1st Angle Projection

1st Metric Edition

2022

T EC HNIC AL
DRAWING Lecture Notes

HESHAM A. HEGAZI
P r o f e s s o r o f E n g i n e e r i n g
D e s i g n & C A D
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Drawings are essential communication tools for engineers. They are used for conveying ideas, designs and
details of work to others. Engineering students must be able to visualize three dimensional objects and
present them on paper in order to be able to communicate with others during their study period and
throughout their careers. This lecture note emphasizes visualization and presentation of three dimensional
objects as well as the use of drawing instruments and the method of freehand sketching. An introduction to
AutoCAD release 2020 will also be given.
The goal and objectives of studying “Technical Drawing” are as follows:
1. Analyze and visualize three dimensional objects.
2. Make good quality sketches to convey ideas to others.
3. High quality precise drawings using instruments and AutoCAD.
The first step in this course is to know the tools required for drawing in the lab, the different sizes of drawing
papers, writing of letters in a drawing paper, the different types of lines used in engineering drawing, and
how to add dimensions on the drawing.
Three different techniques are used is engineering drawing as follows:
1. free-hand sketching,
2. Using instruments,
3. Using computer graphics techniques.
The course is divided into four main sections as follows:
1. Orthographic Projection (Drawing of the 3 Views),
2. Pictorial Drawing,
3. Missing View,
4. Sectioning.
Students will find lots of solved examples, as well as, many problems for practicing the different topics of
the course.

Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

January, 2022

PREFACE
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

CONTENTS

No Topic Pages
1 Drawing Tools T-01 to T-05
2 Drawing Papers R-01 to R-04
3 Lettering L-01 to L04
4 Alphabet of Lines A-01 o A-02
5 Dimensioning D-01 to D-07
6 Freehand Sketching F-01 to F-06
7 Geometric Construction G-01 to G-30
8 Orthographic Projection O-01 to O-49
9 Pictorial Drawing P-01 to P-29
10 Missing View M-01 to M-22
11 Sectioning S-01 to S-30
12 AutoCAD Introduction C-01 to C-30
13 References

CONTENTS
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

This chapter explains and demonstrates the type of equipment and supplies used for manual drafting.
Manual drafting, also known as hand drafting, describes traditional drafting practice using pencil or ink on a
medium such as paper or polyester film, with the support of drafting instruments and equipment.

DRAFTING PENCILS AND LEADS

Automatic pencils are common for manual drafting, sketching, and other office uses. The term automatic pencil
refers to a pencil with a lead chamber that advances the lead from the chamber to the writing tip by the push of a
button or tab when a new piece of lead is needed (see Figure 1). Automatic pencils hold leads of one width so you
do not need to sharpen the lead. The pencils are available in several different lead sizes. Drafters typically have
several automatic pencils. Each pencil has a different grade of lead hardness and is appropriate for a specific
technique. This reduces the need to change leads constantly.

Figure 1 An automatic pencil. Lead widths are 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, and

LEAD GRADES

Lead grades of 2H and H are good in your automatic pencil for typical daily office use. The leads you select for
line work and lettering depend on the amount of pressure you apply and other technique factors. Experiment until
you identify the leads that give the best line quality. Leads commonly used for thick lines range from 2H to F,
whereas leads for thin lines range from 4H to H, depending on individual preference.
Construction lines for layout and guidelines are very lightly drawn with a 6H or 4H lead. Figure 2 shows the different
lead grades.

Figure 2 The range of lead grades

DRAWING TOOLS Drafting Pencils and Leads T-01

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

COMPASSES
A compass is an instrument used to draw circles and arcs. A
compass is especially useful for large circles, but using one can be
time consuming. Use a template, whenever possible, to make
circles or arcs more quickly.
There are several basic types of compasses. A bow compass,
shown in Figure 3, is used for most drawing applications.

TRIANGLES

There are two standard triangles. The 30°–60°

triangle has angles of 30°–60°–90°. The 45° triangle has
angles of 45°–45°–90° (see Figure 4). Some drafters
prefer to use triangles in place of a vertical
drafting machine scale.

Triangles can also be used as straightedges to

connect points for drawing lines without the aid of a
parallel bar or machine scale. Use triangles individually
or in combination to draw angled lines in 15°
increments (see Figure 5). Also available are adjustable
triangles with built-in protractors that are used to
make angles of any degree up to a 45° angle.
Figure 3 Bow Compass

Figure 5 Angles that may be made with the 30°–

60° and 45° triangles Figure 4 (a) 45° triangle. (b) 30°–60° triangle.

DRAWING TOOLS Compasses and Triangles T-02

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

TEMPLATES

Manual drafting templates are plastic sheets with accurate shapes cut out for use as stencils to draw specific
shapes. The most common manual drafting templates are circle templates for drawing circles and arcs. Templates
for drawing other shapes, such as ellipses, and for letters are also common. Templates are also available for specific
requirements and drafting disciplines. For example, use architectural templates to draw floor plan and other
symbols to scale. Electronic drafting templates have schematic symbols for electronic schematic drawings.

CIRCLE TEMPLATES

Circle templates are available with circles in a range of sizes beginning with 1/16 in. (1.5 mm). The circles on the
template are marked with their diameters and are available in fractions, decimals, or millimeters. Figure 2.10 shows
the parts of a circle. Figure 2.11 shows examples of circle templates. A popular template is one that has circles,
hexagons, squares, and triangles.

Figure 6 Parts of a Circle

Figure 7 Circle templates. (a) Small circles. (b) Large, full
circles. (c) Large half circles.

DRAWING TOOLS Templates T-03

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

DRAWING BOARD

Figure 8 Drawing Board Components

DRAWING TOOLS Drawing Board T-04

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Figure 9 Usage of a triangle to draw vertical lines

DRAWING TOOLS Drawing Board T-05

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Most professional drawings follow specific standards for sheet size and format. The ASME Y14.1 and ASME
Y14.1M standards specify the exact sheet size and format for engineering drawings created for the manufacturing
industry. Following sheet size and format standards to improve readability, handling, filling, and reproduction; this
will also help ensure that all necessary information appears on the sheet.
When selecting a sheet size, consider the size of objects drawn; the drawing scale; the amount of additional
content on the sheet, such as a border, title block, and notes; and drafting standards. In general, choose a sheet
size that is large enough to show all elements of the drawing using an appropriate scale and without crowding. For
example, the dimensioned views of a machine part that occupies a total area of 15 in. × 6 in. (381 mm × 153 mm),
can typically fit on a 17 in. × 11 in. (B size) or 420 mm × 297 mm (A3 size) sheet. A larger sheet will likely display
too much blank area and is an unnecessary use of material. A smaller sheet will not support the dimensioned views
and the remaining elements of the drawing, such as the title block.
The following is a list of standard and optional items found on common sheet size according to ASME standards:
 Border.
 Zoning.
 Title block.
 Angle of projection block.
 Dimensioning and tolerancing block.
 Revision history block.
 Revision status of sheets block.
 Revision status notation.
 Margin drawing number block.
 Application block.
 Microfilm alignment arrows.

ASME Y14.1M, Metric Drawing Sheet Size and Format, specifies the following common metric drawing sheet sizes.
The M in the title of the document Y14.1M means all specifications are given in metric.

Figure 1 shows standard metric sheet sizes. The additional

sheet sizes A1.0, A2.1, A2.0, A3.2, A3.1, and A3.0 apply to
specific elongated sizes. Elongated sizes are horizontally
longer than standard sheets.

Figure 1 Metric Sheet Sizes

DRAWING PAPERS Introduction R-01

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Figure 2 Detailed Sheet Sizes

DRAWING PAPERS Sheets Sizes R-02

Descriptive Geometry and Engineering Drawing Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Title Block
The title block is located in the lower right corner of the format. Refer to Figure 2 for dimensions for a typical title
block for A-, B-, and C-size sheets (standard one).

Figure 3 Title Block Dimensions

 Name Show the name of the originating company or

business (and address if desired). Refer to Figure 3.
 Drawing Title Briefly describe the item using a singular
noun or noun phrase and modifiers if necessary to
distinguish it from similar items. Do not use the terms “for”
or “or” in the title. For example, “Dust Cap” would be
preferred over “Cap or Cover for Dust Protection,” which is
too wordy.
 Drawing Number Give each drawing a unique number, Figure 4 Company Name and Drawing Title
using the company’s numbering system.
 Sheet Revision Block Track the drawing version using the
number of the revision. The original release of the drawing
typically shows revision 0.
 Approval Block List the name(s) of the person(s) approving
the drawing and the date it was approved. Additional areas
of this block can be used for various design activities, if
separate approval is required. For example, a company
may use separate areas for structural design or
manufacturing engineering approvals (Figure 4).
 Scale List the predominant scale for the drawing. Drawings
may include details at other scales, which should be noted Figure 5 Approval Block, Scale, Revision
below the detail. If the drawing is not made to a particular
scale, note NONE in the scale area.

DRAWING PAPERS Title Block R-03

Descriptive Geometry and Engineering Drawing Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

As mentioned previously, every company can make its own unique Title Block and we are using a custom one in
our course

And you also may use a simpler one in your drawings

University Name Course Name

DRAWING PAPERS Title Block R-04

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Lettered text is often necessary to completely describe an object

or to provide detailed specifications. Lettering should be legible,
be easy to create, and use styles acceptable for traditional
drawing and CAD drawing.

Engineering drawings use single-stroke sans serif letters

because they are highly legible and quick to draw. (Sans serif
means without serifs, or spurs.) The sans serif letters used for
drawings also referred to as Gothic. (Serif letters are sometimes
called Roman, but today that term is commonly used for the
upright form of the letters.) A font is the name for a set of letters
with the same style. Figure 1 shows the distinctions among
Roman, italic, serif, and sans serif fonts.

Lettering is a standard feature available in computer graphics

programs. With CAD software, you can add titles, notes, and
dimensioning information to a drawing. Several fonts and a
variety of sizes may be selected. When modifications are required,
it is easy to make lettering changes on the drawing by editing
existing text.

Freehand lettering ability has little relationship to writing

ability. You can learn to letter neatly even if you have terrible
handwriting. There are three necessary aspects of learning to
letter:
1. Knowing the proportions and forms of the letters (to
make good letters, you need to have a clear mental image
of their correct shape)
2. Spacing of letters and words for legibility
3. Practice
Figure 1 Letters Styles

STANDARD

The standard for lettering was established in 1935 by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). This
standard is now conveyed by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers document ASME Y14.2, Line
Conventions and Lettering. Letters and numbers should be opaque and clearly spaced. Lettering can be vertical
or inclined, but only one style should be used throughout the drawing. Uppercase letters are used on drawings
unless lowercase letters are required for a specific application. The lettering style used when revising a drawing
should match the original drawing lettering style.

LETTERING Introduction L-01

Descriptive Geometry and Engineering Drawing Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Lettering Guidelines

Most hand-drawn notes use lettering about 3 mm high. Light

horizontal guidelines are useful for producing consistent letter
heights. CAD notes are set using the keyboard and sized to be in
the range of 3 mm tall according to the plotted size of the
drawing. Lettering heights vary with the size of the sheet and the
intended use of the drawing.

CAD drawings typically use a Gothic (sans serif) lettering style

but often use a Roman (serif) style for titles. When adding
lettering to a CAD drawing, a good rule of thumb is not to use
more than two fonts within the same drawing. See Figure 2 for a
sample of the fonts available using CAD. You may want to use one
font for the titles and a different font for notes and other text.

Keep in mind that if you open a drawing created with software

such as AutoCAD, you must have the fonts available that were Figure 2
used in the drawing, otherwise the software will have to
different fonts.
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Lettering
a “ransom note” lettering style.

