REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This segment will include review of related literature and related studies on the

following contexts of the socio-demographic profiles of student-and-teacher-respondents,

the instructional technology utilization, content delivery using instructional technology,

and academic performance of student respondents in the PARCC Assessment in

Mathematics.

Socio-Demographic Profile

The socio-demographic profile had been constantly assessed by various

researches in terms of age (Mardiana, 2018; Mustafina, 2016), sex (Madriana, 2018;

Israel, 2016; Remmele&Holthaus, 2013), ethnicity (Huang, Craig, Xie,

Graesser&Okwumabua, 2018)parents educational attainment (Araza, 2017; Andaya,

2014; Wadley, 2014; Birch and Irvine, 2010) parents occupation (Mardiana, 2018),

inclination to technology (Israel, 2016), years of teaching (Compeau and Higgins, 2015),

area of specialization (Means, 2010), and personal instructional technology equipment

(Allsop, et, al, 2010).

Age

Mardiana (2018) conducted a research aimed to determine the qualifications of

lecturers in the field of social science depended on the use of advance instructional

technology, especially the power points, the Internet, and social media site. The problem

that some of the lecturers preferred to use the traditional way of teaching, such as
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whiteboard and marker, lectures. This study research was to observe the categories of

lecturers' knowledge and ages and gender in using technology in the classroom. The

result of this study research showed that ages and gender played very significant role in

determining the utilization of instructional technology. And the purpose of the study

research was to give an opportunity to increase lecturers' qualifications for 21st century

learning process and to leverage advance technology in campuses which it is to deliver

contents and to engage students and lecturers learning process in ways not previously

possible.

Mustafina (2016) conducted a study that contributed to the existing knowledge by

providing a current picture of the process of Instructional Technology integration through

the lens of the main facilitators of this process—teachers and its main variable on age.

This mixed-method study fills the research gap by exploring the role of teachers' attitudes

toward technology integration in school through examining the factors (self-confidence,

knowledge, gender and age) that influence teachers' IT attitudes and analyzing the

subsequent relationship between teachers' attitudes and their students' academic

motivation. Findings show that ages of teachers most likely possess positive attitudes

toward IT in school mostly due to the advantages that technology offers such as distant

learning and visualization of the material (3D programs).

Sex

Several researches on the link of sex and technology have been identified thus far

(Madriana, 2018; Israel, 2016; Remmele&Holthaus, 2013).

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Madriana (2018) specified that individual gender may suggest what specific

instructional technology a person is good at. This preference of what specific technology

to be utilized in the classroom often associated with type of gender a person who utilizes

such system possesses.

Israel (2016) investigated the effect of gender associated with mathematics

innovation and instructional technology on the academic performance of students in the

open distance learning. Results revealed that gender was identified to have imperative

role in mathematics innovation and technology it most likely influences academic

performance of open and distance learning students, and location and gender disparity

influences academics performance of students in mathematics. The study became

necessary following the emerging trend of National University Commission (NUC) in

sustaining the development of open university ensuring human capacity building at

workplace. The study revealed that gender may influence mathematics technology

innovation, location, and instructional technology influences academic performance of

students in mathematics.

Remmele and Holthaus (2013) emphasized the co-construction of gender and

technology, that is, the theory that the usage of and the attitude to certain kinds of

technology are a way to "do" one's gender. A survey is presented that supports the

assumption that with the routinization of e-learning in higher education e-learning loses

its character as a technology, which can be used for gender performance. With the

routinization of its usage e-learning is becoming a gender-neutral tool with no

outstanding technological appeal. However, though doing gender may disappear in

certain fields the co-construction of gender and technology is still valid as basic structure.
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Furthermore, the results show that e-learning meanwhile supports the attitude we call

"study as consumption", that is, the expectation that the main e-learning features are usual

services to be provided by the educational institution. This attitude is to be found among

male and female students alike.

Ethnicity

Huang, Craig, Xie, Graesser, and Okwumabua (2018)studied the gaps among

ethnicities and gender in mathematics achievement is a well-known problem that are

linked with technology in mathematics. While the gap has been shrinking over the past

three decades, it has not completely diminished. The ALEKS, Assessment and LEarning

in Knowledge Spaces, tutoring system is one promising example of a technology that can

target this problem. ALEKS is a Web-based intelligent tutoring system (ITS) that

instructs students on the mathematical topics that they are most ready to learn, assesses

students' current knowledge, and evaluates student performance on problems related to

those topics. In order to better understand the role that technology can play in decreasing

achievement gaps for gender and ethnicity, the authors examined the effect of interacting

with ALEKS in a 6th grade students' math after-school program. Results from the study

suggest that ethnicity and the ITS (ALEKS) tends to help reduce the achievement gap

between ethnicities. While more research is needed, it would appear that the ALEKS

condition was able to offer equivalent help to students with different levels of

performances, while the teachers' help tends to average performers.

