CERTIFICATE ECDE

HEALTH AND NUTRITION & CARE

SHORT NOTES
10 Common Childhood Illnesses and Their
Treatments
All children deserve high-quality medical care. As a parent, it is important to be aware of the
most up-to-date treatment guidelines so you can be sure your child is getting the best care
possible.

The following information from the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) lists some of the
most common childhood illnesses and their approved treatments. The treatments discussed here
are based on scientific evidence and best practices. However, there may be reasons why your
pediatrician has different recommendations for your child, especially if your child has an
ongoing medical condition or allergy. Your pediatrician will discuss any variations in treatment
with you. If you have any questions about appropriate care for your child, please discuss them
with your pediatrician.

1. Sore Throat
 Sore throats are common in children and can be painful. However, a sore throat that
is caused by a virus does not need antibiotics. In those cases, no specific medicine is
required, and your child should get better in seven to ten days. In other cases, a sore
throat could be caused by an infection called streptococcal (strep throat).

 Strep cannot be accurately diagnosed by simply looking at the throat. A lab test or
in-office rapid strep test, which includes a quick swab of the throat, is necessary to
confirm the diagnosis of strep. If positive for strep, your pediatrician will prescribe an
antibiotic. It's very important that your child take the antibiotic for the full course, as
prescribed, even if the symptoms get better or go away. Steroid medicines (such as
prednisone) are not an appropriate treatment for most cases of sore throat.

 Babies and toddlers rarely get it strep throat, but they are more likely to become
infected by streptococcus bacteria if they are in child care or if an older sibling has the
illness. Although strep spreads mainly through coughs and sneezes, your child can also
get it by touching a toy that an infected child has played with.

 See The Difference between a Sore Throat, Strep & Tonsillitis and When a Sore Throat is
a More Serious Infection.

PREPARED BY TUTOR DENNIS KASIANO

2. Ear Pain
 Ear pain is common in children and can have many causes—including ear infection
(otitis media), swimmer's ear (infection of the skin in the ear canal), pressure from a cold
or sinus infection, teeth pain radiating up the jaw to the ear, and others. . To tell the
difference, your pediatrician will need to examine your child's ear. In fact, an in-office
exam is still the best way for your pediatrician to make an accurate diagnosis. If your
child's ear pain is accompanied by a high fever, involves both ears, or if your child has
other signs of illness, your pediatrician may decide that an antibiotic is the best treatment.

 Amoxicillin is the preferred antibiotic for middle ear infections—except when there
is an allergy to penicillin or chronic or recurrent infections.

 Many true ear infections are caused by viruses and do not require antibiotics. If
your pediatrician suspects your child's ear infection may be from a virus, he or she will
talk with you about the best ways to help relieve your child's ear pain until the virus runs
its course.

 See Ear Infection Information, Middle Ear Infections, and Your Child and Ear Infections.

3. Urinary Tract Infection

 Bladder infections, also called urinary tract infections or UTIs, occur when bacteria
build up in the urinary tract. A UTI can be found in children from infancy through the
teen years and into adulthood. Symptoms of a UTI include pain or burning during
urination, the need to urinate frequently or urgently, bedwetting or accidents by a child
who knows to use the toilet, abdominal pain, or side or back pain.

 Your child's doctor will need a urine sample to test for a UTI before determining
treatment. Your doctor may adjust the treatment depending on which bacteria is found in
your child's urine.

 See Detecting Urinary Tract Infections.

4. Skin Infection
 In most children with skin infections, a skin test (culture or swab) may be needed to
determine the most-appropriate treatment. Tell your doctor if your child has a history
of MRSA, staph infection, or other resistant bacteria or if he or she has been exposed to
other family members or contacts with resistant bacteria.

 See Boils, Abscess & Cellulitis and Tips for Treating Viruses, Fungi & Parasites.

5. Bronchitis

PREPARED BY TUTOR DENNIS KASIANO

  Chronic bronchitis is an infection of the larger, more central airways in the lungs
and is more often seen in adults. Often the word "bronchitis" is used to describe a chest
virus and does not require antibiotics.

 See Bronchitis (CDC.gov).

6. Bronchiolitis
 Bronchiolitis is common in infants and young children during the cold and flu
season. Your doctor may hear "wheezing" when your child breathes.

