Scheme of work for jss2

Week 1; revision of last term work

Week 2; quadrilaterals

Week 3; plane figures[polygon]

Week 4&5; area of plane figures

Week 6; wood work machine

Week 7; metal work machine

Week 8; care and maintenance of metal work machine

Week 9; friction

Week 10; reduction of friction

Week 11; revision

Week 12; examination

Week 1; revision

Rescue comprises responsive operations that usually involve the saving of life, or prevention of
injury during an incident or dangerous situation.

Tools used might include search and rescue dogs, mounted search and rescue horses, helicopters,
the “jaws of life”, and other hydraulic cutting and spreading tools used to extricate individuals
from wrecked vehicles. Rescue operations are sometimes supported by special vehicles such as
fire department’s or EMS heavy rescue vehicle.

Overview
Ropes and special devices can reach and remove individuals and animals from difficult locations
including:

Air-sea rescue
Cave rescue
Combat search and rescue
Confined space rescue
Mine rescue
Rope rescue
Search and rescue
Ski patrol
Surface water rescue
Swiftwater rescue
Urban search and rescue
Vehicle extrication
Wilderness
Rescue operations require a high degree of training and are performed by rescue squads, either
independent or part of larger organizations such as fire, police, military, first aid, or ambulance
service.

Week 2; quadrilaterals

In this tutorial on basic geometry concepts, we cover the types and properties of quadrilaterals:
Parallelogram, rectangle, square, rhombus, trapezium.

Definition:

A quadrilateral is a simple closed figure with four sides.

Types of quadrilaterals
There are five types of quadrilaterals.

 Parallelogram
 Rectangle
 Square
 Rhombus
 Trapezium

One common property of all quadrilaterals is that the sum of all their angles equals 360°.

Let us look into the properties of different quadrilaterals.

Parallelogram
Properties of a parallelogram

 Opposite sides are parallel and congruent.

 Opposite angles are congruent.
 Adjacent angles are supplementary.
 Diagonals bisect each other and each diagonal divides the parallelogram into two
congruent triangles.
 If one of the angles of a parallelogram is a right angle then all other angles are right and it
becomes a rectangle.

Important formulas of parallelograms

 Area = L * H
 Perimeter = 2(L+B)

Rectangles
Properties of a Rectangle

 Opposite sides are parallel and congruent.

 All angles are right.
 The diagonals are congruent and bisect each other (divide each other equally).
 Opposite angles formed at the point where diagonals meet are congruent.
 A rectangle is a special type of parallelogram whose angles are right.

Important formulas for rectangles

 If the length is L and breadth is B, then

Length of the diagonal of a rectangle = √(L2 + B2)

 Area = L * B
 Perimeter = 2(L+B)

Squares

Properties of a square

 All sides and angles are congruent.

 Opposite sides are parallel to each other.
 The diagonals are congruent.
 The diagonals are perpendicular to and bisect each other.
 A square is a special type of parallelogram whose all angles and sides are equal.
 Also, a parallelogram becomes a square when the diagonals are equal and right bisectors
of each other.
Important formulas for Squares

 If ‘L’ is the length of the side of a square then length of the diagonal = L √2.
 Area = L2.
 Perimeter = 4L

Rhombus

Properties of a Rhombus

 All sides are congruent.

 Opposite angles are congruent.
 The diagonals are perpendicular to and bisect each other.
 Adjacent angles are supplementary (For eg., ∠A + ∠B = 180°).
 A rhombus is a parallelogram whose diagonals are perpendicular to each other.

Important formulas for a Rhombus

If a and b are the lengths of the diagonals of a rhombus,

 Area = (a* b) / 2
 Perimeter = 4L

Trapezium
Properties of a Trapezium

 The bases of the trapezium are parallel to each other (MN ⫽ OP).
 No sides, angles and diagonals are congruent.

Important Formulas for a Trapezium

 Area = (1/2) h (L+L2)

 Perimeter = L + L1 + L2 + L3

Summary of properties
Summarizing what we have learnt so far for easy reference and remembrance:

S.No. Property Parallelogram Rectangle Rhombus Square

1 All sides are congruent ✕ ✕ ✓ ✓
2 Opposite sides are parallel and congruent ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
3 All angles are congruent ✕ ✓ ✕ ✓
4 Opposite angles are congruent ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
5 Diagonals are congruent ✕ ✓ ✕ ✓
6 Diagonals are perpendicular ✕ ✕ ✓ ✓
7 Diagonals bisect each other ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
8 Adjacent angles are supplementary ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Assignment

1. Define quadrilaterals
2. Define polygon

Week 3; plane figure

Plane figures
Any shape that can be drawn in the plane is called a plane figure. A shape with only straight
sides as edges is called a polygon(POL-ee-gone). Polygons must have at least three sides, thus
the polygons with the fewest number of sides are triangles. Circles and semicircles are not
polygons because they have curved sides.

