06-11, 1:25 PM

Biological Classification
Classification - Old work
⬋ ⬊
Non-scientific Scientific Basis (Aristotle)
(Borne out of need for) (Morphology characters)
⬋ ⬇ ⬊ ⬋ ⬊
Food Shelter Clothing Plants Animals

Scientific Basis (Aristotle)

⬋ ⬊
Plants Animals
⬋ ⬇ ⬊ (on the basis of RBC)
Trees shrubs Herbs ⬋ ⬊
(with RBC-Enaima) (without RBC ananima)

LINNAEUS (18th century)

⬇
Two kingdom classification
(On the basis cell wall)
⬋ ⬊
Plantae Animalia
-Algae -Spoges
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-Bryophyte -Flatworms
-Pteridophytes -Aves
-Angiosperm -Fishes
-Gymnosperm -Protozoa
-Fungi
-Bacteria
-Archaebacteria

=> Drawbacks of Two Kingdom classification

-Eukaryotes Kept with prokaryotes
-Unicellular & multicellular kept together
-Autotrophic & Heterotrophic kept together
-Physnthesis & non-photosynthetic kept together

=> Reason for drawbacks

-Because only few characters like cell wall was
considered

With time our understanding increase for classification

-Plant & animal kingdom constant
-Other characters like cell structure , nature of wall ,
mode of nutrition , habitat , methods of reproduction ,
evolutionary relationships changes over time
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ERNST HAEKEL
⬇
Three Kingdom classification
⬋ ⬇ ⬊
Plantae Protista Animalia
-Bacteria
-Protozoa
-Diatom
-Fungi

COPELAND
⬇
Four kingdom classification
⬋ ⬇ ⬇ ⬊
Plantae Protista Monera Animalia
-Fungi -Protozoa -Bacteria
-Diatom -Cyanobacteria
(Unicellular eukaryotes)

R.H WHITTAKER (1969)

⬇
Five kingdom classification
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⬋ ⬇ ⬇ ⬇ ⬊
Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia

=> Five kingdom criteria

-Cell structure (Prokaryote/eukaryote)
-Nature of wall
-Body organisation
-Mode of nutrition — Main basis of classification
-Habitat
-Thallus organisation (Unicellular/multicellular)
-Phylogenetic relationship

Characteristics of the five kingdom

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CARL WOES
⬇
Six kingdom classification
(Three domain system)
⬋ ⬊
Monera (2 domains) Eukaryo (1 domain)
⬋ ⬊ (remaining eukaryotes)
Archea Eubacteria
-Archaebacteria

EARLIER CLASSIFICATION

Plants
-Bacteria
-Blue green algae
-Fungi
-Mosses
-Ferns
-Gymnosperm
-Angiosperm

All had cell wall hence placed together

06-11, 1:25 PM

=> Placed widely differed groups together

-Prokaryotic bacteria & cyanobacteria with eukaryotic
-Unicellular (chlamydomonas) & multicellular (spirogyra)
under algae
-Heterotrophic/Non-photosynthetic (Fungi — Chitinous
wall) & autotrophic/Photosynthetic (Green plants —
Cellulose wall) together

IN FIVE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION

1) Monera - All prokaryotic

2) Protista - Unicellular eukaryotes
Brought -
1) Chlamydomonas & chlorella (have cell wall)
(earlier in algae)
2) Amoeba & Paramecium (lack cell wall)
(earlier in animalia)

As criteria for classification chaged all factors are

considered -
1) Phylogenetic (evolutionary relationship)
2) Morphological
06-11, 1:25 PM

3) Physiological
4) Reproductive
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FUNGI

Introduction
-Heterotrophic
-Great diversity
-Cosmopolitan (occurs in soil , water , air on plants
& animals)

Habitat
-Grows on warm & humid places
-Not grow in refrigerator

Structure
-Filamentous thread like
-Elongated , tube like

Examples
1) Moist bread
2) Rotton fruits
3) Mushrooms
4) Toadstools — poisonous fungi
5) White spots on mustard leaves — Parasitic fungus
(Albugo candida)
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6) Yeast (Unicellular) — Bread & beer

7) Antibiotics — Penicillium
8) Wheat rust causing puccinia
9) Black rust of wheat fungal disease caused by —
Puccinia graminis tritici

=> Fungi (multicellular) except yeast - Unicellular

=> Filamentous - Algae , fungi , protonema (multicellular)

HYPHAE
(Long , cylindrical thread like structure)
⬋ ⬊
Aseptate/Coenocytic Septate Hyphae
Hyphae
-Continuous tube filled -Septae & cross walls
with multinucleated present
cytoplasm -Branched
-Unbrached
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Aseptate Hyphae Septate Hyphae