Use extremely light horizontal guidelines to keep letter height uniform, as shown in Figure 3. Capital letters are
commonly made 3 mm high, with the space between rows of lettering being from three-fifths to full height of the
letters. Do not use vertical guidelines to space the distance from one letter to the next within a word or sentence. This
should be done by eye while lettering. If necessary, use a vertical guideline at the beginning of a column of hand-
lettered text to help you line up the left edges of the following rows. Beginners can also use randomly spaced vertical
guidelines to practice maintaining the correct slant.

Figure 3 Using Guidelines

LETTERING Letters Guidelines L-02

Descriptive Geometry and Engineering Drawing Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Vertical and Inclined Letters and Numbers

The proportions of vertical capital letters and numbers are shown in Figure 4. The letter shapes are probably a little
wider than your usual writing. Hand lettering and text added to engineering drawings is typically upper case. Lowercase
letters are rarely used except for large volumes of notes or when there is some other particular need for it. Lowercase
letters are shown in Figure 5. The lower part of the letter (or descender) is usually two thirds the height of the capital
letter.

Figure 4

Figure 5

LETTERING Vertical Letters L-03

Descriptive Geometry and Engineering Drawing Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Inclined (italic) capital letters and numerals are shown in Figure 6. They are similar to vertical lettering, except the
slope is about 68° from the horizontal. Although you may practice hand lettering slanted at approximately this angle,
it is important in CAD drawings to always set the amount of incline for the letters at the same value within a drawing
so that the lettering is consistent. Inclined lowercase letters, shown in Figure 7, are rarely used.

Keep in mind that only one style of lettering or font, either vertical or inclined, should be used throughout a drawing.

Figure 6

Figure 7

LETTERING Inclined Letters L-04

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

The meaning of each line on a technical drawing is indicated by its width (thick or thin) and its particular line style.
The person who reads the drawing will depend on these line styles to know if a line is visible or hidden, if it represents
a center axis, or if it conveys dimension information.
To make your drawings easy to read, make the contrast between thick and thin lines distinct. Thick lines (0.6 mm)
should be twice the width of thin lines (0.3 mm), as shown in Figure 1. The line gage in Figure 2 shows various widths.

Figure 1 Thick and Thin Drawing Lines

Figure 2 Line gauge

Figure 3 shows freehand line technique. You may find it helpful to use 1/8‘’ graph paper at first to get a feel for the
length of dashes used in hidden lines and centerlines. Soon you will be able to estimate the lengths by eye.

Figure 3 Good and Poor Freehand Line Technique

ALPHABET OF LINES Introduction A-01

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

In the following the figure you can find the most commonly used types of lines

Figure 4 Line Types

ALPHABET OF LINES Line Types A-02

Technical Drawing, Lecture notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

It is essential to describe not only the shape of the features you design but also their sizes and locations.
Dimensions and notes define the size, finish, and other requirements to fully define what you want manufactured.
Standards organizations prescribe how dimensions should appear and the general rules for their selection and
placement in the drawing and in digital models, but it takes skill and practice to dimension drawings so that their
interpretation is clear and unambiguous. Whether you are creating 2D drawings or 3D models, CAD systems are great
for producing dimensions that follow standards for the appearance of the dimensions themselves. However, the job
of selecting which dimension to show or where to place it in a drawing takes a level of intelligence that is not part of
most CAD systems. Those important decisions are still up to the CAD user—or in other words, you.

- DIMENSIONING COMPONENTS

 Dimension lines indicate the

length of the dimension. They are
thin lines capped on the ends with
arrowheads and broken along the
length, providing a space for the
dimension numeral. The gap
between the dimension line and the
dimension numeral varies but is
commonly 1.5 mm.
 An angular dimension line is an
arc with the center of the arc from
the vertex of the angle.
 Dimension text is normally 3 mm
high, centered in the space provided
in the dimension line.
 A leader line is a thin line used to
connect a specific note to a feature
on the drawing. The leader line can
be at any angle between 15 – 75,
with 45 preferred. There is a
horizontal shoulder between 3–6
mm, centered where it meets the
text.
 Arrowheads are used to cap the dimension line and leader line ends. These are discussed in detail later.
 Extension lines are thin lines used to establish the extent of a dimension. They start with a small offset of 1.5 mm from the
object and extend 3 mm past the last dimension line. Extension lines do not extend between views.
 The centerline space is commonly 1.5 mm. This is the space between the short and long dashes of the centerline. The
centerline offset is the part of the centerline extending beyond the circle or other related feature. The centerline extension
is generally 3–6 mm.

- MAIN DIMENSIONING SYMBOLS

Symbols are commonly used in drafting to replace words, to simplify the drawing, to aid in clarity, and to ease drawing
presentation.

Dimensioning Introduction D-01

Technical Drawing, Lecture notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Dimensioning systems refers to the manner in which dimensions are applied to drawings for different applications.
 Aligned dimensioning requires that all
numerals, figures, and notes be aligned with
the dimension lines so they can be read from
the bottom for horizontal dimensions and from
the right side for vertical dimensions see the
figure Aligned dimensioning is commonly used
in architectural and structural drafting.

 Unidirectional dimensioning is commonly

used in mechanical drafting for manufacturing.
Unidirectional dimensioning requires that all
numerals, figures, and notes be lettered
horizontally and be read from the bottom of
the drawing sheet.

Unidirectional Dimensioning Aligned Dimensioning

 Omitting dimension lines is common for drawings in industries

that use computer-controlled machining processes and when
unconventional dimensioning practices are required because of
product features. Rectangular coordinate dimensioning
without dimension lines is a type of dimensioning that
includes only extension lines and text aligned with the extension
lines. Each dimension represents a measurement originating
from datums or coordinates. Often identification letters label
holes or similar features. A table, keyed to the identification
letters, indicates feature size or specifications. Alternately,
features sizes, such as holes, can be dimensioned using
traditional leaders and notes rather than using a table. Use of the
table is common, so you should confirm the desired practice with
your employer or instructor. Rectangular coordinate
dimensioning without dimension lines is popular for specific
applications, such as precision sheet metal part drawings and
electronics drafting, especially for chassis layout. Rectangular
coordinate dimensioning without dimension lines is also called
ordinate dimensioning.
Rectangular coordinate dimensioning
without dimension lines.

DIMENSIONING Dimensioning Systems D-02

Technical Drawing, Lecture notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Arrowheads
Arrowheads are used to terminate dimension lines and leaders.
Properly drawn arrowheads should be three times as long as they are
wide. All arrowheads on a drawing should be the same size. Do not use
small arrowheads in small spaces.

Individual company preference indicates if arrowheads are filled in solid

or left open as shown in the figure. Most companies prefer the
appearance of the filled-in arrowhead. The filled-in arrowheads look
better and make the dimension easier to read.

Dimension Line Spacing

Dimension lines are drawn parallel to the feature or
object being dimensioned. Dimension lines should be
placed at a uniform distance from the object, and all
succeeding dimension lines should be equally spaced.
The first dimension line should be a minimum of 10 mm
from the object, and the second dimension line should
be a minimum distance of 6 mm from the first
dimension line. All additional dimension lines should be
spaced equally, with the same space as the distance
from the first to second dimension line. Figure 10.21
shows the minimum acceptable distances for spacing
dimension lines.
In actual practice, the minimum distance is normally
too crowded. Judgment should be used based on space
available and information presented. Never crowd
dimensions, if possible.
Drafters typically prefer a distance of 12–24 mm and
a spacing of 12–20 mm for the following dimension
lines. The first dimension line is normally spaced farther
from the object than the spacing for additional
dimension lines. Always place the smallest dimensions Minimum dimension line spacing
closest to the object and progressively larger
dimensions outward from the object. Group dimensions
and place dimensions between views when possible.

The following figures show several dimensioning options. Evaluate each example carefully as you dimension your own drawing
assignments. Also there are some correct and incorrect dimensioning practices. Keep in mind that some computer aided drafting
programs do not necessarily acknowledge all of the rules or accepted examples. Some flexibility on your part is needed to become
accustomed to the potential differences that may exist between the recommended applications and the CAD software format.

DIMENSIONING Dimensioning Rules D-03

Technical Drawing, Lecture notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Correct and incorrect dimensioning

practices

Dimensioning Methods
 Chain Dimensioning

Chain dimensioning also known as point-to-point

dimensioning, is a method of dimensioning from one feature to
the next. Each dimension is dependent on the previous
dimension or dimensions.
The next figure shows the common mechanical drafting practice
of providing an overall dimension while leaving one of the
intermediate dimensions blank.
Chain dimensioning is commonly used in architectural drafting
and related construction industries. Chain Dimensioning

 Baseline Dimensioning

Baseline dimensioning is a common method of dimensioning

machine parts whereby each feature dimension originates from a
common surface, axis, or center plane. Each
dimension in baseline dimensioning is independent.

The following figure shows how baseline dimensions can be placed

symmetrical about a center plane. It also shows the use of the
symmetrical symbol. In this application, the baseline dimensions originate
from the center plane of the part. The symmetrical symbol is used shows
that both sides of the object is symmetrical when the object is too large
to fit on the sheet and a portion is broken away. A short break line is used
to represent the break. While this practice is an option for very large parts,
it should be avoided when possible because the application can cause
confusion. Drawing the entire view on a larger sheet is normally
preferred.

DIMENSIONING Dimensioning Methods D-04

Technical Drawing, Lecture notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

PREFERRED DIMENSIONING PRACTICES

The drawings in the following figure show correct and

incorrect dimensioning practices. Good judgment should
be used when placing dimensions. Basic rules apply to
the placement of dimensions, but you will find situations
in the real world when it is impossible to follow the rules.
When it is necessary to break a dimensioning rule, do it
as
Thewisely as possible
following while
provides basicmaintaining
guidelinesclarity.
to follow when placing
dimensions:
 Avoid crossing extension lines, but do not break
extension lines when they do cross.
 Never cross extension lines over dimension lines. When
there is no other solution, break the extension line
where it crosses over the dimension line. Never break
a dimension line.
 Break extension lines when they cross over or near an
arrowhead, such as when an extension line crosses a
leader line near the arrowhead. It is not necessary to
break the extension line in other cases. Your CADD
drafting application may not allow for breaks in
extension lines. Confirm this with your CADD
instructions.
 Avoid dimensioning over or through the object.
 Avoid dimensioning to hidden features.
 Avoid unnecessary long extension lines.
 Avoid using any line of the object as an extension line.
Correct and incorrect dimensioning examples.
 Dimension between views when possible.
 Group adjacent dimensions.
 Dimension to views that provide the best shape
description.
 Do not use a centerline, extension line, phantom line,
Dimensioning Symmetrical Objects, Cylinders, and Square Features
visible object line, or a continuation of any of these
lines as a dimension line.
Dimension cylindrical shapes in the
view where the cylinders appear
rectangular. The diameters are
identified by the diameter symbol,
and the circular view can be
omitted.

Square features are dimensioned

in a similar manner using the
square symbol shown in the figure

DIMENSIONING Preferred Dimensioning Practices D-05

Technical Drawing, Lecture notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Dimensioning Angles
Angular surfaces can be dimensioned as coordinates, as
angles in degrees, or as a flat taper (see Figure). Angles are
measured in degrees using the degree symbol (°). There are
360° in a circle. Each degree contains 60 minutes. Minutes are
identified with the minute symbol ('). Each minute has 60
seconds, identified with the seconds symbol (").

Notice in the figure that the dimension line for the 45° angle
is drawn as an arc. The radius of this arc is centered at the
vertex of the angle.

Dimensioning Chamfers
A chamfer is a slight surface angle used to relieve a sharp
corner. Dimensioning angular surfaces and flat taper symbol.
Chamfers of 45° are dimensioned with a note, while other
chamfers require an angle and size dimension, or two size
dimensions as shown in Figure. A note is used on 45° chamfers
because both sides of a 45° angle are equal. When placing the
45° chamfer note, the size is followed by the (X) symbol and
then the 45° angle without spaces. For example, 3X45°. Both
sides of a 45° angle are equal. For this reason, another option
is to place the value for the dimension of the sides in the note
and leave out the 45° angle, such as 3X3.