Parents Educational Attainment

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Parents paly significant role in the academic performance of their children (Araza,

2017; Andaya, 2014; Wadley, 2014). Araza (2017) concluded that students whose

parents are educated scored higher on standardized tests than those whose parents having

less educated. Furthermore, fathers’ and mothers’ education had significant effect on

students’ mathematics score. In the study of Araza, it was found out that college students

mathematics achievement is related to their mother’s educational attainment, as such, the

amount of education mothers achieved could be predictor of children’s success in reading

and mathematics.

Similarly, Andaya (2014) noted that parents with higher level could be role

models for their children to perform well in mathematics. Parents who lack educational

experience may not see its importance for their children, hence they may not be that

supportive as compared to those parents who obtained some degree of educational

qualification and knowledge about the importance of education to their children.

In contrary, Wadley (2014) stated that parents’ level of education had no

established significant relationship and impact in the student’s academic performance in

college math courses. As example, it was chronicled the insignificant relationship

between students’ mathematics performance with their parents educational attainment.

Inclination to Technology

Means (2012) examined technology inclination and implementation practices

associated withstudent learning gains. Interviews and observations were conducted with
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staff at schools where teachers using reading or mathematics software with their students

attained above-average achievement gains and at schools where software-using teachers

had below-average gains. The findings highlight the importance of school practices in the

areas of the degree of inclination to instructional technology and teacher collaboration

around software use and of teacher practices concerning classroom management and use

of software-generated student performance data. The issues of instructional coherence

and competition for instructional timeare highlighted as challenges to software

implementation.

Instructional Technology Integration

To put the discussion into perspective, it is worthwhile to define what technology

is. Technology is the innovation, change, or modification of the natural environment in

order to satisfy perceived human wants and needs. Technology comprises the entire

system of people and organizations, knowledge, processes, and devises that go into

creating and operating technological artifacts, as well as the artifacts themselves.

Technology encompasses engineering know-how and design, manufacturing expertise,

and various technical skills. For this study, technology is used in the context of

modification of the classroom environment, including instruction, to meet the needs of

digital native students. It would be amiss to only think of technology in terms of the

hardware and software, especially in the context of the classroom. Teachers play a huge

role in the selection and implementation so that technology is not only received by

students but also use it to access content and help develop more in-depth mathematical

under-standing knowledge.
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Various research have engaged in instructional technology utilization (Parkay et,

al, 2014; Meagher, 2012; Nicholas & Ng, 2012; Yu-Liang, 2011). Integrating technology

early in education may allow the student to become more aware of not only how to use

the technology, but also may give the student more confidence in the subject, especially

mathematics. Another study confirmed this by reporting students felt more comfortable

using technology since it allowed the student to be more accurate in mathematics.

Although not all students feel comfortable using technology, most students in one study

reported the use of technology alleviated some of the anxiety with mathematics and the

anxiety associated with students taking tests (Meagher, 2012). If familiarity of using

technology in the mathematics classroom can benefit students by allowing the students to

feel more comfortable, then educators need to take the opportunity to incorporate

technology in the pedagogy on a regular basis. Educators of course must have

professional training to use the technology in the classroom and must feel comfortable

using the technology themselves. The competence of the technology use by the instructor

and the attitude of the instructor behind the technology can have the most effective action

toward the success of the mathematics in the classroom (YuLiang, 2011).

More research confirmed this by stating that teacher attitude with technology

integration and successful implementation of technology in the classroom can be more

significant than any other factor when incorporating technology into the curriculum

(Hidayati, K. &Budiyono, S., 2018; Nicholas & Ng, 2012). Administrators, curriculum

leaders, and teachers need to have professional training in technology, be supportive of

the process of technology integration, and be willing to assist others in the use of
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technology throughout the curriculum since “technology cannot be grafted onto existing

curricula; it must be integrated thoughtfully” (Parkay, Anctil, & Hass, 2014, p. 49).