When all the sides of a polygon are equal, it is equilateral (ee-quee-LAH-teh-roll). When all the
angles of a polygon are equal, it is equiangular (ee-quee-ANG-ger-lah). When a polygon is both
equilateral and equiangular, it is a regular shape. When doing mathematics problems, it is very
important that an equilateral shape may not be equiangular (such as a rhombus), and an
equiangular shape may not be equilateral (such as a rectangle). However, an equilateral triangle
is always both (see below).

When dealing with plane figures, there are two measurements that are important to find: the area
and the perimeter. The perimeter is the length around the shape while the area is the size of the
shape. They can be calculated with different formulae.

Triangles

The corresponding material in Euclid's elements can be found on page 27 of Book I,

Definition(s) 24-29 in Issac Todhunter's 1872 translation, The Elements of Euclid for the
Use of Schools and Colleges.

A triangle is a shape with three sides. It can be classified according to its sides or angles, with
three kinds each. Here they are:

 Equilateral triangles, which are also equiangular triangles, have three sides equal and
three angles equal. Their angles are always 60°.
 Isosceles triangles are triangles in which two of the sides are equal. The non-included
angles of the sides are also equal.
 Scalene triangles have no equivalence in any way.
 Right triangles are triangles with a right angle. The longest side of such triangles is
called a hypotenuse.
 Obtuse triangles are triangles with an obtuse angle.
 Acute triangles are triangles with no right or obtuse angle.

It is interesting to note that the interior angles of triangles must add up to 180°. This is
commonly used in proofs and other problems. Imagine a triangle whose points are marked A, B
and C, angle A is 60 degrees, and angle B is 70 degrees:
Usually, when drawing a triangle, we draw one side horizontally. This side is usually called the
base. There is nothing special about the base. By turning your paper you can make any side into
the base. There is no mathematical reason to call one side a base; we do it to make talking about
the triangle easier. When you have a triangle and think of one of the sides as the base, then there
is one corner of the triangle that is not on the base and this point is the furthest point on the
triangle from the base. The height of the triangle is the line that is perpendicular to the base and
goes through that furthest point. Sometimes instead of being called the height it is called the
altitude of the triangle. (So if your teacher calls it an altitude, don't worry, it's really the same
thing.) The length of the base and the height are the only two numbers you need to know when
calculating the area of any triangle. Just multiply base and height and divide by two (or multiply
it by a half if you like.) and you have the area of the triangle!

The perimeter of the triangle is easy: just add up all the sides and voilà, you have the perimeter.
You can multiply one side of an equilateral triangle by three as well. As for isosceles triangles,
simply multiply one of the equal sides by two and add the shorter one. There we go.

Quadrilaterals
A quadrilateral is a shape with four sides. You will spend a lot of time with these. They can be
classified into many different categories:

 Parallelograms are shapes where opposite sides and angles are equal. The opposite sides
are parallel, hence the name.
o Rectangles are parallelograms where the angles are all 90°. Its width or breadth
refers to the shorter sides, while its length refers to its longer ones.
o Rhombuses are parallelograms where all the sides are equal, and opposite angles
are equal.
o Squares are parallelograms that are both rectangles and rhombuses, i.e. all angles
are right and all sides are equal.
 Trapeziums, called trapezoids in American English, have two opposite sides that are
parallel. The parallel sides are sometimes called the upper and lower bases.
o Right-angles trapeziums are trapeziums with a right angle.
o Isosceles trapeziums are trapeziums where the laterals sides are equal but not
parallel.
o Scalene trapeziums are trapeziums that fall into neither category.
 Kites are quadrilaterals where two pairs of adjacent sides are equal and one pair of
opposite angles is equal.
 Irregular quadrilaterals are any quadrilaterals that do not fit into one of the groups
above.
An example of how filling can be put to use.