Dimensioning Hexagons and Other Polygons

Dimension Hexagons and other polygons across the flats in
the views where the true shape is shown. Provide a length
dimension in the adjacent view.

Dimensioning chamfers

Dimensioning Hexagons

DIMENSIONING Dimensioning Common Features D-06

ENGR 1005, Descriptive Geometry and Engineering Drawing Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Dimensioning Conical Shapes

Conical shapes should be dimensioned when possible
in the view where the cone appears as a triangle as shown
in the figure
The circular view can be omitted because the base is
dimensioned with a diameter. A conical taper can be
treated in one of three possible ways, as shown in the
figure. The circular views are omitted in these examples.

Dimensioning Arcs
[Grab your reader’s attention with a great
Arcs are dimensioned with leaders and radius dimensions in quote from the document or use this space
the views where they are shown as arcs. The leader can to emphasize a key point. To place this text
extend from the center to the arc or point to the arc as shown box anywhere on the page, just drag it.]
in the figures. The letter R precedes all radius dimension
values. Depending on the situation, arcs can be dimensioned
with or without their centers located. It is common to leave
the center marks off small arcs and the arc center location is
not dimensioned. This depends on the specific application
and the company or school preference.
Figure 2 shows a very large arc with the center moved closer
to the object. To save space, a break line is used in the leader
and in the shortened locating dimension to indicate that the 3 Ways of Dimensioning Conical Shapes
dimension is not in true length. The given dimension value is
the accurate location dimension.
A design can be created that has a series of tangent arcs.
When this is done, the curved outline made up of two or
more arcs is dimensioned by providing the radii of all arcs and
locating the arc centers with coordinate dimensions.

Dimensioning arcs with no centers located and Dimensioning arcs with centers located and
using the radius symbol. using the long break symbol for a very long
radius dimension.

DIMENSIONING Dimensioning Common Features D-07

 Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Freehand sketching is an effective way to get an idea across when words fail. In this way, graphic language becomes an
important aid to verbal language. It provides a quick and easy way to convey new ideas between engineers. Most original
engineering ideas or inventions are recorded for the first time in the form of a sketch. Usually, engineers start new designs
using freehand sketches. These sketches are then conveyed to drafters for more detailed drawings.

Sketches are often used instead of complete drawings where changes of design must be made quickly. The greatest use
of sketches, however, is in formulating, expressing, and recording new ideas.

Freehand sketching required a pencil, a soft eraser, and some papers. Grid papers are very useful in order to align the
drawings of multiple views, as shown in Figure (1).

Figure 1 Sketch of Multiple Views on Grid Paper

1- Types of Sketch Lines

Freehand lines differ in their appearance from mechanical lines. Mechanical lines are done using tools. An effort should
be made in order to draw freehand lines straight and uniform in weight. Figure (2) shows the different types of lines used
in freehand sketching from the thickness and lightness required.

Figure 2 Types of Sketch Lines

FREEHAND SKETCHING Introduction F-01

 Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

2- Straight Lines
When sketching a straight line, it is advisable to first mark the end points with very light dots or small crosses, while
horizontal lines are sketched from left to right as shown in Figure (3). Keep your eye on the point toward which you are
drawing, not on the pencil point. Steps for sketching a straight line are as follows:

1. Mark the end points.

2. Make few trial motions between the end points.
3. Sketch a very light line between the two end points.
4. Darken the finished line in one stroke. It should be distinct, black, and uniform.

Figure 3 Steps for Sketching a Straight Line

Sketching straight lines with different angles are shown in Figure (4).

Figure 4 Sketching Straight Lines with Different Angle

FREEHAND SKETCHING Straight Lines F-02

 ENGR 1005, Descriptive Geometry and Engineering Drawing Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

3- Sketching Circles
Circles can be divided into small and large circles. Small circles can be sketched in one motion by first making radial
distances on perpendicular center lines. While large circles additional radial distances on 450 are required. Figure (5)
shows the steps required to draw a circle using eight sketch rays at 450. The steps required for larger circles are shown in
Figure (6).

Figure 5 Steps for Sketching a Circle

Figure 6 Steps for Sketching Larger Circle

FREEHAND SKETCHING Sketching Circles F-03

 ENGR 1005, Descriptive Geometry and Engineering Drawing Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

4- Sketching Ellipses
Ellipses have two different axes. The long axis of an ellipse is called major axis while the short one is called the minor
axis. To sketch an ellipse, Figure (7), (a) lightly sketch the enclosing rectangle and mark the approximate mid-points of
the sides. Then (b), sketch light tangent arcs at the mid-points, and complete the ellipse, (c). A second method is to start
with the major and minor axes and sketch the ellipse as shown in (d) and (f).

Figure 7 Steps for Sketching Ellipses

5- Sketching a complete View

In Figure (8), it is required to look at the “Lock Plate” from the direction of the arrow indicated in order to draw a view.
Three steps are proposed. I) Sketch main areas lightly to keep the proportions of the entire view. II) Lightly construct the
arcs and circles. III) Then heavy-in all final lines, making them clean-cut and dark.

Figure (9) shows another example of sketching a different model using grid paper.

Figure 8 Steps for Sketching a Complete View

FREEHAND SKETCHING Sketching Ellipses F-04

ENGR 1005, Descriptive Geometry and Engineering Drawing Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Figure 9 Steps for Sketching a Complete View Using Grid Paper

FREEHAND SKETCHING Problems F-05

ENGR 1005, Descriptive Geometry and Engineering Drawing Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

FREEHAND SKETCHING Problems F-06

 Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

This chapter deals with problems on geometrical construction which are mostly based on plane geometry and
which are very essential in the preparation of engineering drawings. The solution of these geometric problems
is pure graphical using the drawing tools. Geometry is the basis of all technical drawings. The knowledge of the
principles of geometric construction and its applications are essential to engineers. An engineer, must know
how to draw various types of lines which can be a straight line, a circle, an arc of a circle, a circular curve etc.

Figure 1 Geometric Shapes

GEOMETRIC
CONSTRUCTION
Introduction, Geometric Shapes G-01
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Figure 2 Different Angles Done by Triangles

Figure 3 Drawing Parallel Lines Using Triangles

G-02
GEOMETRIC Usage of Triangles
CONSTRUCTION
 Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Figure 4 Possible Line Angles Using Triangles

Different Geometric Construction Operations

To bisect a given angle AOB

1. With centre O, draw an arc to cut OA at C

and OB at D.
2. With centres C and D, draw equal radii to
intersect at E.
Line OE bisects angle AOB.

To bisect a given straight line AB

1. With centre A and radius greater than half

AB, describe an arc.
2. Repeat with the same radius from B, the arcs
intersecting at C and D.
Join C to D and this line will be perpendicular to and
bisect AB.

To bisect a given arc AB

1. From centre A and with a radius greater than

half AB, describe an arc.
2. Repeat with the same radius from B, the arcs
intersecting at C and D.
3. Join C to D to bisect the arc AB.

Different Geometric Construction

G-03
GEOMETRIC
CONSTRUCTION Operations
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

To find the centre of a given arc AB

1. Draw two chords, AC and BD.
2. Bisect AC and BD as shown; the bisectors
will intersect at E.
The centre of the arc is point E.

To inscribe a circle in a given triangle

ABC

1. Bisect any two of the angles as shown so that

the bisectors intersect at D.
2. The centre of the inscribed circle is point D.

To circumscribe a circle around triangle

ABC
1. Bisect any two of the sides of the triangle as
shown, so that the bisectors intersect at point
D.
2. The centre of the circumscribing circle is
point D.

To draw a hexagon, given the distance

across the corners (the corners mean there are 2
or more other corners in between so that the
connecting line passes through the centre point)
Method A

1. Draw vertical and horizontal centre lines and

a circle with a diameter equal to the given
distance.
2. Step off the radius around the circle to give
six equally spaced points, and join the points
to give the required hexagon.

Different Geometric Construction

G-04
GEOMETRIC
CONSTRUCTION Operations
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

To draw a hexagon, given the distance

across the corners
Method B

1. Draw vertical and horizontal centre lines and

a circle with a diameter equal to the given
distance.
2. With a 60° set-square, draw points on the
circumference 60° apart.
Connect these six points by straight lines to give the
required hexagon.

To draw a hexagon, given the distance

across the flats

1. Draw vertical and horizontal centre lines and

a circle with a diameter equal to the given
distance.
Use a 60° set-square and tee-square as shown, to
give the six sides.

To draw a regular octagon, given the

distance across corners

Repeat the instructions but use a 45° setsquare,

then connect the eight points to give the required
octagon.

To draw a regular octagon, given the

distance across the flats

Repeat the instructions but use a 45° setsquare to

give the required octagon.

To draw a regular polygon, given the

length of the sides

Note that a regular polygon is defined as a plane

figure which is bounded by straight lines of equal
length and which contains angles of equal size.
Assume the number of sides is seven in this
example.

Different Geometric Construction

G-05
GEOMETRIC
CONSTRUCTION Operations
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

1. Draw the given length of one side AB, and

with radius AB describe a semi-circle.
2. Divide the semi-circle into seven equal
angles, using a protractor, and through the
second division from the left join line A2.
3. Draw radial lines from A through points 3, 4,
5, and 6.
4. With radius AB and centre on point 2,
describe an arc to meet the extension of line
A3, shown here as point F.
5. Repeat with radius AB and centre F to meet
the extension of line A4 at E.
6. Connect the points as shown, to complete
the required polygon.

To draw a tangent to a point A on the

circumference of a circle, centre O

If a disc stands on its edge on a flat surface it will

touch the surface at one point. This point is known
as the point of tangency, as shown in the figure and
the straight line which represents the flat plane is
known as a tangent. A line drawn from the point of
tangency to the centre of the disc is called a normal,
and the tangent makes an angle of 90° with the
normal.
The following constructions show the methods of
drawing tangents in various circumstances.

To draw a tangent to a point A on the

circumference of a circle, centre O

Join OA and extend the line for a short distance.

Erect a perpendicular at point A by the method
shown.

To draw a tangent to a circle from any

given point A outside the circle

Join A to the centre of the circle O. Bisect line AO so

that point B is the mid-point of AO. With centre B,
draw a semi-circle to intersect the given circle at
point C. Line AC is the required tangent.

Different Geometric Construction

G-06
GEOMETRIC
CONSTRUCTION Operations
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

To draw an external tangent to two

Circles

1. Join the centres of the circles by line AB,

bisect AB
2. Draw a circle from point A with Radius equal
to the difference between the 2 radii.
3. From point C, draw an arc with radius equal to
CA and intersects with the new circle at point
D
Note that BD is tangent to the new circle at point D
4. Draw a line from A that goes through D and
intersects with the large circle at point E
5. From point B draw a line normal to BD and
intersects with the small circle at H
6. Line EH is the required tangent line

To draw an internal tangent to two circles

1. Join the centres of the circles by line AB,

bisect AB and draw a semi-circle from the
midpoint of AB with R equal to half AB.
2. From point A, with R equal to the sum of the 2
radii (the small and large ones), draw an arc to
cut the semi-circle in H.
3. Join AH; this line crosses the larger circle
circumference at J.
4. Draw line BH and from J draw a line parallel to
BH to touch the smaller circle at K. Line JK is
the required tangent.
Note that angle AHB lies in a semi-circle and will
therefore, be 90°. AJ and BK are normals.

To draw internal and external tangents to

two circles of equal diameter

Join the centres of both circles by line AB. Erect

perpendiculars at points A and B to touch the
circumferences of the circles at points C and D. Line
CD will be the external tangent.
Bisect line AB to give point E, then bisect BE to give
point G. With radius BG (and from point G), describe
a semi-circle to cut the circumference of one of the
given circles at H. Join HE and extend it to touch the
circumference of the other circle at J. Line HEJ is the
required tangent. Note that again the angle in the
semi-circle, BHE, will be 90°, and hence BH and AJ
are normals.