Murphy (2016) examined instructional technology in learning mathematics,

especially early in education, is crucial to the development of a student’s mathematical

abilities as the student progresses through the educational process. Mathematics concepts

are hierarchical in content where one topic must be understood before the next topic is

introduced. If students miss key components of one topic, then that could hinder the

student fully grasping not only that concept, but also the concepts to follow. Students

need to be engaged in the learning of mathematics, and it is a necessity that educators use

methods in the classroom that will help in the process of student engagement to help

motivate the students to get a deeper understanding of mathematics. If students stay

motivated in the pedagogy of the learning process, then students will more likely be

successful in mathematics, and this is especially likely for male students. One strategy to

help in this process is to implement technology throughout the curriculum and especially

in the mathematics classrooms. Using technology in the classrooms, as the studies

suggested, can increase student engagement, increase motivation to learning, allow for

better teacher-student interaction, support student collaboration, assist in the accuracy of

mathematical computation, and help students not only feel more comfortable with

learning mathematics but also allow for a deeper understanding of the mathematical

concepts. The positive effect of using technology throughout the curriculum can assist

student learning mathematics to higher-order thinking that can help students even beyond

the classroom. To this extent, the use of technology within the curriculum from

elementary to high school is necessary for the betterment of learning mathematics.

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Finally, it is expectant that educators will continue to use technology in new ways in the

classroom to help students be prepared for today’s ever-changing technology driven

society.

Rosas and Campbell (2010) exploredinstructional technology using iPad

integration in a geometry classroom to increase student engagement which then could

result in higher tests scores, and higher levels of self-efficacy and meta-cognitive self-

regulation. Although the use of the iPads may have some drawbacks that can be

overcome, the increased student engagement in the classroom was observed. One of the

implications of the study indicates that iPad professional training and pedagogy is

important in not only content delivery, but for on-task student behavior as well. It is

crucial for educators to have professional training in the use of technology so that the

motivation behind the use of the technology is being transferred to the students (Rosas &

Campbell, 2010). Further research is needed by educators to explore iPad integration in

other mathematics courses along with different instructional methods. In addition, the

iPads in this study were only used in the geometry class. Because of the limited use of

the iPads, students could have been new to its use and the novelty could have had a factor

as students were exploring the extent of the iPad. One possible solution to this could

have been iPad integration throughout the curriculum in all subjects so that students

would be familiar to the iPad. Integrating technology throughout the curriculum in all

subjects allows students to be more engaged in the classrooms, and have more confidence

in the technology, which may lead toward a greater confidence in the subject (Allsopp,

McHatton, & Farmer, 2010).

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Content Delivery Using Instructional Technology

In Instructional Technology Utilization for content delivery, several researches

chronicled its impact to student learning in mathematics (Moein, 2018;Kuppalapalle et,

al, 2016; Ratnayake& Oates, 2016; Oginni, 2015; Leung &Bolite-Frant, 2015; Choy,

2014; Hill & Ball, 2014; Vogel-Walcutt et, al, 2010).

Moein (2018) explored the effectiveness of online instructional modules for

providingsupplementary instruction in basic mathematics and physics concepts. The

modules were developed in accordance with a cognitive apprenticeship model.

Participants were students enrolled in a required Statics course and were randomly

assigned to either an intervention or control group. The results showed that the

intervention group performed significantly better on post-tests through using the online

instructional modules, while there was no significant improvement of performance in the

control group. Based on survey results, students expressed their engagement to the

instructional materials. Furthermore, they expressed a self-paced learning experience

through providing feedback that they had control over the course materials by using the

developed online instructional modules. Survey results also were indicative of students’

approval of using the modules as a supplemental material to classroom lectures.

Kuppalapalleet, al (2016) noted that successful science and engineering programs

require proficiency and dynamics in mathematics classes to enhance the learning of

complex subject matter with a sufficient amount of practical problem solving. Improving

student performance and retention in mathematics classes requires inventive approaches.

The Department of Mathematics in Florida developed an innovative teaching method that

incorporated computers and MyLabsPlus software with application sessions in large

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mathematics classes. Introduction of new technology, in-class problem solving and

application (or discussion) sessions are important factors in the enhancement of students’

deep understanding of mathematics. Various components of the course included daily

online homework sets, online skills tests, application sessions and projects with Teaching

Assistants, in-class tests, and comprehensive final exam, and discuss how we obtained

optimal results enhancing the traditional teaching techniques. The instructional delivery

involves group work combined with the use of computer technology to analyze the

relationship between the physical problems and the mathematical models. Furthermore,

this technique can be used to teach large classes not only in Science, Technology,

Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) disciplines but also in social sciences.

Ratnayake and Oates (2016) studied the effectiveness of online instructional

modules for students learning. Since the modules were focused on covering basic

concepts of mathematics and physics, developing and extending the use of these modules

can help with reducing the time that an instructor needs to spend reviewing these

concepts within mechanical engineering mechanics courses. This study showed that

students who had access to the modules performed significantly better in their post-test,

with their scores improving by 13%. The students’ feedback indicates that they felt more

engaged in the course by using the online instructional modules. Participant feedback

provides evidence of the advantages of using student-centered classrooms and integrating

technology in lecture-based courses.