 Bronchiolitis is most often caused by a virus, which does not require antibiotics.
Instead, most treatment recommendations are geared toward making your child
comfortable with close monitoring for any difficulty in breathing, eating, or signs of
dehydration. Medicines used for patients with asthma (such as albuterol or steroids) are
not recommended for most infants and young children with bronchiolitis. Children who
were born prematurely or have underlying health problems may need different treatment
plans.

 See Bronchiolitis and Treating Bronchiolitis in Infants.

7. Pain
 The best medicines for pain relief for children are acetaminophen or ibuprofen. Talk
to your pediatrician about how much to give your child, as it should be based on your
child's weight.

 Narcotic pain medications are not appropriate for children with common injuries or
complaints such as sprained ankle, ear pain, or sore throats. Codeine should never be
used for children as it's been associated with severe respiratory problems and even death
in children.

 See Fever and Pain Medicine: How Much To Give Your Child.

8. Common Cold
 Colds are caused by viruses in the upper respiratory tract. Many young children—
especially those in child care—can get 6 to 8 colds per year. Symptoms of a cold
(including runny nose, congestion, and cough) may last for up to ten days.

 Green mucus in the nose does not automatically mean that antibiotics are needed;
common colds never need antibiotics. However, if a sinus infection is suspected, your
doctor will carefully decide whether antibiotics are the best choice based on your child's
symptoms and a physical exam.

 See Children and Colds and Caring for Your Child's Cold or Flu.

PREPARED BY TUTOR DENNIS KASIANO

9. Bacterial Sinusitis
 Bacterial sinusitis is caused by bacteria trapped in the sinuses. Sinusitis is suspected
when cold-like symptoms such as nasal discharge, daytime cough, or both last over ten
days without improvement.

 Antibiotics may be needed if this condition is accompanied by thick yellow nasal

discharge and a fever for at least 3 or 4 days in a row.

 See The Difference Between Sinusitis and a Cold.

10. Cough
 Coughs are usually caused by viruses and do not often require antibiotics.

 Cough medicine is not recommended for children 4 years of age and younger, or for
children 4 to 6 years of age unless advised by your doctor. Studies have consistently
shown that cough medicines do not work in the 4-years-and-younger age group and have
the potential for serious side effects. Cough medicines with narcotics—such as codeine—
should not be used in children.

PREPARED BY TUTOR DENNIS KASIANO

 Explaining HIV and AIDS
What is HIV?
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a virus that attacks immune cells
called CD4 cells, which are a type of T cell.
These are white blood cells that move around the body, detecting faults
and anomalies in cells as well as infections. When HIV targets and
infiltrates these cells, it reduces the body‟s ability to combat other diseases.
This increases the risk and impact of opportunistic infections and cancers.
However, a person can carry HIV without experiencing symptoms for a long
time.
HIV is a lifelong infection. However, receiving treatment and managing the
disease effectively can prevent HIV from reaching a severe level and
reduce the risk of a person passing on the virus.
What is AIDS?
AIDS is the most advanced stage of HIV infection. Once HIV infection
develops into AIDS, infections and cancer pose a greater risk.

Without treatment, HIV infection is likely to develop into AIDS as the immune
system gradually wears down. However, advances in ART mean than an
ever-decreasing number of people progress to this stage.

By the close of 2015, around 1,122,900 people were HIV-positive. To

compare, figures from 2016 show that medical professionals diagnosed AIDS
in an estimated 18,160 people.

PREPARED BY TUTOR DENNIS KASIANO

Causes
People transmit HIV in bodily fluids, including:

 blood

 semen

 vaginal secretions

 anal fluids

 breast milk

In the United States, the main causes of this transfer of fluids are:

 anal or vaginal intercourse with a person who has HIV while not using a
condom or PrEP, a preventive HIV medication for people at high risk of
infection

 sharing equipment for injectable illicit drugs, hormones, and steroids

with a person who has HIV

A woman living with HIV who is pregnant or has recently given birth might
transfer the disease to her child during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding.

The risk of HIV transmitting through blood transfusions is extremely low in

countries that have effective screening procedures in place for blood
donations.

PREPARED BY TUTOR DENNIS KASIANO

Undetectable = untransmittable

To transmit HIV, these fluids must contain enough of the virus. If a person has
„undetectable‟ HIV, they will not transmit HIV to another person, even if after a
transfer of fluids.

Undetectable HIV is when the amount of HIV in the body is so low that a blood
test cannot detect it. People may be able to achieve undetectable levels of
HIV by closely following the prescribed course of treatment.