Calculating the area of these shapes can be very easy. For parallelograms, simply multiply the
base with the height, the way with do with triangles, except we don't need to divide by two. The
square is especially easy: just square one of the sides, which would be the length. For the others,
we can cut them up into bite-sized pieces before we calculate. For example, we can dissect the
right-angled trapeziums into a right-angled triangle and a rectangle.

The perimeter of these shapes are just as easy. For rectangles, we simply add up the length and
the width, then multiply by two. You can simply multiply the length of a square by four. The
isosceles trapeziums are just as easy: multiply one of the lateral sides by two, then add it up with
the other two. The kite is easy as well: Just add up the two different sides and multiply that by
two. For the rest, you can just add up everything.

Other polygons
Many other polygons have a name. The following are the ones you need to know in elementary
school:

 Pentagons have five sides.

 Hexagons have six sides.
 Heptagons or septagons have seven sides.
 Octagons have eight sides.
 Nonagons have nine sides.
 Decagons have ten sides.

And here are two more extras:

 Hendecagons (also known as undecagons) have eleven sides.

 Dodecagons have twelve sides.

Calculating the perimeter and area of these shapes can be more difficult. Sometimes you have to
come up with ways of doing it yourself. When you come across an equilateral polygon, you can
of course multiply one of the sides by the number of sides of the shape. In other cases, you may
need to find some dimensions yourself. Keep your eyes peeled for equivalences, and the
problems cannot be that difficult.
When calculating the area of these shapes, there are two main ways of doing so: dissecting and
filling. With dissecting, you cut up the figure into many pieces, such as parallelograms, squares
and triangles. Then you can simply add up all those areas to find out the total. With filling, you
add extra bits to shapes so as to make it look like the shapes you usually come across with. For
example, when you don't known the altitude of a triangle, you can put three surrounding triangles
around it. Then you can calculate the area of the rectangle formed and the surrounding triangles,
thereby finding the area of the triangle.

Circles and other plane figures

Apart from polygons, there are other shapes that have wavy sides, round corners or other
peculiarities that disqualify them as polygons. Among them, the most famous are the circle, the
ellipse, and the semicircle. These shapes are different from polygons, and have their special
formulae that you must learn by heart. Let's start with the most basic: the circle.

The corresponding material in Euclid's elements can be found on page 27 of Book I,

Definition(s) 15-17 in Issac Todhunter's 1872 translation, The Elements of Euclid for the
Use of Schools and Colleges.

Circles are shapes with infinite loci around its centre. Its perimeter is called the circumference.
The line running from one side of the circle, through the centre and to the other side is called the
diameter. The line running from the centre to any point on the circumference is called the radius.
Any other line running from one point of the circumference to another is called a chord. An arc
is any part of the circumference.

For thousands of years, mathematicians have been trying to find out the relationship between the
circumference and the diameter. When we divide the circumference by the diameter, we get a
number that is slightly larger than 3. That number is called π (spelt pi and pronounced pie).
Supercomputers have discovered millions of digits of π, but you only need to remember that π is
roughly 3.14 or 22/7. That is close enough. If you know the circumference of a circle, dividing
that by π will result in the diameter; multiplying the diameter by π will result in the
circumference. To find out the area of a circle, calculate πr2.

You don't really get to know much about ellipses and semicircles in elementary school. Ellipses
look like ovals, except they have a stricter way of constructing that is more than a crushed circle.
They have two 'centres' called foci. Semicircles are circles cut along the diameter, and if you
draw a line from one end to a point on the circumference, then to another end, you always get a
right angle. These two shapes are seldom taught in elementary school, and aside from knowing
their names you don't need to study them.

Assignment
1. List 5 types of polygon
2. Construct a pentagon [ab 40mm]
 Week 4&5; area of plane figure

Area of Plane Shapes

Area is the size of a surface!

Learn more about Area, or try the Area Calculator.

Triangle
Area = ½ × b ×
Square
h
Area = a2
b = base
a = length of side
h = vertical
height

Rectangle Parallelogram
Area = w × h Area = b × h
w = width b = base
h = height h = vertical height

Trapezoid (US)
Trapezium (UK) Circle
Area = ½(a+b) Area = π × r2
×h Circumference = 2 × π × r
h = vertical r = radius
height

Sector
Ellipse Area = ½ × r2 × θ
Area = πab r = radius
θ = angle in radians

Note: h is at right angles to

b:
Example: What is the area of this rectangle?