Hyphae
| network
Mycelium
⬋ ⬊
Mycelium Aerial mycelium
(Fruiting body)
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Mycelium Aerial mycelium

=> Cell detail

-Pigment—Carotenoid
-No chlorophyll
-Storage—Glycogen
-Chitin cell wall

NUTRITION
(Heterotrophic mostly)
⬋ ⬇ ⬊
Saprophtes Parasites Symbionts

Saprophytes
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-Soluble organic matter from the dead

Parasites
-Depends on others
-Many fungi is parasitic on plants & animals

SYMBIONTS
⬋ ⬊
Lichens Mycorrhiza
⬋ ⬊
Algae Fungi
(Photosynthetic) (mineral absorb)

MYCORRHIZA
-Fungal association with roots of higher plants
-Genus — Glomus
-Mainly absorb mineral

REPRODUCTION
⬋ ⬇ ⬊
Vegetative Asexual Sexual

Vegetative
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-Fragmentation
-Fission
-Budding

Asexual (Proper division to form spore)

Division — mitosis
Spore — Asexual spore
1) Conidia
2) Sporangio spore
3) Zoospore

Sexual
Gamete formation --> Zygote formation
Zygote — Zygospore
1) Oospore
2) Ascospore
3) Basidiospore

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
(By spore)
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TYPES OF SPORE

1) Exogenous & endogenous

Endogenous - Inside cover

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Exogenous - No cover

2) Motile & Non-motile

Motile — Zoospore
Non-motile — Aplanospore

3) Meiosis — Sexual spore

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4) Mitosis — Asexual spore

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Proper sexual reproduction-Gamete & zygote form
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Three Step
1) Plasmogamy
-Fusion of 2 protoplasm

2) Karyogamy
-Fusion of 2 nuclei
-Zygote form

3) Meiosis
-Meiosis occur to form haploid spore

CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGI
Basis
1) Morphology of mycelium
06-12, 1:25 PM

2) Mode of spore formation

3) Fruiting bodies

FUNGI CLASSIFICATION
⬋ ⬊
Deutromycetes True sexual reproduction
(No sexual repro.) ⬋ ⬊
Lower fungi Higher fungi
Aseptate-Phycomycetes Septate
⬋ ⬊ ⬋ ⬊
Zygomycetes Oomycetes Asco. Basido.

PHYCOMYCETES (Algal fungi)

Habitat
-Aquatic habitats
-On decaying substance
-Moist & damp places
-Obligates parasites

Structure
-Aseptate , Unbranched
-Multinucleated coenocytic
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Nutrition
-Parasitic & saprophytic

Reproduction
⬋ ⬇ ⬊
Vegetative Sexual Asexual

1) Vegetative
-Fragmentation

2) Asexual — spore
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Spores form --> Endogenous asexual spore

⬋ ⬊
Zoospore (motile) Aplanospore (non-motile)

3) Sexual reproduction — Life cycle

Life cycle
| Iso , Aniso, Oogamous
Same species
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Phycomycetes
⬋ ⬊
Sexual—Endogenous Asexual—Endogenous

CLASSIFICATION
⬋ ⬊
Zygomycetes Oomycetes
(Zoospore absent) (Zoospore present)
-Mucor Cell wall — cellulose
-Rhizopus -Phytopthora (late
blight of potato)

Examples
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1) Mucor
2) Rhizopus (bread mould)
3) Albugo (Parasitic fungus on mustard)

Mucor

ASCOMYCETES (Sac fungi)

Habitat
-Saprophytic
-Decomposer
-Parasitic
-Coprophilous — Growing on dung
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Structure
1) Penicillium — multicellular/filamentous
2) Yeast (saccharomyces) — Unicellular/Non-filamentous

Mycelium — Branched & septate

Nutrition
-Parasitic
-Saprophytic
-Symbiotic

Reproduction
⬋ ⬇ ⬊
Vegetative Asexual Sexual
-Budding
-Fission
-Fragmentation

Asexual reproduction
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=> Spores form

-Exogenous
-Name — Conidia (n)
-Non-motile (No flagella)

Sexual Reproduction
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Examples
1) Penicillium (P. Notatum — Antibiotic)
2) Yeast - Unicellular/Non-filamentous
3) Aspergillus (Toxin — Aflatoxin)
4) Claviceps (Give LSD — Hallucinogen)
5) Neurospora (Used in biochemical & genetic work)
6) Morels & Truffle - Edible & considered delicacies