Almost 70% of intervention group recommended using these modules to cover

prerequisite course materials. Also, they felt that incorporating quizzes in the videos and

having short tests before and after the video helped them in understanding course
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material. As these features add interactivity to a video, this data shows that online

instructional modules are useful in promoting students’ learning and preparedness.Based

on the participant feedback, they suggested that online instructional modules are an

effectivetool when combined with a lecture-based course. However, further research is

needed that focuses on the instructors’ opinions on the use of online instructional

modules. Finally, reviewing basic mathematics and physics concepts should be the core

part of the developed online instructional modules in order to address specific needs

within the targeted engineering course. One of the main aspects that must be considered

in future studies is to assess the effectiveness of such instructional modules on students’

performance within the statics course by comparing final grades of the two groups, and

also the effect of the modules in downstream courses. The length of similar future studies

should be extensive enough to enable researchers to evaluate the effectiveness of these

resources on students’ perceptions of not only their currently enrolled course, but also

downstream courses.

Oginni (2015)and Vogel-Walcutt et, al (2010) investigated the effect of

mathematics innovation and technology on students’ academic performance in open and

distance learning. Quasi – experimentalresearch design was adopted for the study. The

population for the study consisted of allthe 200 level primary education students. The

sample of this study was made of 60 students randomly selected using stratified sampling

technique. Hypotheses were postulated to find out whether mathematics innovation and

technology influences academic performance of open and distance learning students and

location and gender disparity influences academics performance of students in

mathematics. The study revealed that mathematics innovation, location, gender and
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technology influences academic performance of students in mathematics. Based on the

findings it is recommended that mathematics innovation and technology should be

embraced in Open and Distance Learning so as to enhance better performance of students

in mathematics.

Leung and Bolite-Frant(2015), Choy (2014) and Hill and Ball (2014) studied a

crucial step towards improving the conceptual use of digital technology (DT) in the

mathematics classroom and to increase teacher involvement in the development of

tasks.Hence, this research considers some teacher factors that might influence DT algebra

taskdevelopment and implementation in secondary schools. We observed and assisted

one group of three teachers as they designed and implemented DT tasks. The preliminary

analysis examines the richness of the two tasks produced by one group and seeks to

explain the difference between them. The results suggest the intervention provided with

respect to task design led to improved Pedagogical Technology Knowledge for the

teachers, and hence a richer task. The delivery of the intervention could be of assistance

in focusing professional development programs so they may better facilitate the training

of teachers in the use of digital technology in teaching mathematics.

Mean (2010) examined technology implementation practices associated

withstudent learning gains. Interviews and observations were conducted with staffat

schools where teachers using reading or mathematics software with theirstudents attained

above-average achievement gains and at schools wheresoftware-using teachers had

below-average gains. The findings highlight theimportance of school practices in the

areas of principal support and teachercollaboration around software use and of teacher

practices concerning classroommanagement and use of software-generated student

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performance data.The issues of instructional coherence and competition for instructional

timeare highlighted as challenges to software implementation.

Although the amount of time that teachers reported having their students use the

software was not associated with student gains in the case study sample (or in three of

four grades for the EETI sample as a whole), there was a significant relationship between

student gains and the point in the school year when classes started software use. On

average, teachers in the high-gain case study schools started software implementation 4.5

weeks after school started, whereas teachers in low-gain schools did not begin until 7.7

weeks into the school year. The later start in low-gain schools did not appear to decrease

the total number of hours the average student received on the software, as logged by the

six software products from which such record could be obtained. The average annual

software exposure was 23.1 hours for students in high-gain schools and 23.3 for students

in low-gain schools. It may be that the speed with which a school ramped up for software

implementation was influenced by other factors that can also influence technology

Attitude Traits (Behavioral Intentions)

Researches on behavioral intentions have been chronicled thus far (Hobri&

Hossain, 2018; Umugiraneza&Bansilal, 2018;Evans, 2011; Tella, 2017;Mokgwathi,

Graham, & Fraser, 2010).

Hobri and Hossain (2018) and UmugiranezaandBansilal (2018)investigated the

relationship between Grade 9 teachers’ and learners’ perceptions and attitudes with their

mathematics achievement. The study used a secondary analysis of the TIMSS 2015

mathematics data, guided by the conceptual framework model of Scheerens (2000). The
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quantitative data collected through teachers’ and learners’ responses to the questionnaire

included teachers’ and learners’ attitudes and perceptions on mathematics achievement.