The formula is:

Area = w × h
w = width
h = height

We know w = 5 and h = 3, so:

Area = 5 × 3 = 15

Example: What is the area of this circle?

Radius = r = 3

Area = π × r2

= π × 32

= π × (3 × 3)

= 3.14159... × 9

= 28.27 (to 2 decimal places)

Example: What is the area of this triangle?

Height = h = 12

Base = b = 20

Area = ½ × b × h = ½ × 20 × 12 = 120

A harder example:

Example: Sam cuts grass at $0.10 per square meter

How much does Sam earn cutting this area:

Let's break the area into two parts:

Part A is a square:

Area of A = a2 = 20m × 20m = 400m2

Part B is a triangle. Viewed sideways it has a base of 20m and a height of 14m.

Area of B = ½b × h = ½ × 20m × 14m = 140m2

So the total area is:

Area = Area of A + Area of B = 400m2 + 140m2 = 540m2

Sam earns $0.10 per square meter

Sam earns = $0.10 × 540m2 = $54

Assignment
1. Construct a rectangle equal to the area of a given triangle

Week 6; wood work machine

Artisanal and hobby machines

These machines are used both in small-scale commercial production of timber products and by
hobbyists. Most of these machines may be used on solid timber and on composite products.
Machines can be divided into the bigger stationary machines where the machine remains
stationary while the material is moved over the machine, and hand-held power tools, where the
tool is moved over the material.

Hand-held power tools

 Biscuit joiner
 Domino jointer
 Chain saw
 Hand-held circular saw
 Electric drill
 Jig saw
 Miter saw
 Nail gun
 Hand-held electric plane
 Reciprocating saw
 Rotary tool
 Router
 Hand-held sanders, including belt sander, orbital sander, random orbit sander
Stationary machines

 Bandsaw
 Combination machine
 Double side planer
 Four sided planer or timber sizer
 Drill press
 Drum sander
 Bench grinder
 Jointer
 Wood lathe
 Mortiser
 Panel saw
 Pin router
 Radial arm saw
 Scroll saw
 Spindle moulder (Wood shaper)
 Stationary sanders, including stroke sanders, oscillating spindle sander, belt sander, disc sander
(and combination disc-belt sander).
 Table saw
 Tenoner or tenoning machine
 Thicknesser or Thickness planer
 Round pole milling machine
 Round pole sanding machine

Panel Line Woodworking machines

These machines are used in large-scale manufacturing of cabinets and other wooden or panel
products.

Panel surface processing

Panel dividing equipment

Panel dividing equipment, classified by number of beam, loading system, saw carriage speed

Double end tenoner

Double end tenoner, classified by conveyor type

 Rolling chain system conveyor speed 40 to 120 m/min

 Sliding chain system conveyor speed 10 to 30 m/min

Panel edge processing equipment

Panel edge processing equipment, classified by conveyor speed

  High speed edgebander conveyor speed >= 100 m/min
 Heavy duty edgebander conveyor speed >= 24 m/min
 Light duty edgebander conveyor speed < 20 m/min (i.e. 8, 12 or 16 m/min)

Panel boring equipment

classified by number of boring heads

 Single line boring machine

 Multi line boring machine

Panel automatic packing equipment

Assignment

1. List 2 types of sawing machine

2. State the functions of surface planer

Week 7; metal work machine


o
o Coolant Systems
o Digital Readouts DRO
o Dividing & Indexing Heads
o Drilling Machines
o Drill Sets & Accessories
o Gift Vouchers
o Grinders
o Lathes
o Lathe Tools
o Lights
o Lubricants, Cutting Oil
o Marking Out Equipment
o Measuring Tools
o Milling Machines
o Milling Tools & Accessories
o Other Accessories
o Polishers
o Punches
o Rotary Tables
o Sanders
o Sheet Metal Machinery
o Stands & Trays
o Tool Cabinets & Trolleys
 o Vee Blocks & Angle Plates
o Vices & Vice Jaws
o Work Holding
 Wood Working
 Education

Special offers

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£123.00 £162.38

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Subcategories

Abrasives


 Bandsaws & Saws

Books

Clamps, Nuts & Studs

Coolant Systems


 Digital Readouts DRO

Dividing & Indexing Heads

Drilling Machines

Drill Sets & Accessories


 Gift Vouchers

Grinders

Lathes

Lathe Tools


 Lights

Lubricants, Cutting Oil

Marking Out Equipment

Measuring Tools


 Milling Machines

Milling Tools &...