Different Geometric Construction

G-07
GEOMETRIC
CONSTRUCTION Operations
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

To draw a curve of given radius to touch

two circles when the circles are outside
the radius

Assume that the radii of the given circles are 20 and

25 mm, spaced 85 mm apart, and that the radius to
touch them is 40 mm.

With centre A. describe an arc equal to 20 + 40 =

60 mm.
With centre B, describe an arc equal to 25 + 40 =
65 mm.
The above arcs intersect at point C. With a radius of
40 mm, describe an arc from point C as shown,

Note that the points of tangency between the arcs lie

along the lines joining the centres AC and BC. It is
particularly important to note the position of the points
of tangency before lining in engineering drawings, so
that the exact length of an arc can be established.

To draw a curve of given radius to touch

two circles when the circles are inside
the radius

Assume that the radii of the given circles are 22 and

26 mm, spaced 86 mm apart, and that the radius to
touch them is 100 mm.

With centre A, describe an arc equal to 100 – 22 =

78 mm.
With centre B, describe an arc equal to 100 – 26 =
74 mm.
The above arcs intersect at point C. With a radius of
100 mm, describe an arc from point C, and note that
in this case the points of tangency lie along line CA
extended to D and along line CB extended to E.

Different Geometric Construction

G-08
GEOMETRIC
CONSTRUCTION Operations
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

To draw a radius to join a straight line

and a given circle

Assume that the radius of the given circle is 20 mm

and that the joining radius is 22 mm.
With centre A, describe an arc equal to 20 + 22 = 42
mm.
Draw a line parallel to the given straight line and at a
perpendicular distance of 22 mm from it, to intersect
the arc at point B.

With centre B, describe the required radius of 22 mm,

and note that one point of tangency lies on the line AB
at C; the other lies at point D such that BD is at 90° to
the straight line.

To draw a radius which is tangential to

given straight lines

Assume that a radius of 25 mm is required to touch

the lines shown in the figures. Draw lines parallel to
the given straight lines and at a perpendicular
distance of 25 mm from them to intersect at points A.
As above, note that the points of tangency are
obtained by drawing perpendiculars through the point
A to the straight lines in each case.

Different Geometric Construction

G-09
GEOMETRIC
CONSTRUCTION Operations
 Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Examples
Example (1):

Example (2):

Example (3):

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GEOMETRIC Examples
CONSTRUCTION
 Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Example (4):

Example (5):

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GEOMETRIC Examples
CONSTRUCTION
 Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Example (6):

G-12
GEOMETRIC Examples
CONSTRUCTION
 Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Solved Example
Let us take an example that contains as much as possible of the given geometric relations

1. The best way to start any drawing is to start with the main centre lines, here we have horizontal and
vertical centre lines and also inclines ones for the hexagon.

2. To draw the hexagon, he we have a distance between 2 sides (not between corners). Here we are dealing
with the inclined centre lines, draw a circle with diameter equal to 44 mm then from the quadrant points
(A and B), draw 2 lines normal to the inclined centre line as shown

G-13
GEOMETRIC Solved Example
CONSTRUCTION
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

3. Draw 2 lines crossing through the centre point so that the angle between each line and the centre line (the inclined
one with 15 degrees from the horizontal) is 60 degrees, these lines will intersect with the existing lines at 4 points
specifying 4 corners

G-14
GEOMETRIC Solved Example
CONSTRUCTION
ENGR 1005, Descriptive Geometry and Engineering Drawing Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

4. Put the 60 triangle at 2 points (the half left or the half right) so that the 60 degrees is between the inclined
centre #2 and the 60-degree edge

5. Draw the 2 concentric circles of diameters 75 and 88 mm

G-15
GEOMETRIC Solved Example
CONSTRUCTION
ENGR 1005, Descriptive Geometry and Engineering Drawing Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

6. Assign the other 2 centres with the specified dimensions and draw the 4 circles, 2 of them with D = 16 mm And
the other 2 with R = 19 mm

7. To draw a tangent line between the 88 mm diameter circle and the 38 mm diameter one, follow the instructions
given in page G-07

G-16
GEOMETRIC Solved Example
CONSTRUCTION
ENGR 1005, Descriptive Geometry and Engineering Drawing Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

8. The next step is to draw the R-125 mm arc that is tangent to the D-88 mm circle and to the D-38 mm one Follow
the steps given in the page G-08 to draw this arc

9. The last step is to draw the R-38 mm arc that is tangent to the D-88 mm and the D-38 mm circles. Again follow
the steps given in page G-08 to draw this arc

G-17
GEOMETRIC Solved Example
CONSTRUCTION
ENGR 1005, Descriptive Geometry and Engineering Drawing Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Problems

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CONSTRUCTION
ENGR 1005, Descriptive Geometry and Engineering Drawing Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

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GEOMETRIC Problems
CONSTRUCTION
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CONSTRUCTION
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GEOMETRIC Problems
CONSTRUCTION
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GEOMETRIC Problems
CONSTRUCTION
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GEOMETRIC Problems
CONSTRUCTION
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GEOMETRIC Problems
CONSTRUCTION
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GEOMETRIC Problems
CONSTRUCTION
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CONSTRUCTION
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ENGR 1005, Descriptive Geometry and Engineering Drawing Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

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GEOMETRIC Problems
CONSTRUCTION
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Orthographic Projection is such a type of drawing in which Parallel Projection is used for the preparation of
the drawing of an object. These lines are perpendicular to the plane. In this drawing, it is assumed that the
object is at infinity. The shape of an object is seen in actual size in such drawing. A plane is an imaginary surface
on which pictures are prepared imaginably. Then it is transferred to the paper. This plane is faced toward the
object whose view is to be prepared as shown in Figure (1).

Figure 1 Orthographic Projection Concept

The total number of views to observe an object are shown in Figure (2). These views are Front, rear, Right Side,
Left Side, Top, and Bottom views. Due to the use of dashed lines to represent hidden features, the number of
views can be reduced to three. These are Front View, Side View, and Top View.

Figure 2 The Six Principal Views

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Introduction O-01
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

UNDERSTANDING PROJECTIONS

To make and interpret drawings, you need to understand projections and the standard arrangement of
views. You also need to be familiar with the geometry of solid objects and be able to visualize a 3D object
that is represented in a 2D sketch or drawing. The ability to identify whether surfaces are normal, inclined,
or oblique in orientation can help you visualize.
Common features such as vertices, edges, contours, fillets, holes, and rounds are shown in a standard way,
which makes drawings simpler to create and help prevent them from being misinterpreted.

Views of Objects

A photograph shows an object as it appears to the observer but not necessarily as it is. It cannot describe
the object accurately, no matter what distance or which direction it is taken from, because it does not show
the exact shapes and sizes of the parts. It would be impossible to create an accurate 3D model of an object
using only a photograph for reference because it shows only one view. It is a 2D representation of a 3D
object.
Drawings are 2D representations as well, but unlike photos, they allow you to record sizes and shapes
precisely. In engineering and other fields, a complete and clear description of the shape and size of an object
is necessary to be sure that it is manufactured exactly as the designer intended. To provide this information
about a 3D object, typically a number of systematically arranged views are used.
The system of views is called multiview projection. Each view provides certain definite information. For
example, a front view shows the true shape and size of surfaces that are parallel to the front of the object.
An example of a 3D object and its front view projection is shown in Figure 3. Figure 4 shows the six views of
a house.

Figure 3 Front View of an object

Figure 4 Six Views of a House

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Understanding of Projection O-02
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Figure 5 Revolving the Object to Produce Views. You can experience different views by revolving an object, as
Figure 5
shown. (a) First, hold the object in the front view position. (b) To get the top view, tilt the object toward you
to bring the top of the object into your view. (c) To get the right-side view, begin with the object’s front view
facing you and revolve it to bring the right side toward you. To see views of the rear, bottom, or left side, you
would simply turn the object to bring those sides toward you.

Projection Method
Figure 6 illustrates the front view of an object drawn using an orthographic projection. Imagine a sheet
of glass parallel to the front surfaces of the object. This represents the plane of projection. The outline
on the plane of projection shows how the object appears to the observer.
In orthographic projection, rays (or projectors) from all points on the edges or contours of the object
extend parallel to each other and perpendicular to the plane of projection. The word orthographic means
“at right angles.”

Figure 6 Projection of an Object

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Projection Method O-03
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

The Glass Box

One way to understand the standard arrangement of

views on the sheet of paper is to envision a glass box. If
planes of projection were placed parallel to each principal
face of the object, they would form a box, as shown in
Figure 7. The outside observer would see six standard views
(front, rear, top, bottom, right side, left side) of the object
through the sides of this imaginary glass box.

To organize the views of a 3D object on a flat sheet of

paper, imagine the six planes of the glass box being Figure 7 The Glass Box
unfolded to lie flat, as shown in Figure 8. Think of all planes
except the rear plane as hinged to the frontal plane. The
rear plane is usually hinged to the left-side plane. Each
plane folds out away from the frontal plane. The
representation of the hinge lines of the glass box in a
drawing are known as folding lines. The positions of these
six planes after they have been unfolded are shown in
Figure 9.

Figure 8 Unfolding the Box

Figure 9 The Glass Box Unfolded

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
The Glass Box O-04
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Necessary Views

A sketch or drawing should contain only the views needed to clearly and completely describe the object.
These minimally required views are referred to as the necessary views. Choose the views that have the
fewest hidden lines and show essential contours or shapes most clearly. Complicated objects may require
more than three views or special views such as partial views.

Many objects need only two views to clearly describe their shape. If an object requires only two views,
and the left-side and right-side views show the object equally well, use the right-side view. If an object
requires only two views, and the top and bottom views show the object equally well, choose the top view. If
only two views are necessary and the top view and right-side view show the object equally well,
choose the combination that fits best on your paper.

Figure 10 Projection of Flat Surfaces

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Necessary Views O-05
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Projection of Cylinders

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Projection of Cylinders O-06
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Projection of Inclined Surfaces

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Projection of Inclined Surfaces O-07
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

The following models show you some basic shapes, how it is seen in the main 3 views and the intersection
between more than one of them

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Projection of Basic Shapes O-08
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Projection of Basic Shapes O-09
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Solved Models O-10
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Solved Models O-11
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ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Solved Models O-12
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Solved Models

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Solved Models O-13
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ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Solved Models O-14
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

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PROJECTION
Solved Models O-15
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ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Solved Models O-16
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PROJECTION
Solved Models O-17
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PROJECTION
Solved Models O-18
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PROJECTION
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PROJECTION
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PROJECTION
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PROJECTION
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ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Solved Models O-23
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PROJECTION
Solved Models O-24
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PROJECTION
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ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Solved Models O-26
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PROJECTION
Solved Models O-27
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ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Solved Models O-28
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Find the correct match between the letters and numbers

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Problems O-29
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Find the correct match between the letters and numbers

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Problems O-30
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Problems O-31
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Problems O-32
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Problems O-33
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Problems O-34
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Problems O-35
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Problems O-36
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Problems O-37
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Problems O-38
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Problems O-39
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Problems O-40
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Problems O-41
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Problems O-42
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Problems O-43
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Problems O-44
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Problems O-45
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Problems O-46
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Problems O-47
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Problems O-48
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Problems O-49
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

In engineering drawing, orthographic projection of a solid is best for showing the details of an object when
a solid is resting in its simple position, the front view or top view taken separately, gives an incomplete idea
of the object. Even, sometimes an experienced engineer gets puzzled when studying the orthographic
projection of complicated parts. To avoid this confusion, a pictorial projection is the best method to show
the object in one view only. Basically, pictorial projection represents three dimensional shape of an object
and represents real things in one view only, which indicates length, breadth and height of the object.
Therefore, the object is easily visualized from a pictorial projection than from its orthographic projection.
The pictorial projection may be divided as:
1. Isometric projection
2. Oblique projection
3. Prespective projection.
In this chapter you will learn about the pictorial drawings, and a focus on Isometric and Oblique drawings
will be illustrated.