Multi-level modelling was done using HLM software. The study revealed that learners

that like learning mathematics and value mathematics outperform those who don’t like it

and who don’t value it. It was also found that leaners that are confident in mathematics

outperformed those who are not confident. An interesting finding was that teacher job

satisfaction has no influence on the mathematics achievement of their learners. Another

curious finding was that the level of learner engagement in the mathematics lesson also

had no influence on their performance.

Teacher attitude is generally defined in terms of teacher behaviour as well as

teacher characteristics and how that can be related to their interaction with learners. As

far back as 1976, Aiken referred to attitudes towards mathematics in a classic work in the

area of mathematics education as being significant, because there was a corresponding

relationship as far as the attitudes towards mathematics and mathematics achievement

were concerned. Evans (2011) in his study revealed a positive relation between teacher’

attitude and their self-efficacy. More recently, Hobri, Dafik and Hossain (2018) in their

study revealed that, attitudes towards mathematics to be significant predictor of learners’

mathematics performance.

In a study by Tella (2017) it was revealed that, teacher attitude had no significant

correlation with learner achievement in mathematics. Interestingly, an earlier study by

Kiwanuka, Van Damme, Van Den Noortgate, Anumendem, Vanlaar, Reynolds and

Namusis (2016), revealed a negative correlation between teacher attitude on learner

performance.
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It is often claimed that technology can be used as a tool that can facilitate teaching

and learning and contribute to learners' achievement. This article reports on a study about

how KwaZulu-Natal mathematics teachers use, access and integrate technology in the

teaching and learning of mathematics. A questionnaire containing closed and Likert scale

questions regarding the use of technology, was distributed to 75 KwaZulu-Natal

mathematics teachers. The findings reveal that the technology used most commonly by

the group for teaching mathematics is calculators. Almost all the teachers reported that

they never use computers in their teaching of mathematics. Although the teachers

reported that they do not use computers in teaching and learning, about 80% of the

participants conveyed a positive view that using technology improves learners'

understanding of mathematics. The findings further indicate that the teachers' and

learners’ propensity to use instructional technology in instructional practice is associated

with demographic factors related to teaching and learning experience, gender, level of

study and participation in professional learning activities. The study also showed that

teachers and learners who have access to internet instructional resources have higher

levels of confidence in teaching and learning mathematics and hold broader beliefs about

the nature of mathematics and the aims of teahing and learning mathematics than the

teachers and learners who do not use the internet for instructional purposes.

Performance Expectancy

A study by Kim and Chang (2010) empirically examined the effects of playing

computer games on math achievement of 4th graders, with special focus on gender and

language minority groups. The study used the 2005 National Assessment of Educational
 17

Progress (NAEP), a nationally representative database of the USA. The results showed

that English-speaking students who played computer math games in school every day

displayed significantly lower math achievement than those who never played.

Contrastingly, positive effects of daily computer use were noted among male students

whose first language was other than English. Male language minority students who daily

played computer games in math demonstrated higher math performance scores compared

with their male English-speaking counterparts who never played (Kim & Chang, 2010).

While this study took into account the first language and gender of students, the results

highlight the fact that interaction time (playing with computer games or not playing with

computer games) can increased math scores.

In an educational set up,Venkateshet. al (2013) noted that teachers play a leading

role in putting the computers into practice and carry it into the classroom environments to

define teachers’ performance expectancy and effort. The adaption and integration of

technology into the classroom largely depends on the teachers who are implementing this

technology in the classrooms. Thus, the role and performance of the teachers is very

crucial as expected in using any instructional technology during their teaching. According

to Carter et al., (2013), teacher behavioral intentions, attitudes and beliefs toward the use

of instructional technology in their classroom play a major role in the extent to which

they will integrate computers into their classrooms and provide opportunities to their

students to engage with technology for educational purposes. Successful implementation

depends largely on teachers’ behavioral intentions and beliefs about classroom computing

because they are the key holders to the integration of technologyand student engagement.
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Effort Expectancy

Effort expectancy had also been assessed by Carter et al (2013). Effort

expectancy on computer and teachers’ attitudes and beliefs towards the computer use in

classroom are two main factors that affect the success of the integration of the ICT into

the classrooms (Carter et al., 2013). According to Leso& Peck (1992), effort expectancy

in using instructional technology is conceptualized as anxiety or fear when using, or

considering using, computer technologies. Hence, effort expectancy output may increase

when the computer use increases in the classrooms. Previous research has found that

computer skills and technology acceptance are inversely related to computer anxiety

(Ekizoglu&Ozcinar, 2010). Other important factor is teacher attitudes and beliefs.