Other Accessories

Polishers


 Punches

Rotary Tables

Sanders

Sheet Metal Machinery


 Stands & Trays

Tool Cabinets & Trolleys

Vee Blocks & Angle Plates

Vices & Vice Jaws

Work Holding
Assignment

1. List 5 basic machine tools

2. State 3 uses of centre lathe

Week 8; maintenance and care of machines

Here are five top tips for large machinery maintenance:

1. Stay on top of large machinery operator training

Many types of large machinery have multiple operators. One of the ongoing inspections on any
checklist should be overseeing the correct operation of the equipment.

Large machinery should be inspected as soon as it is purchased. Operator training is usually done
at that point, but training needs to be kept up. Employees come and go, skills become rusty and
poor operation leads to breakdowns.

Operator manuals can be revised for the specific work situation. They can be rewritten in simpler
language. A short manual can be provided to each operator for easy reference. And, if you
operate in a paperless environment, you can rest assured operators use the most current version
of each manual.

One other note is to identify best practices, which can then be applied to other facilities or
geographic locations. The knowledge you learn about how to maintain your equipment can
become quite valuable – be sure to best leverage this important knowledge and use it at every
applicable location.

2. Add and test lubricants frequently

Lubricants reduce friction around any moving part. A schedule of good lubrication maintenance
extends the life of large machinery equipment and parts.

Lubrication is one of the first and most important of maintenance checks. Look for signs of
excess oil or grease build-up on pistons. Check for leaks around oil seals.

Be sure to use the right lubricant. There are specific kinds of oil and grease for every component.
Check the manufacturer’s recommendations.

Getting the lubricants checked is a good way to diagnose problems with large machinery.
Experts analyze particles in the used oil. The makeup of any contaminants will indicate which
part may be suffering from wear or breakdown.
3. Check for signs of wear
Vibration, shock, high temperatures, friction and age all contribute to the breakdown of parts in
heavy machinery.

 Vibration can come from gears and belts that are out of alignment
 Shock can come from accidents and from poor operator technique
 High temperatures can come from extended use, friction, poor lubrication and worn parts,
among other reasons
 Age affects many key components. Over time, belts will warp. Seals will dry and crack.
Bolts will loosen and stretch out of shape. Age is a factor to monitor in equipment.

Should you discover wear and tear on any moving parts within your heavy equipment, be sure to
quickly perform the necessary replacement of any worn parts.

4. Keep large machinery clean, and maintain a clean

environment
There are many seals and filters in place on heavy machinery to keep working parts clean and
free of contamination. Seals should be inspected regularly to make sure they’re in good
condition. Filters should be inspected and changed regularly. Breathers should be kept clean to
avoid creating a vacuum in the cab which will suck contaminants into the cab. The electronics in
the cab are susceptible to breakdown if contaminated. This impacts the clutch, for example.

Large machinery should be stored in a shed or other building if at all possible. Exposure to wind
and weather can lead to rust and rot. The machinery should be run periodically if it is not in use.

5. Have a maintenance and repair schedule, and keep good

records
Fluids, tires, tracks and electrical systems are among the components that have to be checked
regularly for preventive maintenance. Know what needs to be inspected and when. Here are
some examples.

 Power transmissions have many moving parts that need to be maintained in top condition.
Gearboxes need to be checked for lubrication, vibration and damage to parts.
 Friction materials, seals, gaskets and bearings all need to be inspected for wear and
replaced. Gears and shafts usually last a long time and don’t need to be replaced often, if
at all.
 Drive train components need constant monitoring. Check pulleys and v-belts on CVT
transmissions for alignment and wear. Check sprockets for correct meshing with chains
and for breaks.
 Test the oil to diagnose problems. Change filters frequently.
  Bearings keep great amounts of force running smoothly and are vital to large machinery
performance. Check bearing lubrication often. Maintaining bearings well extends their
life.
 Lubricate gears frequently.
 Do a seal check to prevent bearing raceway contamination.
 Run torque checks on the bolts. Bolts can elongate and creep over time.

To conclude, following the above 5 steps can significantly extend the useful life of heavy
machinery, improving the Return on Investment from these important purchases. In today’s
global manufacturing world, even greater value can be extracted if you have a global knowledge
capture and distribution system such that this knowledge of machinery maintenance can be
effectively shared across your organization – letting you reap even greater benefits on a much
wider scale.

