Unit3 Basic Computer Architecture
Prepared By: Sujan Shrestha
Contents
• Introduction
– History of computer architecture,
– Overview of computer organization,
– Memory hierarchy and cache,
– Organization of hard disk
• Instruction codes
– Stored program organization
– Indirect address,
– Computer registers
– Common bus system
– Instruction set
– Timing and control
– Instruction cycle
Computer architecture?
• Architecture
– Art and science of designing and object
– Every object in the real word is based on some architecture, for example an
architect will define the building in term of building drawings and
specifications for various building components
• Similarly computer architecture defines various functional unit of
the computer system and how they are interconnected
• Architecture describes what the computer does
• Programmer has to be aware of which instruction set is used to
increase performance
• Is there a multiply instruction?
Computer system functional unit
Contd…
• In order to built a computer system, first step is to design and develop the system architecture
• Computer architecture deals with high level design issues logical functions such as instruction
sets, registers, data types, addressing modes and cache optimization
Categories of computer architecture
• System design
– It include all hardware components in the system, including data processor such as CPU, GPU and
memory elements
• Instruction set architecture(ISA):
– Set of binary command supported by the CPU
– Embedded programming language(eg. Assembly language) of the central processing unit
– It defines the CPU function and capabilities based on the what programming it can performed or
process
– This includes word size, processor register type, data formats and the instruction set that programmer
use
– Two types:
• RISC: reduce instruction set computer arch.
– Consists of simple instruction that take single cycle to execute
– Deploy in mobile devices
• CISC: complex instruction set computer arch.
– Consists of complex instruction that take multiple cycle to execute
– Deploy in server, desktop, laptops etc.
Contd…
• Microarchitecture
– This types of architecture defines the data paths, data
processing and storage elements, as well as how they
should be implemented in the ISA
– This might be DVD storage devices or other similar
devices
Computer organization?
• Computer organization is based on computer architecture
• Computer organization deals with low level design issues
such as circuit design, adder, signal and peripherals
• Is there a hardware multiply unit or is it done by repeated
addition?
• Hence, computer organization deals with the arrangement of
the various system hardware components and the function
performed by the components
History of computer architecture
• The first document of computer architecture was a
correspondence between Charles Babbage and
Ada Lovelace, that describe the analytical engine
Harvard architecture
• Data and programs
stored in separate
memory areas
• Allows for faster
operation
• Simultaneous access of
both data and programs
• Allows data and
instruction bus to be diff
sizes
• Used in microcontrollers
Von Neuman Architecture
• Classic computer
architecture
• Data and program
instructions stored in
same memory
• Fetch-execute cycle
• Suffers from Von
Neumann ‘bottleneck’
• Used in personal
computers, laptops etc
Class work
• Write difference between computer organization and
computer architecture
• Write difference between Harvard and Von Neuman
Architecture
Memory hierarchy
• Memory unit is essential component in any digital computer since it is
needed for storing programs and data
• The memory unit that communicates directly with the CPU is called main
memory
• Device the provide backup storage are called auxiliary memory(Eg. hard
disk)
• Auxiliary memory are used for storing system programs, large data files
and another backup information
• Only programs and data currently needed by the processor reside in the
main memory
• And all other information is stored in auxiliary memory and transfer to
main memory when required
Contd…
• The total memory
capacity of the computer
can be visualized using
the hierarchy of the
memory components
• The memory hierarchy
system consists of all
storage devices employed
in the computer system
Contd…
• As we move down the hierarchy we can see that
– Increasing distance from the processor or decreasing
access by the processor
– Increasing access times or decreasing speed
– Increasing capacity
– Decreasing cost per bit
• The designer always follow the memory hierarchy
Cache memory
• It holds frequently requested data and instruction so that they are
immediately available to the CPU when needed
• The cache memory access time is less than the access time of main
memory by the factor of 5 to 10 so it is called as high speed memory
• the basic operation of the cache:
– When CPU need to access the memory, the cache is examined
– If the word addressed is found in the cache, CPU read cache memory
– If the word address requested by the CPU not found in the cache, the main
memory is accessed to read the specified word
– After accessed word from main memory, then transferred to cache memory
Contd…
• In the given diagram, the main memory can store 32K words of 12 bit each
• And the cache is capable of storing 512 words of each 12 bit
• CPU communicate with the both memory:
– CPU sends 15 bit address to cache. If there is a hit, the CPU accept the 12 bit data from
cache
• If the required data is in the cache it is called cache hit
– If there is a miss, the CPU reads the word from main memory and the word is then
transferred to cache
• If the required data is not in the cache, it is called cache miss
Organization of Hard Disk
• A hard disk drive(HDD) is a non-
volatile(data retain when
computer turned off) storage
device containing magnetic disk
or platters rotating at high speeds
• It is a secondary storage device
used to store data permanently
• A HDD is also known as Hard
drive
Components of hard disk
• Magnetic platters
– Platters are the round plates, each platter holds the certain
amount of information
– So drivers with a lot of storage will have more platters than
one with less storage
– When information is stored and retrieved from the platters it is
done so in concentric circles, called tracks.