Inan&Lowther (2010) found that teacher beliefs were the single most important factor

when predicting computer integration. Carter et al.,(2013) state that more recent research

by Celik&Yesilyurt (2012) supported these results. With these studies, they found that

teachers’ attitudes toward technology, perceived computer self-efficacy, and computer

anxiety were significant predictors of attitudes toward using computer supported

curricula in their classrooms.

Social Influence

Integration of instructional technology in the context of social influence provided

empirical bases into teaching and learning process that is found to have a very complex

issue and a lot of concerns can be encountered during this process. Teachers’ attitudes

towards technology use in classrooms are almost one of the biggest issues in

implementing technology in classrooms whether the teacher is subjected to social force of

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one’s initiative. Balanskat, Blamire and Kefala (2006) argue that although educators

appear to acknowledge the value of ICT in schools within peer pressure and certain limit,

difficulties continue to be encountered during the processes of adopting these

technologies. According to Bingimlas (2009), these difficulties stem from different

barriers of social integration. The one which is related to teachers is teachers’ lack of

confidence in using instructional technology in that, an assistance from colleagues need

to be secured. This may stem from the technological pedagogical lack of teachers, which

can be caused, by lack of training. Another important barrier for the unsuccessful

integration of instructional technology into the classrooms is the teachers’ unprepared

acceptance of technology. In the local context, technological pedagogical training was

given to the teachers and it was studied. Thus, teachers’ acceptance, as another important

issue in the integration of instructional technology within social context.

Facilitating Conditions

As the technology penetrates in every field of our lives and education, it has

almost become indispensable for foreign language classrooms. The use of modern

instructional technology in teaching mathematics associated with facilitating classroom

conditions has been dramatically increasing worldwide over the past decade (Chen,

Belkada, & Okamoto, 2004; O’Dowd, 2003; Pennington, 1999; Toyoda & Harrison,

2002). The creation of World Wide Web provides the language teachers with the

numerous possibilities to make use of instructional materials in language teaching and

learning contexts to teach both the language and the culture. (Belz, 2003, O’Dowd, 2003;

Thorne, 2003).
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According to Chaklikova&Karabayeva (2015), if teachers do not integrate

technology into mathematicallanguage classrooms, one takes the risk of students’

learning interest, and also onecould not achieve training them to be fully equipped to be

successful in such a competitive world. However, it is not easy for the teachers to be able

to understand and integrate modern instructional technologies into mathematics

classrooms because many of the older technologies required only ‘push the button’ skills

to operate (Bates &Epper, 2001). Therefore, teachers may feel a lot of pressure about

mastering the use of computer technologies in the first place and then later may find it

difficult to keep up with the technological changes (Davies, 2003). There may be a lot of

obstacles that the teachers encounter during the technology integration into classrooms.

Bates &Epper (2001) state three barriers, which keep college leaders from establishing an

environment that allows teachers to take advantage of instructional technology resources

to offer meaningful facilitating classroom conditions, including the needs for appropriate

planning and budgeting for instructional technology, organizational structures and

communication, and faculty rewards and incentives.

Performance in Mathematics thru PARCC State Assessment

The U.S. Department of Education highlights the importance of technology in

teaching and learning. Technology ushers in fundamental structural changes that can be

integral to achieving significant improvements in productivity. Used to support both

teaching and learning, technology infuses classrooms with digital learning tools, such as

computers and hand held devices; expands course offerings, experiences, and
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learning materials; supports learning 24 hours a day, 7 days a week; builds 21st century

skills; increases student engagement and motivation; and accelerates learning .

One might wonder why technology is such an important part of today’s

instructional delivery. Older generations might take the argument that they learned and

turned out to be okay with just a book, paper and pencil, and the teacher in front of the

classroom delivering instruction. Why fix it when it’s not broke? The fact is, times have

changed. The argument can no longer be made that it’s not broke. The requirement of

students entering society is that they are technologically literate, able to efficiently and

effectively use today’s technology in completing tasks. According to Burkhart (2011),

students are surrounded by technology from the time they get up in the morning and get

ready for school, until they lay their heads back on their pillows at night. They brush their

teeth with sonic toothbrushes, communicate non-verbally with a new language, and

complete their homework on computers. They absolutely embrace this technology as a

way of life; using technology is as natural for students today, as playing outside until the

street lights came on was for past generations. It is this constant immersion in technology

that allows students to effectively employ the technology much easier than many adults.