Figure 1 Classifications of Pictorial Drawings

PICTORIAL DRAWING Introduction P-01

 Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

1- ISOMETRIC DRAWING

Isometric projection is a type of pictorial projection in which the three dimensions of a solid are not only shown
in one view, but their actual sizes can be measured directly from it. In an isometric view, lines for the hidden
edges are generally not shown. A special grid is required for Isometric drawing. In this grid, both ground lines in
the Front and Side will be tilted 300 about the horizontal axis. Horizontal lines in the Front, Side or Top will be
tilted by 300 in Isometric, depending on the direction. Vertical lines will stay vertical, it is important to say that
true vertical lines, not the projection of inclined lines. The principle of Isometric is illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2 Principles of Isometric

Figure 3, shows the three views of a box, each corner has a number starting from (0) to (7). The isometric view of this
model is shown, while the location of each corner is shown in the 3D model. Corner (7) is hidden inside the model, this is
why it is not shown.

In order to start the Isometric, we will start first with the Front view. The Front view (0, 1, 2, 3, 0) now will be transformed
to the Isometric view. Since the Front view is a right, then in Isometric will be at right. Line (0, 1) is horizontal in the Front
view, then in Isometric will be inclined by 300 in the direction of the Front. Line (1, 2) is vertical, then in Isometric stays
vertical, and so on.

After finishing the Front in the Isometric, we will move to the Side view with the same concept, but, in the direction of the
Side. In order to find the Top, only point (6) is missing. Draw a parallel line from 4 to line (3, 2), and a line from 2 parallel
to (3, 4). At the intersection we will find point 6.

Point 7, the hidden point is just below point 6.

PICTORIAL DRAWING Isometric Drawing P-02

 Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Figure 3 From Views to Isometric

Figure 4, shows the Isometric view of a model having inclined lines. In order to draw inclined lines in Isometric, the simple
way to do it, is to find the two ends and then connect.

Figure 4 Isometric Applied to Inclined Lines

PICTORIAL DRAWING Isometric Drawing P-03

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Solved Models

PICTORIAL DRAWING Solved Models P-04

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

PICTORIAL DRAWING Solved Models P-05

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

PICTORIAL DRAWING Solved Models P-06

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

PICTORIAL DRAWING Solved Models P-07

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Drawing of Circles

PICTORIAL DRAWING Circles Drawing P-08

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

PICTORIAL DRAWING Circles Drawing P-09

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Solved Models (Isometric)

PICTORIAL DRAWING Solved Models P-10

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

PICTORIAL DRAWING Solved Models P-11

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

PICTORIAL DRAWING Solved Models P-12

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

PICTORIAL DRAWING Solved Models P-13

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

PICTORIAL DRAWING Solved Models P-14

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

PICTORIAL DRAWING Solved Models P-15

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

PICTORIAL DRAWING Solved Models P-16

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

PICTORIAL DRAWING Solved Models P-17

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

PICTORIAL DRAWING Solved Models P-18

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

PICTORIAL DRAWING Solved Models P-19

 Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

2- OBLIQUE DRAWING
Oblique drawing is another way to show 3D models on a 2D piece of paper. Oblique drawing is considered a quick and
easy way to show an idea in 3D. We have two types of Oblique drawing. The cavalier type, with full depth at 45 0 and
cabinet type with half scale along the depth at 450 also.

Figure 5 Oblique Drawing

PICTORIAL DRAWING Oblique Drawing P-20

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Solved Models

PICTORIAL DRAWING Solved Models P-21

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

PICTORIAL DRAWING Solved Models P-22

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Problems

PICTORIAL DRAWING Problems P-23

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

PICTORIAL DRAWING Problems P-24

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

PICTORIAL DRAWING Problems P-25

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Draw the Isometric and Oblique of the following models

PICTORIAL DRAWING Problems P-26

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

PICTORIAL DRAWING Problems P-27

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

PICTORIAL DRAWING Problems P-28

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

The concept of missing view is coming from the orthographic projection. The new part here is that the 3D model is
not given, only 2 views are given and it is required to find the 3rd one. The front view is always given since it is the
main view then the problem of missing view is always to find the top view or the side view.
No new rules are applied in missing view while using the 45o line is a must in order to transform lines from the side
to the top view or from the top to the side.
A very simple rule is valid if the missing view is the top.
Given the front and the side, in order to get the top, let us apply the rule of levels:

1
FRONT SIDE

Considering level 1 as shown in the figure above, at this level, we have a line in the front view and a line at the same
level in the side view. The intersection of the construction lines formed from these lines forms a rectangle.

Note that at level 2, the intersection forms a rectangle identical to the first one.

In figure 2, we are adding one more level as shown,

1. Level 1: we have 2 lines in the front, and at the same level we have 1 line in the side view.
What do you expect in the top view? We should expect n rectangles, 𝑛 = 2 × 1 = 2 rectangles. The 2
rectangles are 1A and 1B
2. Level 2: we have 1 line in the front and 1 line in the side, 𝑛 = 1 × 1 = 1 rectangles.
3. Level 3: we have 1 line in the front and 1 line in the side, 𝑛 = 1 × 1 = 1 rectangles.

MISSING VIEW Introduction M-01

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

A B
1

3
FRONT SIDE

1A 1B

TOP

Let us now apply this rule to solve the following problem

1

3
4

3
1
4 2 4
1
3

MISSING VIEW Levels Rule M-02

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Now, we found the top view without trying to imagine the part but, Is this the case all the time? The answer is No.
This is a special model without any hidden lines in the top view.

The main disadvantage of using this rule is:

 Will not give the decision about the type of lines in the top, hidden or solid? It is your decision.
 Not valid for curved surfaces, you need to imagine.

As a conclusion, we have a good tool in hand but we need to imagine also.

Solved Problems using Milter line

Using a milter line to construct the side view,
given the front and top views.

 Given the front and top views, project

lines to the right of the top view.
 Establish how far from the front view the
side view is to be drawn (distance D).
 Construct the milter line at 45o to the
horizontal line.
 Where the horizontal projection lines of
the top view intersect the milter line,
drop vertical projection lines.
 Project horizontal lines to the right of the
front view and complete the side view
from the intersections.

MISSING VIEW Milter Line M-03

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Problems

MISSING VIEW Problems M-04

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

MISSING VIEW Problems M-05

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

MISSING VIEW Problems M-06

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

MISSING VIEW Problems M-07

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

MISSING VIEW Problems M-08

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

MISSING VIEW Problems M-09

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

MISSING VIEW Problems M-10

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

MISSING VIEW Problems M-11

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

MISSING VIEW Problems M-12

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

MISSING VIEW Problems M-13

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

MISSING VIEW Problems M-14

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

MISSING VIEW Problems M-15

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

MISSING VIEW Problems M-16

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

MISSING VIEW Problems M-17

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

MISSING VIEW Problems M-18

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

MISSING VIEW Problems M-19

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

MISSING VIEW Problems M-20

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

MISSING VIEW Problems M-21

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

The concept of sectioning is cutting the model with a

cutting plane, see figure 1, and see what we have inside.
After cutting the model a direction of looking is required,
it is represented by A-A in the figure. In this case we
remove the first part and we are looking to the second one.
The cutting plane is shown in the top and side views while
the effect (hatched view) is shown in the front view.

The Sectional views are also called sections, and the

process of creating sections is referred to as sectioning. Cutting plane
Sections are used to describe the interior portions of an
A
object that are otherwise difficult to visualize. Interior
features that are described using hidden lines are not as
2nd half
clear as if they are exposed for viewing as visible features.
It is also a poor practice to dimension the hidden features.
The sectional view allows you to expose the hidden
features for dimensioning.
1st half

A
There are 2 essential rules in sectioning:

 No hidden line is section views. Hatching lines

 Do not hatch the web. nd
2 half
But how to identify the web? It is a feature in the part
having: large surface area with small thickness
without any internal details.

Figure 1

Section views are used for three main purposes:

 To document the design and manufacture of single parts that are manufactured as one piece.
 To document how multiple parts are to be assembled or built.
 To aid in visualizing the internal workings of a design.

SECTIONING Introduction S-01

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

CUTTING-PLANE LINES AND SECTIONAL VIEW IDENTIFICATION

The sectional view is created by placing an imaginary cutting plane through the object that cuts away the area to
be exposed. The adjacent view becomes the sectional view by removing the portion of the object between the
viewer and the cutting plan (see Figure 2).

Figure 2 Cutting-plane and sectional view visualization.

The cutting-plane line is a thick line representing the cutting plane as shown in Figure 3. The cutting-plane line can be
drawn using alternating long and two short dashes, or evenly spaced dashes. The long dashes can vary in length
depending on the size of the drawing, but the short dashes are generally .25 in. (6 mm) in length. Figure 12.4 shows
an example of the cutting plane line styles. The cutting-plane line is capped on the ends, with arrowheads showing the
direction of sight of the sectional view.

The cutting-plane line arrowheads maintain the same 3:1 length-to-width ratio as dimension line arrowheads.
Cutting plane line arrowheads are generally twice the size of dimension line arrowheads, so they show up better on
the drawing. If the dimension line arrowheads are .125 (3 mm) long on your drawing, then make the cutting-plane line
arrowheads .25 in. (6 mm) long. This depends on the size of the drawing and your school or company standards.

When the extent of the cutting plane is obvious, only the ends of the cutting-plane line can be used as shown in Figure
4. Such treatment of the cutting plane also helps keep the view clear of excess lines.

SECTIONING Cutting Plane Lines S-02

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Figure 3 Cutting-Plane Line Options

Figure 4 Simplified cutting-plane line showing only the ends of the cutting-plane line.

The sectional view should be projected from and perpendicular to the cutting-plane line and placed as one of the
standard principal multiviews. If lack of space restricts the normal placement of a sectional view, the view can be
placed in an alternate location. When this is done, the sectional view should not be rotated but should remain in the
same orientation as if it is a direct projection from the cutting plane. The cutting planes and related sectional views
should be labeled with letters beginning with AA as shown in Figure 5. The cutting-plane line labels should be placed
near the arrowheads. When the cutting plane line has labels A on each end, then the sectional view has the related
title SECTION A-A placed below the sectional view.

When there is more than one sectional view on a drawing, the additional cutting-plane lines and views are labeled
BB, CC, and so on.

SECTIONING Cutting Plane Lines S-03

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Figure 5 Labeled cutting-plane lines and related sectional view.

The cutting-plane line can be omitted when the location of the cutting plane is obvious as shown in Figure 6

Figure 6 An obvious cutting-plane line can be omitted.

SECTIONING Cutting Plane Lines S-04

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

SECTION LINES (SECTION-LINNING)

Section lines are thin lines used in the view of the section to
show where the cutting-plane line has cut through material
(see Figure 7). Section lines are usually drawn equally
spaced at 45o but cannot be parallel or perpendicular to any
line of the object. Any convenient angle can be used to avoid
placing section lines parallel or perpendicular to other lines
of the object.

Angles of 30 o and 60 o are common. Section lines that are

more than 75 o or less than 15 o from horizontal should be
avoided. Section lines must never be drawn horizontally or
vertically. Figure 8 shows some common errors in drawing
section lines. Section lines should be drawn in opposite
directions on adjacent parts; when several parts are
adjacent, any suitable angle can be used to make the parts
appear clearly separate.

Figure 7 Section lines represent the material being cut by

the cutting plane. Figure 8

Figure 8 Common section-line errors.

SECTIONING Full Section S-05

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

FULL SECTION

A full section is drawn when the cutting plane extends completely through the object, usually along a center plane as
shown in Figure 9. The object shown in Figure 9 could have used two full sections to further clarify hidden features. In
such a case, the cutting planes and related views are labeled (see Figure 10). The cutting-plane line can be omitted
when the relationship between views is obvious. Confirm this practice with your instructor or employer. It is normally
best to show the cutting-plane line for clarity.