Confirming and regularly monitoring undetectable status using a blood test is

important, as this does not mean that the person no longer has HIV.
Undetectable HIV relies on the person adhering to their treatment, as well as
the effectiveness of the treatment itself.

Progression to AIDS
The risk of HIV progressing to AIDS varies widely between individuals and
depends on many factors, including:
 the age of the individual
 the body‟s ability to defend against HIV
 access to high-quality, sanitary healthcare
 the presence of other infections
 the individual‟s genetic inheritance resistance to certain strains of HIV
 drug-resistant strains of HIV

Symptoms
For the most part, infections by other bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites
cause the more severe symptoms of HIV.

PREPARED BY TUTOR DENNIS KASIANO

These conditions tend to progress further in people who live with HIV than in
individuals with healthy immune systems. A correctly functioning immune
system would protect the body against the more advanced effects of
infections, and HIV disrupts this process.

Early symptoms of HIV infection

Sweats are an early sign of HIV, but many people do not know they have the
Share on Pinter est

disease for years.

Some people with HIV do not show symptoms until months or even years
after contracting the virus.
However, around 80 percent of people may develop a set of flu-like symptoms
known as acute retroviral syndrome around 2–6 weeks after the virus enters
the body.
The early symptoms of HIV infection may include:
 fever
 chills
 joint pain
 muscle aches
 sore throat
 sweats. particularly at night
 enlarged glands
 a red rash
 tiredness
 weakness
 unintentional weight loss
 thrush
These symptoms might also result from the immune system fighting off many
types of viruses.

PREPARED BY TUTOR DENNIS KASIANO

However, people who experience several of these symptoms and know of any
reason they might have been at risk of contracting HIV over the last 6 weeks
should take a test.

Asymptomatic HIV
In many cases, after the symptoms of acute retroviral syndrome, symptoms
might not occur for many years.
During this time, the virus continues to develop and cause immune system
and organ damage. Without medication that prevents the replication of the
virus, this slow process can continue for an average of around 10 years.
A person living with HIV often experiences no symptoms, feels well, and
appears healthy.
Complying rigidly to a course of ART can disrupt this phase and suppress the
virus completely. Taking effective antiretroviral medications for life can halt on-
going damage to the immune system.

Late-stage HIV infection

Without medication, HIV weakens the ability to fight infection. The person
becomes vulnerable to serious illnesses. This stage is known as AIDS or
stage 3 HIV.
Symptoms of late-stage HIV infection may include:
 blurred vision
 diarrhea, which is usually persistent or chronic
 dry cough
 a fever of over 100 °F (37 °C) lasting for weeks
 night sweats
 permanent tiredness
 shortness of breath, or dyspnea
 swollen glands lasting for weeks

PREPARED BY TUTOR DENNIS KASIANO

  unintentional weight loss
 white spots on the tongue or mouth
During late-stage HIV infection, the risk of developing a life-threatening illness
increases greatly. A person with late-stage HIV can control, prevent and treat
serious conditions by taking other medications alongside HIV treatment.

HIV and AIDS myths and facts

Many misconceptions circulate about HIV that are harmful and stigmatizing for
people with the virus.
The following cannot transmit the virus:
 shaking hands
 hugging
 kissing
 sneezing
 touching unbroken skin
 using the same toilet
 sharing towels
 sharing cutlery
 mouth-to-mouth resuscitation or other forms of “casual contact”
 the saliva, tears, feces, and urine of a person with HIV

Diagnosis
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that about 1
in every 7 HIV-positive Americans is unaware of their HIV status.
Becoming aware of HIV status is vital for commencing treatment and
preventing the development of more severe immune difficulties and
subsequent infections.

PREPARED BY TUTOR DENNIS KASIANO

HIV blood tests and results
A doctor can test for HIV using a specific blood test. A positive result means
that they have detected HIV antibody in the bloodstream. The blood is re-
tested before a positive result is given.
After potential exposure to the virus, early testing and diagnosis is crucial and
greatly improves the chances of successful treatment. Home testing kits are
also available.
HIV might take 3 – 6 months to show up in testing, and re-testing may be
necessary for a definitive diagnosis. People at risk of infection within the last 6
months can have an immediate test. The test provider will normally
recommend another test within a few weeks.