Therefore, it is no surprise that students desire to employ technology in their learning in

the classroom and even find it easier to learn using technology over the old paper and

pencil method (Burkhart, 2011).

Wenglingski’s (1998) findings of his study “Does It Compute? The Relationship

between Educational Technology and Student Achievement in Mathematics” indicate

that computers are neither a cure-all for problems facing the schools nor mere fads

without impact on student learning. When used properly, computers may serve as
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important tools for improving student proficiency in mathematics and the overall learning

environment of the school. Technology is definitely available in most if not all schools in

the school district of Prince George’s County, and if used properly, can impact student

performance in mathematics.

In October 2011, the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM)

released a position statement on the question of what is the role of technology in the

teaching and learning of mathematics.“It is essential that teachers and students have

regular access to technologies that support and advance mathematical sense making,

reasoning, problem solving, and communication. Effective teachers optimize the potential

of technology to develop students' understanding, stimulate their interest, and increase

their proficiency in mathematics. When teachers use technology strategically, they can

provide greater access to mathematics for all students.” (NCTM)

It is important to highlight the point made that having technology is not enough.

Careful planning, implementation, and continuous evaluation is necessary to see if these

actually work. NCTM’s position went on further to say that simply having access to

technology is not sufficient. The teacher and the curriculum play critical roles in

mediating the use of technological tools. Teachers and curriculum developers must be

knowledgeable decision makers, skilled in deter-mining when and how technology can

enhance students' learning appropriately and effectively (NCTM, 2011).

Prince George’s County Public Schools is one of the biggest school districts in

Maryland. What does the state say about the use of technology in education? The revised

five-year plan for the 207-2012 of the Maryland Plan for Technology in Education

reflects the current context of the 21st Century in which technology is all around us and
 23

rapidly changing. The overarching goal of the Plan is focused on achieving improved

student learning in all content areas and in the tech-nology knowledge and skills critical

to students’ ability to contribute and function in today’s in-formation technology society.

The Plan’s core vision is as follows: “Through engaging class-rooms that have current

technology resources available to all students and educators as a part of their daily work,

every child will reach his or her potential and achieve success. Not only will technology

be available in whatever forms they take in the coming years, but rich, digital content

will be available in a variety of formats. The individual learning styles and needs of

every child will be addressed by using technology to differentiate instruction and provide

accessible re-sources to all students.”

If various organizations and entities both in the public and private sector clamor

for the use of technology in classrooms, it is logical to think that various research support

the efficacy of using technology in the classroom in improving performance of students.

Delen and Bulut (2011) investigated the effects of information and communication

technologies (ICT) on students’ math and science achievement in their study “The

Relationship Between Students’ Exposure to Technology and their Achievement in

Science and Math. The data for this study comes from the 2009 administration of The

Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), an internationally standardized

assessment administered to15-year-old students (9th grades) in schools. The sample

includes 4996 students in Turkey. The study revealed that students’ exposure to ICT at

home and school was a strong predictor of their math and science performance. Students’

exposure to ICT out of school time had a larger impact on their math and science

achievement than their exposure to ICT at school. This might point out the lack of the
 24

integration of ICT into class-room instruction at schools. Students’ using computers in

line with their needs, parents’ control-ling the time their children use computers, the

internet and computer for entertainment purposes can be beneficial. The results of this

study showed that ICT usage had a positive impact on students’ math and science

performance in PISA (Delen&Bulut, 2011). It is worth mentioning that the use of ICT in

the classroom did not have as much of an impact on scores as the impact of ICT use at

home. This is a very crucial part of the study because if technological instruction is

implemented properly in the classrooms, then student achievement could even be

improved even more.

Schacter (1999) analyzed 5 large scale studies of education technology in his

evaluative report “The Impact of Education Technology on Student Achievement: What

the Most Current Re-search Has To Say”. The report summarized the effect of

technology on student achievement. Below are some of the findings on the 5 education

technology studies:On average, students who used computer-based instruction scored at

the 64th percentile on tests of achievement compared to students in the control conditions

without computers who scored t the 50th percentile; Students learn more in less time

when they receive computer-based instruction; Students like their classes more and

develop more positive attitudes when their classes in-clude computer-based instruction;

Students in technology rich environments experienced positive effects on achievement in

all major subject areas; Students in technology rich environment showed increased

achievement in preschool through higher education for both regular and special needs

children; Students’ attitudes toward learning and their own self concept improved

consistently when computers were used for instruction; The more students participated in
 25

Basic Skills/Computer Education (BS/CE), the more their test scores rose on the Stanford

9; Consistent student access to the technology, positive attitudes towards the technology

(by both teachers and students), and teacher training in the technology led to the greatest

achievement gains.