– Tracks are further broken down into segments called sectors
Contd…
• Read and write head
– Read-Write(R-W) head moves over the rotating hard disk
– Read-Write head that performs all the read and writes
operations on the disk and hence, the position of the R-W
head is a major concern
– To perform a read or write operation on a memory
location, we need to place the R-W head over that
position
Contd…
• Motor
– The motor is used to spin the platters from 4,500 to 15,000 RPM
– The faster the RPM of drive, the better performance will achieve
from it
– When the computer wants to retrieve data from the hard drive, the
motor will spin up the platters and the R-W head move itself to the
appropriate data that can be used by the computer
– When data is sent to the drive, the head send magnetic pulses at the
platters and changing the magnetic properties of the platters, thus
storing information
Example
• Example –
Consider a hard disk with:
4 surfaces ,64 tracks/surface,128 sectors/track, 256
bytes/sector
• What is the capacity of the hard disk?
Disk capacity(Byte) = surfaces * tracks/surface *
sectors/track * bytes/sector
Instruction Code
• Instruction code is a group of bits that instruct the computer to perform specific operation
• The operation code(opcode) of an instruction is a group of bits that define operations such as addition,
subtraction, shift, complement, etc.
• An instruction must also include one or more operands, which indicate the registers and/or memory
addresses from which data is taken or to which data is deposited
• The instructions are stored in computer memory in the same manner that data is stored
• The control unit interprets these instructions and uses the operations code to determine the sequences of
microoperations that must be performed to execute the instruction
• Micro0peration
– Elementary operation performed with the data stored in the registers
– Types:
• Register transfer
• Arithmetic transfer
• Logic
• Shift etc.
Stored program organization
• Operands are specified by indicating
the registers and/or memory
locations in which they are stored
• Instruction are stored in one section
of memory and data(operand) in
another
• For memory unit with 4096 word,
12 bits are required to specify the
address i.e. 2^12=4096
Indirect addressing
• The data to be operated is
available inside the memory
location and that memory
location is indirectly specified
by the HL register pair
• Example:
– MOV A,M
• Move the content of the memory
location pointed by the HL register
pair to the accumulator
Computer Registers
• Registers are the fastest and smallest type of
memory element available to a processor
• Register are normally measured by the number of
bits they can hold permanently, for example , 8 bit
register, 32 bit register and 64 bit register
Common Bus system
• To avoid excessive wiring, memory and all the register are connected via a
common bus
• The specific output that is selected for the bus is determined by S2S1S0
• The register whose LD (Load) is enable receives the data from the bus
• Registers can be incremented by setting the INR control input and can be
cleared by setting the CLR control input
• The Accumulator’s input must come via the Adder & Logic Circuit
• This allows the Accumulator and Data Register to swap data simultaneously
• The address of any memory location being accessed must be loaded in the
Address Register.
Contd…
• The basic computer has eight registers, memory unit and control unit
• Path must be provided to transfer information from one register to another and between memory and registers
• Four register DR, TR, AC, and IR has 16 bit bus
• Two register AR and PC have 12 bits each since they hold a memory address
• When content of AR and PC applied to the 16 bit common bus, the four MSB bits are set to 0’s
• When AR and PC receives the information from the bus, only the 12 LSB are transferred into the register
• The INPR and OUTR have 8 bit each and communicate with 8 LSB in the bus
• INPR is connected to provide information to the bus but OUTR can only receive information from bus
• INPR receives the data from input device which is then transfer to AC
• OUTR receives the data from AC and deliver it to the output device
• There is no transfer from OUTR to any of the other register
• The common bus system receives the information from six register and memory unit
• The bus lines are connected to the input of input of six registers and the memory unit
• Five register have three control inputs: LD, INR(increment),CLR(clear)
• The input data and the output of the memory are connected to the common bus, but the memory address connected to AR
• AR must always be used to specify memory address
• The content of the any register can be specified for memory data input during a write operation
• Any register can receive the data from memory after read operation except AC
Timing and control
• The timings for all the registers is controlled a master
clock generator
• Its pulses are applied to all flip-flops and registers,
including in the control unit
• The control signals are generated in the control unit and
provide control inputs for the bus’s mutlitplexers and
for the processor registers and provides micrroperations
for the accumulator
Instruction cycle
• The instructions of a program are carried out by a
process called the instruction cycle
• The instruction cycle consists of these phases:
– Fetch an instruction from memory
– Decode the instruction
– Read the effective address from memory if the operand
has an indirect address
– Execute the instruction