Treatment
Adhering to antiretroviral treatment can reduce HIV to an undetectable viral
Share on Pinter est

load.
No cure is currently available for HIV or AIDS.
However, treatments can stop the progression of the condition and allow most
people living with HIV the opportunity to live a long and relatively healthy life.
Starting ART early in the progression of the virus is crucial. This improves
quality of life, extends life expectancy, and reduces the risk of transmission,
according to the WHO‟s guidelines from June 2013.
More effective and better-tolerated treatments have evolved that can improve
general health and quality of life by taking as little as one pill per day.
A person living with HIV can reduce their viral load to such a degree that it is
no longer detectable in a blood test. After assessing a number of large
studies, the CDC concluded that individuals who have no detectable viral load

PREPARED BY TUTOR DENNIS KASIANO

“have effectively no risk of sexually transmitting the virus to an HIV-negative
partner.”
Medical professionals refer to this as undetectable = untransmittable (U=U).

Emergency HIV pills, or post-exposure prophylaxis

If an individual believes they have been exposed to the virus within the last 3
days, anti-HIV medications, called post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP), may be
able to stop infection. Take PEP as soon as possible after potential contact
with the virus.
PEP is a treatment lasting a total of 28 days, and physicians will continue to
monitor for HIV after the completion of the treatment.

Antiretroviral drugs
The treatment of HIV involves antiretroviral medications that fight the HIV
infection and slows down the spread of the virus in the body. People living
with HIV generally take a combination of medications called highly active
antiretroviral therapy (HAART) or combination antiretroviral therapy (cART).
There are a number of subgroups of antiretrovirals, such as:
Protease inhibitors
Protease is an enzyme that HIV needs to replicate. These medications bind to
the enzyme and inhibit its action, preventing HIV from making copies of itself.
These include:
 atazanavir/cobicistat (Evotaz)
 lopinavir/ritonavir (Kaletra)
 darunavir/cobicistat (Prezcobix)
Integrase inhibitors
HIV needs integrase, another enzyme, to infect T cells. This drug blocks
integrase. These are often the first line of treatment due to their effectiveness
and limited side effects for many people.

PREPARED BY TUTOR DENNIS KASIANO

Integrase inhibitors include:
 elvitegravir (Vitekta)
 dolutegravir (Tivicay)
 raltegravir (Isentress)
Nucleoside/nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs)
These drugs, also referred to as “nukes,” interfere with HIV as it tries to
replicate.
This class of drugs includes:
 abacavir (Ziagen)
 lamivudine/zidovudine (Combivir)
 emtricitabine (Emtriva)
 tenofovir disproxil (Viread)
Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs)
NNRTIs work in a similar way to NRTIs, making it more difficult for HIV to
replicate.
Chemokine co-receptor antagonists
These drugs block HIV from entering cells. However, doctors in the U.S. do
not often prescribe these because other drugs are more effective.
Entry inhibitors
Entry inhibitors prevent HIV from entering T cells. Without access to these
cells, HIV cannot replicate. As with chemokine co-receptor antagonists, they
are not common in the United States.
People will often use a combination of these drugs to suppress HIV.
A medical team will adapt the exact mix of drugs to each individual. HIV
treatment is usually permanent, lifelong, and based on routine dosage. A
person living with HIV must take pills on a regular schedule. Each class of
ARVs has different side effects, but possible common side effects include:
 nausea

PREPARED BY TUTOR DENNIS KASIANO

  fatigue
 diarrhea
 headache
 skin rashes

Complementary or alternative medicine

Although many people who have HIV try complementary, alternative, or herbal
options, such as herbal remedies, no evidence confirms them to be effective.
According to some limited studies, mineral or vitamin supplements may
provide some benefits in overall health. It is important to discuss these options
with a healthcare provider because some of these options, even vitamin
supplements, may interact with ARVs.

Prevention
To prevent contracting HIV, healthcare professionals advise precautions
related to the following.
Sex using a condom or PrEP: Having sex without a condom or other
preventive measures, such as PrEP, can drastically increase the risk of
transmitting HIV and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs).
Use condoms or PrEP during every sexual act with a person outside of a
trusted relationship in which neither partner has HIV.
The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force advise in their 2019 guidelines that
doctors should only consider PrEP for people with recent negative results
from an HIV test. They advise that those with a high risk of HIV, who are
suitable for PrEP, should take it once a day.
In the guidelines, the task force approves only one PrEP formation, which is a
combination of tenofovir disoproxil fumarate and emtricitabine.