Figure 10 Two full sections drawn for one part. The cutting-plane
lines are labeled, and the sectional views have correlated titles.

Figure 9 Full section pictorial

visualization and related
views.

SECTIONING Full Section S-06

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

VISUALIZING A FULL SECTION

Choose a Cutting Plane

1. This illustration shows a collar to be sectioned. To
produce a clear section showing both the counter
bored recess and the smaller hole near the top of the
object, choose a cutting plane that will pass through
the vertical centerline in the front view, and imagine
the right half of the object removed. It is normally best
to show the cutting-plane line for clarity.

Figure 11
Identify the Surfaces
3. The pictorial drawing of the remaining half is shown at
right. The first step in projecting the section view is
making sure that you interpret the object correctly.
Identifying the surfaces on the object can help. Pass
through the vertical centerline in the front view, and
imagine the right half of the object removed. It is
normally best to show the cutting-plane line for clarity.

Surfaces R, S, T, U, and V have been labeled on the given

views and the pictorial view.
 Which surface is R in the front view?
 Which surface is U in the top view?
 Are they normal, inclined, or oblique surfaces?
 Can you identify the counter bored recess in each
view?

Draw the Section View

2. To draw the section view, omit the portion of the
object in front of the cutting plane. You will be drawing Figure 12
only the portion that remains.
Determine which solid parts of the object the cutting plane
will pass through. Hint: The outside of an object can never
be a hole; it must be solid, unless the cutting plan passes
through a slot to the exterior.

SECTIONING Full Section S-07

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

The points that will be projected to create the section

view have been identified for you in the example
shown.

The three surfaces produced by the cutting plane are

bounded by points 1-2-3-4 and 5-6-7-8-9-10 and 13-
14- 12-11. These are shown hatched.

Each sectioned area is completely enclosed by a

boundary of visible lines. In addition to the cut
surfaces, the section view shows all visible parts
behind the cutting plane.

No hidden lines are shown. However, the

corresponding section shown in this step is
incomplete, because visible lines are missing.

Figure 13

Draw the Section View

4. To From the direction the section is viewed, the top
surface (V) of the object appears in the section as a
visible line (12-11-16-15).

The bottom surface of the object appears similarly as 14-

13-7-6-3-2. The bottom surface of the counter bored
recess appears in the section as line 19-20.

Also, the back half of the counter bored recess and the
drilled hole appear as rectangles in the section at 19-20 15-
16 and 3-4-5-6. These points must also be projected. The
finished view is shown at right.

Notice that since all cut surfaces are part of the same
object, the hatching must all run in the same direction.

Figure 14

SECTIONING Full Section S-08

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

RULES FOR LINES IN SECTION VIEWS

 Show edges and contours that are now visible behind

the cutting plane; otherwise a section will appear to
be made up of disconnected and unrelated parts.
(Occasionally, visible lines behind the cutting plane
may be omitted, particularly from those generated
from 3D models.)
 Omit hidden lines in section views. Section views are
used to show interior detail without a confusion of
hidden lines, so add them only if necessary to
understand the part.
 Sometimes hidden lines are necessary for clarity and
should be used in such cases, especially if their use will
make it possible to omit a view (Figure d).
 A sectioned area is always completely bounded by a
visible outline—never by a hidden line, because in
every case the cut surfaces will be the closest surface
in the section view and therefore their boundary lines
will be visible (Figure e).
 In a section view of an object, the section lines in all
hatched areas for that object must be parallel, not as
shown in Figure f. The use of section lining in opposite
directions is an indication of different parts, as when
two or more parts are adjacent in an assembly
drawing.
 A visible line can never cross a sectioned area in a view
of a single part. This would be impossible on the full
section of a single part because the section lines are
all in the same plane. A line across it would indicate a
change of plane (Figure g).

Figure 15

SECTIONING Rules for Lines in Sections S-09

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

SECTION-LINING TECHNIQUE

The correct method of drawing section lines is shown in Figure 16. When drawing by hand, use a sharp, medium grade
pencil (H or 2H) to draw uniformly thin section lines, or hatching (a term meaning closely spaced parallel lines). There
should be a marked contrast between the thin section lines and the thick visible outlines of the part.

 Draw section lines at 45° from horizontal unless they would be parallel or perpendicular to major edges of the
part, in which case use a different angle. Figure 17 shows an example of section lines drawn at a different angle
to prevent them from being parallel or perpendicular to visible outlines.
 Space the lines as evenly as possible by eye (for most drawings, about 2.5 mm apart). The spacing interval
depends on the size of the drawing or of the sectioned area, with larger drawings having wider spacing. In a
smaller drawing the spacing interval may be as small as 1.5 mm; in a large drawing, it may be 3 mm.
 Keep extension lines and dimension values off sectioned areas. If there is no alternative, omit the section lines
behind the dimensions (Figure 18).

Figure 16 Correctly drawn section lines

Figure 17 Direction of Section Lines

SECTIONING Section Lining Technique S-10

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Figure 18 Keep extension lines and values for dimensions

off crosshatched areas, but when this is unavoidable, the
cross-hatching should be omitted where the dimension
value is placed.

SECTION-LINING SYMBOLS

Section-lining symbols (Figure 19) may be used to indicate specific materials. These symbols represent general material
types only, such as cast iron, brass, and steel. Because there are so many different types of materials (there are
hundreds of types of steel, for example), a general name or symbol is not enough. A detailed specification listing the
material must be lettered in the form of a note or in the title strip.

Figure 19 Symbols for Section Lining

SECTIONING Section Lining Symbols S-11

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

HALF SECTIONS

Symmetrical objects can be shown effectively using a special type of section view called a half section (Figure 20).
A half section exposes the interior of half of the object and the exterior of the other half. This is done by removing one
quarter of the object. Half sections are not widely used to create detail drawings showing how to make a single part
because it can be difficult to show all the dimensions clearly when some internal features are only partly shown in the
sectioned half (Figure 21). In general,

 Omit hidden lines from both halves of a half section, whenever possible.
 Use a centerline to divide the sectioned half and the unsectioned half, as shown in Figure 21.

Figure 20

Figure 21

OFFSET SECTIONS

Staggered interior features of an object are sectioned by allowing the cutting-plane line to offset through the
features creating an offset section as shown in Figure 22.

The cutting-plane line for an offset section is generally drawn using 90 O turns where it offsets through the staggered
features as shown in Figure 22. Notice in Figure 22 that there is no line in the sectional view indicating a change in
direction of the cutting-plane line. Normally, the cutting-plane line in an offset section extends completely through the
object to display the location of the section clearly. A cutting plane line is always used when the cutting plane is bent
or offset or when the sectional view is nonsymmetrical.

Figure 23 shows how the segments of an offset cutting plane project from and are aligned with the center when used
on a circular-shaped object. The portion of the cutting-plane line between offsets is drawn as an arc, with the arc center
at the center of the object.

SECTIONING Half & Offset Sections S-12

 Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Figure 22 The cutting-plane line offsets using 90O turns to go Figure 23

through offset features on the part.

WEBS IS SECTIONS

To avoid giving a false impression of thickness and

solidity, webs, webs, gear teeth, and other similar
flat features are not hatched with section lining even
though the cutting plane slices them. For example,
in Figure 24, the cutting plane A–A slices through the
center of the vertical web, or rib, and the web is not
sectioned (Figure 24b). Thin features are not
hatched even though the cutting plane passes
lengthwise through them. The incorrect section is
shown in Figure 24c. Note the false impression of
thickness or solidity resulting from section lining the
web.

If the cutting plane passes crosswise through a rib

or any thin member, as in section B–B, section-line
the feature in the usual manner, as in the top view Figure 24 Web in section
of Figure 24a.

SECTIONING Webs in Sections S-13

Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

SECTIONING Problems S-14

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Learning to use a CAD system is similar to learning a new language. It is necessary to begin with the basic alphabet
and learn how to use it correctly and effectively through practice. This will require learning some new concepts and
skills as well as learning a different vocabulary. Today, the majority of the Mechanical CAD systems are capable of
creating three-dimensional solid models. Nonetheless, all CAD systems create designs using basic geometric entities
and many of the constructions used in technical designs are based upon two-dimensional planar geometry. The
method and number of operations that are required to accomplish the basic planar constructions are different from
one system to another.

In order to become effective and efficient in using a CAD system, we must learn to create geometric entities quickly
and accurately. In learning to use a CAD system, lines and circles are the first two, and perhaps the most important
two, geometric entities that one should master the skills of creating and modifying. Straight lines and circles are used
in almost all technical designs. In examining the different types of planar geometric entities, the importance of lines
and circles becomes obvious. Triangles and polygons are planar figures bounded by straight lines. Ellipses and splines
can be constructed by connecting arcs with different radii. As one gains some experience in creating lines and circles,
similar procedures can be applied to create other geometric entities. In this chapter, the different ways of creating
lines and circles in AutoCAD 2020 are examined.

Starting up AutoCAD 2020

1. Select the AutoCAD 2020 option on the Program menu or select the AutoCAD 2020 icon on the Desktop.
Click Start Drawing to start a new drawing.
Once the program is loaded into memory, the AutoCAD 2020 main drawing screen will appear on the screen.

Figure 1

INTRODUCTION TO
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Introduction C-01
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Note that AutoCAD automatically assigns generic names, Drawing X, as new drawings are created. In our example,
AutoCAD opened the graphics window using the default system units and assigned the drawing name Drawing1.

Figure 2

2. If necessary, click on the down-arrow in the Quick Access bar and select Show Menu Bar to display the
AutoCAD Menu Bar. The Menu Bar provides access to all AutoCAD commands.

Figure 3

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3. To switch on the AutoCAD Coordinates Display, use the Customization option at the bottom right corner.

Figure 4

Setting up Drawing Units

Every object we construct in a CAD system is measured in units. We should determine the system of units within the
CAD system before creating the first geometric entities.

In order to setup the Drawing units, follow the following steps:

1. In the Menu Bar, select Format > Units (Figure 5).

2. Click on the Length Type option to display the different types of
length units available. Confirm the Length Type is set to Decimal
(see Figure 6).

Note: The AutoCAD Menu Bar contains multiple pulldown menus where all
of the AutoCAD commands can be accessed. Note that many of the menu
items listed in the pull-down menus can also be accessed through the Quick
Access toolbar and/or Ribbon panels.

Figure 6 Figure 5

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3. Set the Precision to two digits after the

decimal point as shown in Figure 7.
4. Own your own, examine the other settings
that are available.
5. Pick OK to exit the Drawing Units dialog box.

Also note the Insertion Scale section will show the

default measurement system, such as the English
units, inches.

Figure 7

Figure 8

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Drawing Units Setup C-04
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Drawing Area Setup

Next, we will set up the Drawing Limits by entering a command in the command prompt area. Setting the
Drawing Limits controls the extents of the display of the grid. It also serves as a visual reference that marks
the working area. It can also be used to prevent construction outside the grid limits and as a plot option that
defines an area to be plotted and/or printed. Note that this setting does not limit the region for geometry
construction.

1. In the Menu Bar select: [Format] > [Drawing Limits] (see figure 9)
2. In the command prompt area, the message “Reset Model Space Limits:
Specify lower left corner or [On/Off] <0.00, 0.00>:” is displayed. Press the
ENTER key once to accept the default coordinates <0.00, 0.00>.

Figure 9

3. In the command prompt area, the message “Specify upper right corner
<12.00, 9.00>:” is displayed. Press the ENTER key again to accept the
default coordinates <12.00, 9.00> or put in your values.

Figure 11

Figure 10

4. On your own, move the graphics cursor near the upper-right corner inside the drawing area and note that the
drawing area is unchanged. (The Drawing Limits command is used to set the drawing area, but the display will
not be adjusted until a display command is used.)