Assignment
1. Define maintenance
2. Mention 3 types of maintenance

Week 9; friction

Friction
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Friction (disambiguation).

Classical mechanics

Second law of motion

 History
 Timeline

Branches[show]

Fundamentals[show]

Formulations[show]
 Core topics[show]

Rotation[show]

Scientists[show]

 v
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Simulated blocks with fractal rough surfaces, exhibiting static frictional interactions[1]

Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material
elements sliding against each other.[2] There are several types of friction:

 Dry friction is a force that opposes the relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact.
Dry friction is subdivided into static friction ("stiction") between non-moving surfaces, and
kinetic friction between moving surfaces. With the exception of atomic or molecular friction, dry
friction generally arises from the interaction of surface features, known as asperities
 Fluid friction describes the friction between layers of a viscous fluid that are moving relative to
each other.[3][4]

 Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a lubricant fluid separates two solid surfaces.
[5][6][7]

 Skin friction is a component of drag, the force resisting the motion of a fluid across the surface
of a body.
 Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a solid material
while it undergoes deformation.[4]

When surfaces in contact move relative to each other, the friction between the two surfaces
converts kinetic energy into thermal energy (that is, it converts work to heat). This property can
have dramatic consequences, as illustrated by the use of friction created by rubbing pieces of
wood together to start a fire. Kinetic energy is converted to thermal energy whenever motion
with friction occurs, for example when a viscous fluid is stirred. Another important consequence
of many types of friction can be wear, which may lead to performance degradation or damage to
components. Friction is a component of the science of tribology.

Friction is desirable and important in supplying traction to facilitate motion on land. Most land
vehicles rely on friction for acceleration, deceleration and changing direction. Sudden reductions
in traction can cause loss of control and accidents.

Friction is not itself a fundamental force. Dry friction arises from a combination of inter-surface
adhesion, surface roughness, surface deformation, and surface contamination. The complexity of
these interactions makes the calculation of friction from first principles impractical and
necessitates the use of empirical methods for analysis and the development of theory.

Friction is a non-conservative force - work done against friction is path dependent. In the
presence of friction, some energy is always lost in the form of heat. Thus mechanical energy is
not conserved.

Laws of dry friction

The elementary property of sliding (kinetic) friction were discovered by experiment in the 15th
to 18th centuries and were expressed as three empirical laws:

 Amontons' First Law: The force of friction is directly proportional to the applied load.
 Amontons' Second Law: The force of friction is independent of the apparent area of contact.
 Coulomb's Law of Friction: Kinetic friction is independent of the sliding velocity.

Dry friction
Dry friction resists relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact. The two regimes of
dry friction are 'static friction' ("stiction") between non-moving surfaces, and kinetic friction
(sometimes called sliding friction or dynamic friction) between moving surfaces.

Coulomb friction, named after Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, is an approximate model used to

calculate the force of dry friction. It is governed by the model:

where

 is the force of friction exerted by each surface on the other. It is parallel to the surface,
in a direction opposite to the net applied force.
  is the coefficient of friction, which is an empirical property of the contacting materials,

 is the normal force exerted by each surface on the other, directed perpendicular
(normal) to the surface.

The Coulomb friction may take any value from zero up to , and the direction of
the frictional force against a surface is opposite to the motion that surface would experience in
the absence of friction. Thus, in the static case, the frictional force is exactly what it must be in
order to prevent motion between the surfaces; it balances the net force tending to cause such
motion. In this case, rather than providing an estimate of the actual frictional force, the Coulomb
approximation provides a threshold value for this force, above which motion would commence.
This maximum force is known as traction.

The force of friction is always exerted in a direction that opposes movement (for kinetic friction)
or potential movement (for static friction) between the two surfaces. For example, a curling stone
sliding along the ice experiences a kinetic force slowing it down. For an example of potential
movement, the drive wheels of an accelerating car experience a frictional force pointing forward;
if they did not, the wheels would spin, and the rubber would slide backwards along the
pavement. Note that it is not the direction of movement of the vehicle they oppose, it is the
direction of (potential) sliding between tire and road.
Normal force

Free-body diagram for a block on a ramp. Arrows are vectors indicating directions and magnitudes of
forces. N is the normal force, mg is the force of gravity, and Ff is the force of friction.