PREPARED BY TUTOR DENNIS KASIANO

Drug injection and needle sharing: Intravenous drug use is a key factor for
HIV transmission in developed countries. Sharing needles and other drug
equipment can expose users to HIV and other viruses, such as hepatitis C.
Certain social strategies, such as needle-exchange programs, can help to
reduce the infections as a result of drug abuse. Recovering from a substance
use disorder can improve health a quality of life for many reasons, but it can
dramatically reduce potential exposure to HIV.
People using a needle to take medications should use a clean, unused,
unshared needle.
Body fluid exposure: A person can limit their potential exposure to HIV by
taking precautions to reduce the risk of exposure to contaminated blood.
Healthcare workers should use gloves, masks, protective eyewear, shields,
and gowns in situations where exposure to bodily fluids is a possibility.
Frequently and thoroughly washing the skin immediately after coming into
contact with blood or other bodily fluids can reduce the risk of infection.
Healthcare works should follow a set of procedures known as universal
precautions to prevent transmission.
Pregnancy: Certain antiretrovirals might harm an unborn fetus during
pregnancy.
However, an effective, well-managed treatment plan can prevent mother-to-
fetus HIV transmission. Delivery through caesarean section may be
necessary.
Women who are pregnant but have HIV might also pass on the virus through
their breast milk. However, regularly taking the correct regimen of medications
greatly reduces the risk of transmitting the virus.
Discuss all options with a healthcare provider.
Education: Teaching people about known risk factors is vital to equip them
with the tools to avoid exposure to HIV.

PREPARED BY TUTOR DENNIS KASIANO

Living with HIV
A person with HIV can live a full and active life, as long as they adhere to
Share on Pinter est

treatment.
Due to the added risk of other infections and disease, people living with HIV
must make lifestyle adjustments to accommodate their reduced immunity.
Adherence: Taking HIV medication as prescribed is absolutely essential to
effective treatment. Missing even a few doses might jeopardize the treatment.
Program a daily, methodical routine to fit the treatment plan around any
existing lifestyle and schedule. Treatment plans will be different between
people. People sometimes refer to “adherence” as “compliance”.
HIV medications can cause particularly severe side effects that often deter
people from adherence. Learn more about the adverse effects of HIV
medication by clicking here.
If side effects are becoming too severe, speak to your medical team rather
than simply stopping medication. They can switch the regimen to a better-
tolerated drug.
General health: Taking steps to avoid illness and other infections is key.
People living with HIV should seek to improve overall health through regular
exercise, a balanced, nutritious diet, and the cessation of any drugs, including
tobacco.
Additional precautions: People living with AIDS should take extra
precautions to prevent any exposure to infection, especially around animals.
Avoid coming into contact with animal feces and pet litter.
Doctors also recommend the meticulous and regular washing of hands.
Antiretrovirals reduce the need for these precautions.
Regular contact with doctors: HIV is a lifelong condition, so regular contact
with a healthcare team is important for updating treatment in line with

PREPARED BY TUTOR DENNIS KASIANO

advancing age and other conditions. The healthcare team will regular review
and adjust treatment accordingly.
Psychological effects: Common misconceptions about AIDS and HIV are
reducing as understanding of the disease increases.
However, stigma around the condition continues in many parts of the world.
People living with HIV may feel excluded, persecuted, and isolated.
An HIV diagnosis can be very distressing, and feelings
of anxiety or depression are common. If you feel anxious or have symptoms of
depression, seek medical help immediately.

Takeaway
HIV is a misunderstood and potentially dangerous disease that reduces the
effectiveness of the immune system in combatting other infections.
Advances in modern medicine person living with HIV can have a near-normal
life expectancy and active lifestyle. A person receiving antiretroviral therapy
must adhere strictly to their regime for the most effective results.
HIV transmits in bodily fluids, such as semen or vaginal secretions during sex,
or blood. In the United States, HIV most frequently transmits through sexual
intercourse without a condom or PrEP and sharing needles when injecting
drugs.
However, if a person has a viral load that HIV tests cannot detect, they cannot
transmit the virus to another person.
If HIV advances, for example in situations where a person is not aware of their
HIV status or does not receive treatment, it can progress to a late stage
known as AIDS.
AIDS can open the door to a range of infections known as opportunistic
infections that pose a severe risk to health. Some are extreme or prolonged

PREPARED BY TUTOR DENNIS KASIANO

presentations of infections that would normally resolve quickly in a person with
healthy immune function.
Others might occur due to microbes that occur naturally in the environment
and would not normally cause infection at all.
A person living with AIDS can revert the condition to HIV through adhering to
treatment.

PREPARED BY TUTOR DENNIS KASIANO