All students’ test scores rose on the Stanford 9 because of BS/CE with lower

achieving student scores rising the most; Half of the teachers in the sample thought that

technology had helped with West Virginia’s instructional goals and objectives. These

teachers also reported that they became more enthusiastic about BS/CE as time passed;

Although the relative disadvantage of girls is a regularity of the technology literature,

girls and boys did not differ in achievement, access, or use of computers in the West

Virginia study; BS/CE was more cost effective in improving student achievement than

(1) class-size reduction from 35 to 20 students, (2)increasing instructional time,

and(3)cross-age tutoring pro-grams; Eighth-grade students who used simulation and

higher order thinking software showed gains in math scores of up to 15 weeks above

grade level as measured by NAEP; Eighth-grade students whose teachers received

professional development on computers showed gains in math scores of up to 13 weeks

above grade level; and, higher order uses of computers and professional development

were positively related to students’ academic achievement in mathematics for both

fourth-and eighth-grade students.

While the support for technology education is overwhelming, the studies also give

evidence that learning technology is less effective or ineffective when the learning

objectives are unclear and the focus of technology use is diffuse.

 26

A simple yet interesting study makes the case for use of technology in the

classroom. The study of Haydon, Hawkins, Denune, Kimener, McCoy, and Bash in 2012

used an alternating treatments design to compare the effects of a worksheet condition and

an iPad condition on math fluency and active academic engagement during a high school

math class in an alternative school setting. Following group instruction, the three

participants engaged in independent seat work either by completing problems on a

worksheet or completing problems presented on an iPad. Based on visual analyses,

students solved more math problems correctly in less time and demonstrated higher levels

of active engagement in the iPad condition as compared to the worksheet condition.

(Haydon, et al., 2012)

Summary of Related Literature

Researches on age and sexwere conducted aiming to determine the qualifications

of teachers in the field of social science depended on the use of advance instructional

technology, especially the power points, the Internet, and social media site. The problem

that some of the lecturers preferred to use the traditional way of teaching, such as

whiteboard and marker, lectures. These study researches were to observe the categories

of lecturers' knowledge and ages and gender in using technology in the

classroom.Moreso, sex had been specified in research studies that individual gender may

suggest what specific instructional technology a person is good at. This preference of

what specific technology to be utilized in the classroom often associated with type of

gender a person who utilizes such system possesses.

 27

The gaps among ethnicities and gender in mathematics achievement area well-

known problem that are linked with technology in mathematics. While the gap has been

shrinking over the past three decades, it has not completely diminished.Results from the

study suggest that ethnicity and the ITS (ALEKS) tends to help reduce the achievement

gap between ethnicities. While more research is needed, it would appear that the ALEKS

condition was able to offer equivalent help to students with different levels of

performances, while the teachers' help tends to average performers.

To put the discussion on instructional technology into perspective, it is

worthwhile to define what technology is. Technology is the innovation, change, or

modification of the natural environment in order to satisfy perceived human wants and

needs. Technology comprises the entire system of people and organizations, knowledge,

processes, and devises that go into creating and operating technological artifacts, as well

as the artifacts themselves. Technology encompasses engineering know-how and design,

manufacturing expertise, and various technical skills.

Behavioral intentions have something to do with teacher’s performance

expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence and facilitating conditions. In

performance expectancy, the results showed that English-speaking students who played

computer math games in school every day displayed significantly lower math

achievement than those who never played. Contrastingly, positive effects of daily

computer use were noted among male students whose first language was other than

English. Male language minority students who daily played computer games in math

demonstrated higher math performance scores compared with their male English-

speaking counterparts who never played.

 28

On the other hand, effort expectancy on computer and teachers’ attitudes and

beliefs towards the computer use in classroom are two main factors that affect the success

of the integration of the ICT into the classrooms. According to research, effort

expectancy in using instructional technology is conceptualized as anxiety or fear when

using, or considering using, computer technologies. Hence, effort expectancy output may

increase when the computer use increases in the classrooms.

Integration of instructional technology in the context of social influence provided

empirical bases into teaching and learning process that is found to have a very complex

issue and a lot of concerns can be encountered during this process. Teachers’ attitudes

towards technology use in classrooms are almost one of the biggest issues in

implementing technology in classrooms whether the teacher is subjected to social force of

one’s initiative.As the technology penetrates in every field of our lives and education, it

has almost become indispensable for foreign language classrooms. The use of modern

instructional technology in teaching mathematics associated with facilitating classroom

conditions has been dramatically increasing worldwide over the past decade

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