Main article: Normal force

The normal force is defined as the net force compressing two parallel surfaces together; and its
direction is perpendicular to the surfaces. In the simple case of a mass resting on a horizontal

surface, the only component of the normal force is the force due to gravity, where . In
this case, the magnitude of the friction force is the product of the mass of the object, the
acceleration due to gravity, and the coefficient of friction. However, the coefficient of friction is
not a function of mass or volume; it depends only on the material. For instance, a large
aluminum block has the same coefficient of friction as a small aluminum block. However, the
magnitude of the friction force itself depends on the normal force, and hence on the mass of the
block.

If an object is on a level surface and the force tending to cause it to slide is horizontal, the

normal force between the object and the surface is just its weight, which is equal to its
mass multiplied by the acceleration due to earth's gravity, g. If the object is on a tilted surface
such as an inclined plane, the normal force is less, because less of the force of gravity is
perpendicular to the face of the plane. Therefore, the normal force, and ultimately the frictional
force, is determined using vector analysis, usually via a free body diagram. Depending on the
situation, the calculation of the normal force may include forces other than gravity.

Coefficient of friction

The coefficient of friction (COF), often symbolized by the Greek letter µ, is a dimensionless
scalar value which describes the ratio of the force of friction between two bodies and the force
pressing them together. The coefficient of friction depends on the materials used; for example,
ice on steel has a low coefficient of friction, while rubber on pavement has a high coefficient of
friction. Coefficients of friction range from near zero to greater than one. It is an axiom of the
nature of friction between metal surfaces that it is greater between two surfaces of the similar
metals than between two surfaces of different metals— hence, brass will have a higher
coefficient of friction when moved against brass, but less if moved against steel or aluminum. [22]

For surfaces at rest relative to each other , where is the coefficient of static
friction. This is usually larger than its kinetic counterpart. The coefficient of static friction
exhibited by a pair of contacting surfaces depends upon the combined effects of material
deformation characteristics and surface roughness, both of which have their origins in the
chemical bonding between atoms in each of the bulk materials and between the material surfaces
and any adsorbed material. The fractality of surfaces, a parameter describing the scaling behavior
of surface asperities, is known to play an important role in determining the magnitude of the
static friction.[1]

For surfaces in relative motion , where is the coefficient of kinetic friction. The

Coulomb friction is equal to , and the frictional force on each surface is exerted in the
direction opposite to its motion relative to the other surface.

Arthur Morin introduced the term and demonstrated the utility of the coefficient of friction. [12]
The coefficient of friction is an empirical measurement – it has to be measured experimentally,
and cannot be found through calculations.[citation needed] Rougher surfaces tend to have higher
effective values. Both static and kinetic coefficients of friction depend on the pair of surfaces in
contact; for a given pair of surfaces, the coefficient of static friction is usually larger than that of
kinetic friction; in some sets the two coefficients are equal, such as teflon-on-teflon.

Most dry materials in combination have friction coefficient values between 0.3 and 0.6. Values
outside this range are rarer, but teflon, for example, can have a coefficient as low as 0.04. A
value of zero would mean no friction at all, an elusive property. Rubber in contact with other
surfaces can yield friction coefficients from 1 to 2. Occasionally it is maintained that µ is always
< 1, but this is not true. While in most relevant applications µ < 1, a value above 1 merely
implies that the force required to slide an object along the surface is greater than the normal force
of the surface on the object. For example, silicone rubber or acrylic rubber-coated surfaces have
a coefficient of friction that can be substantially larger than 1.
While it is often stated that the COF is a "material property," it is better categorized as a "system
property." Unlike true material properties (such as conductivity, dielectric constant, yield
strength), the COF for any two materials depends on system variables like temperature, velocity,
atmosphere and also what are now popularly described as aging and deaging times; as well as on
geometric properties of the interface between the materials, namely surface structure.[1] For
example, a copper pin sliding against a thick copper plate can have a COF that varies from 0.6 at
low speeds (metal sliding against metal) to below 0.2 at high speeds when the copper surface
begins to melt due to frictional heating. The latter speed, of course, does not determine the COF
uniquely; if the pin diameter is increased so that the frictional heating is removed rapidly, the
temperature drops, the pin remains solid and the COF rises to that of a 'low speed' test

Assignment

1. Define friction
2. State 2 advantages of friction

Week 10; reducing friction

Reducing friction
Devices

Devices such as wheels, ball bearings, roller bearings, and air cushion or other types of fluid
bearings can change sliding friction into a much smaller type of rolling friction.