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5. Inside the Menu Bar area select: [View] >

[Zoom] > [All]
The Zoom All command will adjust the display
so that all objects in the drawing are
displayed to be as large as possible. If no
objects are constructed, the Drawing Limits
are used to adjust the current viewport.
6. Move the graphics cursor near the upper-
right corner inside the drawing area and note
that the display area is updated.
7. Hit the function key [F7] once to turn off the
display of the Grid lines.

Note that function key [F7] is a quick key, which can

be used to quickly toggle on/off the grid display. Also,
note the command prompt area can be positioned to
dock below the drawing area or float inside the
drawing area. Figure 12

Figure 13

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Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

As mentioned in the beginning of the chapter, we must learn to create geometric entities quickly and accurately in
order to be effective and efficient in using a CAD system (AutoCAD 2020 here). We are going to examine the most
common geometric entities in this software.

Examine the following figure carefully and see the main ribbons which are: Draw, Construction, Detail, modify and
Layers. And then see the commands in each ribbon which are going to be presented here

Figure 14

LINE (Command)

Create a series of contiguous line segments. Each segment is a line object

that can be edited separately. The following prompts are displayed:

 Specify first point: Sets the starting point for the line. Click a point
location. With object snaps or grid snap turned on, the points will
be placed precisely. You can also enter coordinates. If instead,
you press Enter at the prompt, a new line starts from the
endpoint of the most recently created line, polyline, or arc. If the
most recently created object is an arc, its endpoint defines the
starting point of the line. The line is tangent to the arc.

Figure 15

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2-D Commands: Line C-07
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

 Specify next point: Specifies the endpoint of the line segment. You can also use polar and object snap tracking
together with direct distance entry.

Using a Specific Coordinate:

 If dynamic input is on: Type the pound sign (#) followed by the X-value, a comma, then the Y-value, for example
#40, 60.
 If dynamic input is off: Type the X value, a comma, then the Y value, for example 40, 60.

Note: When dynamic input is on, relative coordinates are the default. When dynamic input is off, absolute coordinates
are the default. Press F12 to turn dynamic input on or off.

Using a Relative Coordinate:

A relative coordinate specifies the distance and direction from the previous coordinate.

 If dynamic input is on: Type the X-value, a comma, then the Y-value, for example 40, 60.
 If dynamic input is off: Type the sign (@) followed by the X-value, a comma, then the Y-value, for example
@40, 60.

While drawing lines using the line command, there are few important tricks, after specifying the first point, you can
make perfectly horizontal or vertical lines using the Orthomode, see figure 16, it is the icon with perpendicular lines
on it, the one just next to the MODEL word

F8 is the shortcut of activating or deactivating this mode.

If you need to draw an inclined line, the Orthomode has to be disabled and after putting the first point, tap SHIFT key
and type in your angle measured from the horizontal line and counterclockwise

Figure 16

Polyline (PLINE Command)

Create a 2D polyline, a single object that is composed of line and arc

segments. The following prompts are displayed:

 Specify start point: Sets the starting point for the polyline. A
temporary plus-shaped marker displays at the first point. And
pressing Enter starts a new polyline from the last endpoint
specified in creating a polyline, line, or arc.
Figure 17

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Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

 Specify next point: If you specify a second point, you create straight segments. Or you can choose some other
entities from the command window below

Figure 18

Prompts Common to Line and Arc Segments

1. Arc: begins creating arc segments tangent to the previous segment.

2. Close: connects the first and last segments to create a closed polyline.
3. Halfwidth: specifies the width from the center of a wide segment to an edge.
4. Length: creates a segment of a specified length at the same angle as the previous segment. If the previous
segment is an arc, the new line segment is tangent to that arc segment.
5. Undo: removes the most recently added segment.
6. Width: specifies the width of the next segment.

Some things to keep in mind when defining the half-width or width of a polyline.

 The starting width becomes the default ending width.

 The ending width becomes the uniform width for all subsequent
segments until you change the width again.
 The starting and ending points of wide line segments are at the
centerline of the segment.
Figure 19 polyline width

There are some prompts that are shown only when arcs are being drawn:

 Endpoint of arc: completes an arc segment. The arc segment

is tangent to the previous segment of the polyline.
 Angle: specifies the included angle of the arc segment
from the start point. Entering a positive number creates
counterclockwise arc segments. Entering a negative number
creates clockwise arc segments.
 Line: switches from drawing arc segments to drawing
straight segments.

Figure 20

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Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Circles (CIRCLE Command)

To create circles, you can specify various combinations of center, radius, diameter, points on the circumference, and
points on other objects. You can create circles in several ways. The default method is to specify the center and the
radius. There are more 5 ways of creating circles, these are presented here.

1. Radius: Creates a circle based on a center point and a radius. Enter a value, or specify a point (see Fig. 21)
2. Diameter: Creates a circle based on a center point and a diameter. Enter a value, or specify a point (see
Fig. 22)
3. 2P (Two Points): Creates a circle based on two endpoints of the diameter (Fig. 23).
4. 3P (Three Points): Creates a circle based on three points on the circumference (Fig. 24).
5. TTR (Tangent, Tangent, Radius): Creates a circle with a specified radius and tangent to two objects (Fig.
25). Sometimes more than one circle matches the specified criteria. The program draws the circle of the
specified radius whose tangent points are closest to the selected points.
6. Tan, Tan, Tan: Creates a circle tangent to three objects (Fig. 26).

Figure 21 Figure 22 Figure 23

Figure 24 Figure 25 Figure 26

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Arcs (ARC Command)

Create arcs by specifying various combinations of center, endpoint, start point, radius, angle, chord length, and
direction values. Arcs are drawn in a counterclockwise direction by default. Hold down the Ctrl key as you drag to draw
in a clockwise direction.

1. Draw Arcs by Specifying Three Points: You can create an arc by

specifying three points. In the following example, the start point
of the arc snaps to the endpoint of a line. The second point of
the arc snaps to the middle circle in the illustration (Fig. 27).
2. Draw Arcs by Specifying Start, Center, End: You can create an arc
using a start point, center, and a third point that determines the
endpoint.
The distance between the start point and the center determines
the radius. The endpoint is determined by a line from the center
that passes through the third point, see Fig. 28.
Using different options, you can specify either the start point
first or the center point first. Figure 27

Figure 28

3. Draw Arcs by Specifying Start, Center, Angle: You can create an

arc using a start point, center, and an included angle. The
distance between the start point and the center determines the
radius. The other end of the arc is determined by specifying an
included angle that uses the center of the arc as the vertex.
Using different options, you can specify either the start point
first or the center point first.

There are more ways to draw arcs in AutoCAD, study them on yourself.

Figure 29

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Rectangles (RECTANG Command)

You can create rectangles by various ways:

 Using corners.
 Using a corner with the midpoint of the base.
 Using a corner with the midpoint of the height.
 Using a corner and the center of the rectangle.

You can simply go to the DRAW ribbon and put the cursor on the RECTSNGLE icon, and all these ways will show up in
the drop-down menu and how to exactly use every way with the required dimensions. Also, you can see that you can
draw squares using the same icon.

These were the main and commonly used DRAW commands in 2D, in the next section we are going to present the
most common MODIFY commands which are: Move, Mirror, Array, Trim, Fillet, Explode, Offset and Scale.

Before explaining the MODIFY commands, let us explain a very

powerful feature in AutoCAD, Object snap.

Object snaps provide a way to specify precise locations on objects

whenever you are prompted for a point within a command. For
example, you can use object snaps to create a line from the center
of a circle to the midpoint of another line (Fig. 30).

If you need to use one or more object snaps repeatedly, you can
turn on running object snaps, which persist through all subsequent
commands. For example, you might set Endpoint, Midpoint, and
Center as running object snaps.

Figure 30

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Move (MOVE Command)

You can move objects at a specified distance and direction from the originals. Use coordinates, grid snap, object
snaps, and other tools to move objects with precision.

Specify Distance with Two Points: Move an object using the distance and direction specified by a base point followed
by a second point. In this example, you move the block representing a window. Select the object to be moved (1).
Specify the base point for the move (2) followed by a second point (3). The object is moved the distance and
direction of point 2 to point 3.

To Move an Object Using a Displacement

1. Click Home tab > Modify panel > Move

2. Select the object to move.
3. Enter the displacement in the form of a Cartesian, polar,
cylindrical, or spherical coordinate value. Do not include the @
sign, because a relative coordinate is assumed.
4. At the prompt for the second point, press Enter.
Figure 31
The coordinate values are used as a relative displacement rather than the
location of a base point. The selected objects are moved to a new location
determined by the relative coordinate values you enter.

Mirror (MIRROR Command)

Creates a mirrored copy of selected objects. You can create objects that represent half of a drawing, select them, and
mirror them across a specified line to create the other half.

To Mirror Objects in 2D

1. Click Home tab > Modify panel > Mirror

2. Select the objects to mirror.
3. Specify the first point of the mirror line.
4. Specify the second point.
5. Press Enter to retain the original objects, or enter y
to erase them.

By default, when you mirror a text object, the direction of Figure 32

the text is not changed. Set the MIRRTEXT system variable
to 1 if you do want the text to be reversed.

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Array (ARRAY Command)

You can create copies of selected objects to be arranged in a pattern called an array. After you select the objects that
you want to duplicate, which are called the source objects, you choose the arrangement pattern. There are three
types of arrays: Rectangular, Path and Polar.

Figure 33

Each element of the array is called an array item, which can be composed of several objects. You can also specify a
block to be the source object of an array.

Note: With a path array, you also need a line, polyline, 3D polyline, spline, helix, arc, circle, or ellipse to serve as the
path.

1. Rectangular Array:

Creates an array of rows and columns of

copies of the selected objects. The selected
object, or cornerstone element, is assumed
to be in the lower-left corner, and generates
the array up and to the right.

 Number of rows (---): Specifies the number of rows using a nonzero integer. If you specify one row, you must
specify more than one column and vice versa.
 Number of columns (|||): Specifies the number of columns.
 Distance between rows or specify unit cell: Specifies the distance between rows, including the length of the
object to be arrayed. To add rows downward, specify a negative value for the distance between rows. To
specify the distance between rows and columns at the same time, specify two sets of coordinates or drawing
locations that represent the opposite corners of a rectangle.
 Distance between columns (|||): Specifies the distance between columns. To add columns to the left,
specify a negative value for the distance between columns.

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2. Polar Array:

Creates an array by copying the selected objects around a specified center

point. In a polar array, the reference point of the last object in the selection
set is used for all objects. If you defined the selection set by using window or
crossing selection, the last object in the selection set is arbitrary. Removing
an object from the selection set and adding it back forces that object to be
the last object selected. You can also make the selection set into a block and
replicate it.

The prompt values you enter determine whether the array configuration is
based on the number of items or the angle that is filled by the arrayed items.

 Center point of array: Specifies the central location for the array.
 Base: Specifies a new reference (base) point relative to the selected objects that will remain at a constant
distance from the center point of the array as the objects are arrayed.
 Number of items in the array: Specifies the total number of items to be arrayed around the center point. If
you do not enter a value, the array is based on the Angle to fill and Angle Between Items values.
 Angle to fill (+=ccw, -=cw) (+=ccw, -=cw): Specifies the included angle between the base points of the first and
last arrayed objects. Enter a positive number for a counterclockwise rotation or a negative number for a
clockwise rotation.
 Angle between items (+=ccw, -=cw) (+=ccw, -=cw): Specifies the included angle between objects, based on the
center point of the array and the base points of the arrayed objects. Enter a positive number for a
counterclockwise rotation or a negative number for a clockwise rotation.

Note: To display this option, press Enter at the Number of items prompt or enter 0 at the Angle to fill prompt.

Trim (TRIM Command)

Trims objects to meet the edges of other objects. To trim

objects, select the boundaries and press Enter. Then select
the objects that you want to trim. To use all objects as
boundaries, press Enter at the first Select Objects prompt.

