input symbol. Hence it is
Hence it is called deterministic. called non-deterministic.

Empty string transitions are not seen in DFA. NDFA permits empty string transitions.

In NDFA, backtracking is not always

Backtracking is allowed in DFA
possible.
Requires more space. Requires less space.
A string is accepted by a NDFA, if at least
A string is accepted by a DFA, if it transits one of all possible transitions ends in a final
to a final state. state.

Moore and Melay Machines

Finite automata may have outputs corresponding to each transition. There are two types of finite state
machines that generate output:
 Melay Machine
 Moore machine

Melay Machine
A Melay Machine is an FSM whose output depends on the present state as well as the present
input(transition).

Downloaded by syam kumar (syam@mrec.ac.in)

 It can be described by a 6 tuple (Q, ∑, O, δ, X, q0) where −
 Q is a finite set of states.
 ∑ is a finite set of symbols called the input alphabet.
 O is a finite set of symbols called the output alphabet.
 δ is the input transition function where δ: Q × Σ → Q
 X is the output transition function where X: Q × Σ → O
 q0 is the initial state from where any input is processed (q0 ∈ Q).

The state table of a Melay Machine is shown below –

Present state Next state

input = 0 input = 1
State Output State Output
a b x1 c x1
b b x2 d x3
c d x3 c x1
d d x3 d x2

The state diagram of the above Melay Machine is:

Moore Machine
Moore machine is an FSM whose outputs depend on only the present state. A Moore machine can

be described by a 6 tuple (Q, Σ, O, δ, X, q0) where:

 Q is a finite set of states.
 Σ is a finite set of symbols called the input alphabet.
 O is a finite set of symbols called the output alphabet.
 δ is the input transition function where δ: Q × Σ → Q
 X is the output transition function where X: Q → O
 q0 is the initial state from where any input is processed (q0 ∈ Q).

Downloaded by syam kumar (syam@mrec.ac.in)

 The state table of a Moore Machine is shown below –

Next State
Present State Output
Input = 0 Input = 1
a b c x2
b b d x1
c c d x2
d d d x3

The state diagram of the above Moore Machine is:

Melay Machine vs. Moore Machine

The following table highlights the points that differentiate a Melay Machine from a Moore
Machine.

Melay Machine Moore Machine

Output depends both upon present state Output depends only upon the present state.
and present input.

Generally, it has fewer states than Moore Generally, it has more states than Melay
Machine. Machine.
Input change can cause change in output
Output changes at the clock edges. change as soon as logic is done.
In Moore machines, more logic is needed to
Melay machines react faster to inputs decode the outputs since it has more circuit
delays.

Moore Machine to Melay Machine

Algorithm 4
Input: Moore Machine
Output: Melay Machine
Step 1 Take a blank Melay Machine transition table format.
Step 2 Copy all the Moore Machine transition states into this table format.
Step 3 Check the present states and their corresponding outputs in the Moore Machine state
table; if for a state Qi output is m, copy it into the output columns of the Mealy
Machine state table wherever Qi appears in the next state.

Downloaded by syam kumar (syam@mrec.ac.in)

Example
Let us consider the following Moore machine:

Present Next State

State a=0 a=1 Output
->a d b 1
b a d 0
c c c 0
d b a 1
State table of a Moore Machine

Now we apply Algorithm 4 to convert it to Melay Machine.

Step 1 & 2:

Next State
Present State a=0 a=1
State Output State Output
->a d b
b a d
c c c
d b a

The partial state table after steps 1 and 2

Step 3:

Next State
Present State a=0 a=1
State Output State Output
-> a d 1 b 0
b a 1 d 1
c c 0 c 0
d b 0 a 1

State table of an equivalent Melay Machine

Melay Machine to Moore Machine

Algorithm 5:
Input: Melay Machine
Output: Moore Machine
Step 1 Calculate the number of different outputs for each state (Qi) that are available in the
state table of the Melay machine.
Step 2 If all the outputs of Qi are same, copy state Qi. If it has n distinct outputs, break Qi
into n states as Qin where n = 0, 1,2.......
Step 3 If the output of the initial state is 1, insert a new initial state at the beginning which
gives 0 output.

Downloaded by syam kumar (syam@mrec.ac.in)

 Example
Let us consider the following Melay Machine:

Next State
Present
State a=0 a=1
Next Next
Output Output
State State
->a d 0 b 1
b a 1 d 0
c c 1 c 0
d b 0 a 1
State table of a Melay Machine

Here, states ‘a’ and ‘d’ give only 1 and 0 outputs respectively, so we retain states ‘a’ and ‘d’. But states ‘b’

and ‘c’ produce different outputs (1 and 0). So, we divide b into b0, b1 and c into c0, c1.

Present Next State

Output
State
a=0 a=1
-> a d b1 1
b0 a d 0
b1 a d 1
c0 c1 c0 0
c1 c1 c0 1
d b0 a 0

State table of equivalent Moore Machine

Downloaded by syam kumar (syam@mrec.ac.in)

Downloaded by syam kumar (syam@mrec.ac.in)