Many thermoplastic materials such as nylon, HDPE and PTFE are commonly used in low
friction bearings. They are especially useful because the coefficient of friction falls with
increasing imposed load.[citation needed] For improved wear resistance, very high molecular weight
grades are usually specified for heavy duty or critical bearings.

Lubricants

A common way to reduce friction is by using a lubricant, such as oil, water, or grease, which is
placed between the two surfaces, often dramatically lessening the coefficient of friction. The
science of friction and lubrication is called tribology. Lubricant technology is when lubricants
are mixed with the application of science, especially to industrial or commercial objectives.

Superlubricity, a recently discovered effect, has been observed in graphite: it is the substantial
decrease of friction between two sliding objects, approaching zero levels. A very small amount
of frictional energy would still be dissipated.

Lubricants to overcome friction need not always be thin, turbulent fluids or powdery solids such
as graphite and talc; acoustic lubrication actually uses sound as a lubricant.
Another way to reduce friction between two parts is to superimpose micro-scale vibration to one
of the parts. This can be sinusoidal vibration as used in ultrasound-assisted cutting or vibration
noise, known as dither.

Energy of friction
According to the law of conservation of energy, no energy is destroyed due to friction, though it
may be lost to the system of concern. Energy is transformed from other forms into thermal
energy. A sliding hockey puck comes to rest because friction converts its kinetic energy into heat
which raises the thermal energy of the puck and the ice surface. Since heat quickly dissipates,
many early philosophers, including Aristotle, wrongly concluded that moving objects lose
energy without a driving force.

When an object is pushed along a surface along a path C, the energy converted to heat is given
by a line integral, in accordance with the definition of work

where

is the friction force,

is the vector obtained by multiplying the magnitude of the normal force by a unit
vector pointing against the object's motion,

is the coefficient of kinetic friction, which is inside the integral because it may vary
from location to location (e.g. if the material changes along the path),

is the position of the object.

Energy lost to a system as a result of friction is a classic example of thermodynamic

irreversibility.

Work of friction

In the reference frame of the interface between two surfaces, static friction does no work,
because there is never displacement between the surfaces. In the same reference frame, kinetic
friction is always in the direction opposite the motion, and does negative work.[64] However,
friction can do positive work in certain frames of reference. One can see this by placing a heavy
box on a rug, then pulling on the rug quickly. In this case, the box slides backwards relative to
the rug, but moves forward relative to the frame of reference in which the floor is stationary.
Thus, the kinetic friction between the box and rug accelerates the box in the same direction that
the box moves, doing positive work.[65]

The work done by friction can translate into deformation, wear, and heat that can affect the
contact surface properties (even the coefficient of friction between the surfaces). This can be
beneficial as in polishing. The work of friction is used to mix and join materials such as in the
process of friction welding. Excessive erosion or wear of mating sliding surfaces occurs when
work due to frictional forces rise to unacceptable levels. Harder corrosion particles caught
between mating surfaces in relative motion (fretting) exacerbates wear of frictional forces.
Bearing seizure or failure may result from excessive wear due to work of friction. As surfaces
are worn by work due to friction, fit and surface finish of an object may degrade until it no
longer functions properly.

Applications
Friction is an important factor in many engineering disciplines.

Transportation

 Automobile brakes inherently rely on friction, slowing a vehicle by converting its kinetic energy
into heat. Incidentally, dispersing this large amount of heat safely is one technical challenge in
designing brake systems. Disk brakes rely on friction between a disc and brake pads that are
squeezed transversely against the rotating disc. In Drum brakes, brake shoes or pads are pressed
outwards against a rotating cylinder (brake drum) to create friction. Since braking discs can be
more efficiently cooled than drums, disc brakes have better stopping performance.
 Rail adhesion refers to the grip wheels of a train have on the rails, see Frictional contact
mechanics.
 Road slipperiness is an important design and safety factor for automobiles[67]
o Split friction is a particularly dangerous condition arising due to varying friction on either
side of a car.
o Road texture affects the interaction of tires and the driving surface.

Assignment

1. Define lubrication
2. Mention 3 types of lubricant

Week 11; revision

Week 12; examination