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Fillet (FILLET Command)

Rounds or fillets the edges of two 2D objects or the adjacent

faces of a 3D solid. A round or fillet is an arc that is created
tangent between two 2D objects. In this example, an arc is
created tangent to the selected lines, which are trimmed to
meet the endpoints of the arc.

 Create 2D Fillets: A round or fillet can be created between two objects of the same or different object types:
2D polylines, arcs, circles, ellipses, elliptical arcs, lines, rays, splines, and x-lines. If the two selected objects
are on the same layer, the arc defined is created on that layer. Otherwise, the arc is created on the current
layer. The layer affects object properties including color and line type. The following prompts are displayed
when creating a 2D fillet.
1. First Object: Select the first of two objects or the first line segment of a 2D polyline to define
the fillet.
2. Second object or shift-select to apply corner: Select the second object or line segment of a
2D polyline to define the fillet.

You can also hold down the Shift key before selecting the
second object or line segment of a 2D polyline to extend
or trim the selected objects to form a sharp corner. While
Shift is held down, a temporary value of zero is assigned
to the current fillet radius value.

If the selected objects are straight line segments of a 2D

polyline, the line segments can be adjacent to each other
or separated by one other segment. When the selected
segments are separated by a segment, the segment that
separates them is removed and replaced with the fillet.

The direction and length of the arc created is determined

by the points picked to select the objects. Always select
an object closest to where you want the endpoints of the
fillet to be drawn.

When a circle is selected, the circle is not trimmed; the

fillet drawn meets the circle smoothly.

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Explode (EXPLODE Command)

Have you wondered about the difference of making a rectangle

using LINE, RECTANGLE or POLYLINE commands??

The difference or how the rectangle is treated, if it was drawn

using lines, each line can treated independently but if it was
drawn by the other 2 ways, the hole rectangle is treated as one
unit.

Here come the benefit of EXPLODE, it breaks a compound object

into its component objects. Explodes a compound object when
you want to modify its components separately. Objects that can
be exploded include blocks, polylines, and regions, among
others.
The color, line-type, and line-weight of any exploded object might change. Other results differ depending on the type
of compound object you're exploding. See the following list of objects that can be exploded and the results for each.

To explode objects and change their properties at the same time, use XPLODE.

Offset (OFFSET Command)

Creates concentric circles, parallel lines, and parallel curves. You

can offset an object at a specified distance or through a point.
After you offset objects, you can trim and extend them as an
efficient method to create drawings containing many parallel
lines and curves.

 Specify an Offset Distance

1. Click Home tab > Modify panel > Offset.
2. Specify the offset distance. You can either enter a
value or use the pointing device to determine a
distance with two points.
3. Select the object to offset.
4. Specify a point to indicate whether the object is to
be offset inside or outside of the original object.
 Specify a Pass-Through Point
1. Click Home tab > Modify panel > Offset.
2. Enter t (Through).
3. Select the object to offset.
4. Specify a point through which the offset object will
pass.

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Scale (SCALE Command)

Enlarges or reduces selected objects, keeping the proportions of

the object the same after scaling. To scale an object, specify a
base point and a scale factor. The base point acts as the center
of the scaling operation and remains stationary. A scale factor
greater than 1 enlarges the object. A scale factor between 0 and
1 shrinks the object.

The following prompts are displayed:

 Select objects: Specifies which objects you want to resize.

 Base point: Specify a base point for the scale operation.
The base point you specify identifies the point that remains in the same location as the selected objects
change size (and thus move away from the stationary base point).
Note: When you use the SCALE command with annotative objects, the position or location of the object is
scaled relative to the base point of the scale operation, but the size of the object is not changed.
 Scale Factor: Multiplies the dimensions of the selected objects by the specified scale. A scale factor greater
than 1 enlarges the objects. A scale factor between 0 and 1 shrinks the objects. You can also drag the cursor
to make the object larger or smaller.
 Copy: Creates a copy of the selected objects for scaling.
 Reference: Scales the selected objects based on a reference length and a specified new length.

Layers
Organize your drawing by assigning objects to layers. When a drawing
becomes visually complex, you can hide objects that you currently do
not need to see. In the drawing below, the doors and electrical wiring
were temporarily hidden by hiding their layers.

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You gain this level of control by organizing the objects in your drawing on layers that are associated with a specific
function or purpose. With layers, you can:

• Associate objects by their function or location

• Display or hide all objects related to a single operation
• Enforce line-type, color, and other property standards for each layer

Layer Controls

To see how a drawing is organized, use the LAYER command to open the Layer Properties Manager. You can either
enter LAYER or LA in the Command window, or you can click the Layer Properties tool on the ribbon.

Here’s what the Layer Properties Manager displays

for this drawing.

As indicated, layer 10 WALLS is the current layer. All

new objects are automatically placed on that layer.
In the list of layers, the green check next to layer 10
WALLS indicates that it is the current layer.

In the column labeled on, notice that the light bulb

icons for two layers are dark. This indicates that
these layers were turned off to hide the doors and
electrical wiring in the floor plan. Notice that each
layer name starts with a two-digit number. This
convention makes it easy to control the order of the
layers because their order does not depend on the
alphabet.

Here’s a Tip: For complex drawings, you might want

to consider a more elaborate layer naming standard.
For example, layer names could begin with 3 digits
followed by a naming code that accommodates
multiple floors in a building, project numbers, sets of
survey and property data, and so on.

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Practical Recommendations

 Layer 0 is the default layer that exists in all drawings and has some esoteric properties. Instead of using this
layer, it’s best to create your own layers with meaningful names.
 Any drawing that contains at least one dimension object automatically includes a reserved layer named
Defpoints.
 Create a layer for behind-the-scenes construction geometry, reference geometry, and notes that you usually
do not need to see or print.
 Create a layer for layout viewports. Information about layout viewports is covered in the Layouts topic.
 Create a layer for all hatches and fills. This lets you to turn them all on or off in one action.

Layer Settings

The following are the most commonly used layer settings in the Layer Properties Manager. Click the icon to turn the
setting on and off.

Turn Off Layers: This will help reduce the visual

complexity of your drawing while you work.
COMMONLY USER LAYER SETTINGS

Freeze Layers: Freeze layers that you do not

need to access for a while. Freezing layers is
similar to turning them off, but improves
performance in very large drawings.

Lock Layers: Locking layers prevents accidental

changes to the objects on those layers. Also, the
objects on locked layers appear faded, which helps
reduce the visual complexity of your drawing.

Set Default Properties: You can set the default properties for each layer, including color,
line-type, line weight, and transparency. New objects that you create will use these
properties unless you override them. Overriding layer properties is explained later in
this topic.

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Layers Basics C-20
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Solved Example

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AUTOCAD
Solved Example C-21
 Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

When you are trying to use any CAD software like AutoCAD, Solidworks or any other software, there is now optimum way
to draw your models or designs as everyone has his unique way of thinking, it is like programming. However, there are
some basics to follow: start your drawings with centerlines and circles, start from the features in the center of the drawing.

1. Start with the vertical centerline in the middle of the drawing, and the horizontal centerline.

When the centerlines looks like they are dotted, modify the centerlines layer to make the centerlines more
realistic. Type in the commands box (LTSCALE) and type (10) for example and see the difference.

INTRODUCTION TO Solved Example

AUTOCAD
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

2. Use Offset tool to make the other 2 horizontal lines at distances 38 mm above and below the middle one.

3. Now, return to your 0 layer, Draw the R10 and the D60 circles from the middle center

INTRODUCTION TO
AUTOCAD
Solved Example C-23
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

4. Go to the upper center point and draw the R12 and D8 circles. And return to the middle center point and draw
the Hexagon with polygon tools and set the number of sides to 6 and choose the option of circumscribed about
circle with R = 16 mm. Note that when you press Enter it will make the Hexagon as in the following fig.

5. Then we have to ROTATE the Hexagon in order to have it like in the drawing. Use Rotate tool, select the Hexagon,
press Enter, and select a base point (a point that will remain in its place) by clicking on the center point of the
Hexagon. And then press on the vertical centerline.
6. Draw the vertical lines from the R12 circles to the intersection with the Hexagon sides, make the Orthomode active
in this step to have them vertical.
7. Use trim tool to remove the unneeded half circle.

INTRODUCTION TO
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Solved Example C-24
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

8. Draw the R18 circle, it is not centered with the R12 circle. Figure it out on your own.
9. Draw tangent lines, tangent to the R18 circle and the D60 circle. There are 2 ways to draw a line tangent to 2
circles. Open Line command, type TAN and press Enter, select the first circle and Type TAN again and press Enter
then select the other circle. Or instead of typing after choosing the line command, press Ctrl with right click of
the mouse and choose tangent.
10. Remove the unneeded lines.

11. Use Mirror to copy these features to the other side.

12. Now go to the Centerlines Layer and draw the D48 circle, and draw a D4 circle on Layer 0 (the one on the
vertical CL)
13. Use Polar Array to draw the other circles. Select the object and press Enter, then select the center point of the
dashed circle. Make the number of items 6 and make sure it fills 360 degrees.

C-25
INTRODUCTION TO
Solved Example
AUTOCAD
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

14. Now, we have only on step left, the rectangle with dimensions of 9*4 mm. Use the Midpoint of height and
corner rectangle and type 9 mm for the length and Tab key, then 2 mm for the half of the height.
15. Save the file in the format you want.

C-26
INTRODUCTION TO
Solved Example
AUTOCAD
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

Problems

INTRODUCTION TO
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Problems C-27
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

C-28
INTRODUCTION TO
AUTOCAD Problems
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

INTRODUCTION TO
AUTOCAD
Problems C-29
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

INTRODUCTION TO
AUTOCAD
Problems C-30
Technical Drawing, Lecture Notes Prof. Dr. Hesham A. Hegazi

REFERENCES
• Spencer, H. C., Dygdon, J. T., Novak, J. E., “Basic Technical Drawing”, 6th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1995.
• Jensen, C. H., Hensen, J. D., “Interpreting Engineering Drawings”, 7th Edition, Thomson Delmar Learning,
2007.
• Luzadder, W. J., Duff J. M., “Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing, With an Introduction to Interactive
Computer Graphics for Design and Production”, 11th Edition, Prentice Hall, 1993.
• Madsen, D. A., Shumaker, T. M., Turpin, J. L., Stark, C., “Engineering Drawing and Design”, 2nd Edition, Delmar
Publishers, 1997.
• French, T. E., Vierck, C. J., “Graphic Science and Design”, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1970.
• Mostafa, A-F., “Preparing Student in Engineering Drawing”, 2nd Edition, ISBN 977-19-0097-8, Faculty of
Engineering, Cairo University Press, 1996.
• Simmons, C. H., Maguire, D. E., “Manual of Engineering Drawing”, 2nd Edition, Elsevier, 2004.
• Bhatt, N. D., “Engineering Drawing”, 15th Edition, Charotar Publishing House PVT. LTD., 2011.
• Giesecke, F. E., Mitchell, A., Spencer, H. C., Hill, I. L., Loving, R. O., Dygdon, J. T., “Principles of Engineering
Graphics”, MacMillan Publishing Co., 1990.
• Shawki, G., “Graphic Language, Part 2”, Cairo University press, 1978.
• Bedewy, K. et al, “Excercises on Engineering Graphics”, Cairo University press, 1996.
• Giesecke, F., Lockhart, S., Goodman, M., Johnson, C., “Technical Drawing with Engineering Graphics”, 15th
Edition, Pearson, 2016.
• Madsen, D., Madsen, D., “Engineering Drawing and Design”, 5th Edition, Delmar Cengage Learning, 2011.
• Parvez, M., “Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing and AutoCAD”, 4th Edition, Galgotia Publications Pvt. Ltd.,
2018.
• Hegazi, H., “Descriptive Geometry and Engineering Drawing, Lecture Notes”, The American University in
Cairo, 2003.

REFERENCES