Aspergillus

BASIDIOMYCETES

Habitat
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-Grows in soil , logs , tree stumps

-Saprophytic
-Grow on wood (Epixylic)
-Live in plant body as parasitic

Structure
Mycelium — Branched & septate

Nutrition
-Saprophytic
-Parasitic
-Symbionts

Reproduction
⬋ ⬊
Vegetative No asexual spore
-Fragmentation

Sexual Reproduction
-Sex oragns/gamete absent
-Sexual reproduction by somatic hyphae
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Examples
1) Mushrooms
2) Bracket fungi
3) Puff balls
4) Parasites (Rust & smuts)
5) Agaricus (mushrooms)
6) Ustilago (smut)
7) Puccinia (Rust fungus)
8) Toadstools
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Agaricus

DEUTEROMYCETES (Imperfect fungi)

-Fungi classification require detail of sexual spore &

fruiting body
-Sexual reproduction absent/not described yet

Features
-Decomposers & help in mineral cycling

Habitat
-Saprophytic
-Parasitic
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Spore
-Asexual — Conidia
-Sexual absent

Structure
-Mycelium — Branched & septate

Example
1) Alternia — Early blight of potato
2) Colletotrichum — Red rot of sugarcane
3) Trichoderma
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MONERA

Features
-Bacteria is sole member of monera
-Maximum nutritional diversity

Number
-Largest number of microbes

Habitat — Cosmopolitan
-Soil
-Air
-Water

Extreme Habitat
-Parasites
-Hot springs
-Deserts
-Snow
-Deep oceans
-High temperature

CLASSIFICATION OF MONERA
06-28, 9:43 AM

(On the basis of shape)

⬋ ⬇ ⬇ ⬊
Coccus Bacillus Vibrio Sprillium
(Spherical) (Rod shaped) (Comma) (Spiral)

-> Most common shape — Bacillus

-> Sprillium have flagella (motile)
-> Coccus lack flagella
-> Bacillus have spores

PROKARYOTIC BACTERIA

Structure
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CELL ENVELOP
⬋ ⬇ ⬊
Glycocalyx Cell wall Cell membrane

GLYCOCALYX
(Outermost)
⬋ ⬊
Slime layer Capsule
-loose & slimy -Thick & tough
(S-strain have capsule)

CELL WALL

-> Plant - Cellulose

-> Fungi - Chitin
-> Bacteria - Carbohydrate (glycon) + Amino acid
(Peptide) —> Peptidoglycon
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GRAM STAINING
(Christian gram)
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GRAM POSITIVE & GRAM NEGATIVE

(On the basisof cell envelope (cell wall) thickness)

Q) Difference between Gram +ve & Gram -ve ?

Gram +ve Gram -ve

Example
-Lactobacillus -Rhizobium
-Clostridium -Mycoplasma
-Streptomycen -Cyanobacteria
-E-coli
Features
-Mesosomes +nt -Porins , pilli , toxins +nt
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CELL MEMBRANE
-Lipid bilayer (Phospholipid)

Important Point
-Plasma membrane is structurally similar to eukaryotic
cell

MESOSOMES
(Extensions of plasma membrane)
Role
-Enzyme for respiration (Analogous to bacteria)
-Cell wall formation
-Secretion
-DNA replication
-Cell division

SHAPES OF MESOSOMES
(On the basis of surface area)
⬋ ⬇ ⬊
Vesicles Tubules lamellae

Chromatophore (Colour bearing)

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-Pigements are attach on membrane known as

Chromatophore
-Cyanobacteria have pigments

FLAGELLA

Structure
06-28, 9:43 AM

Made up of protein
-Prokaryotes flagella = Flagellein
(Different type of protein)
-Eukaryotes flagella = Tobulin

Number & Protein

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Monotrichous Amphitrichous

Cephalotrichous Locotrichus

Important Point
06-28, 9:43 AM

-> Non motile bacteria without flagella

1) Nostoc
2) Coccus
3) Mycoplasma

Q) Difference between Pilli & Fimbriae ?

Pilli Fimbriae
-Tubular shape -Bristle shape
-Special protein -Attachment on surface
-Less in no. & large in size -More in no. small in
size

Pilli + Fimbriae + Flagella —> Surface structure

06-28, 9:43 AM

NUCLEOID

Type of DNA In bacteria

-Double strand (ds)
-Circular
-Single chromosome

Any Proteins
-Histone -nt
-Positive charge protein

Nucleoid Role
-Main DNA
-All important gene+nt —> Genomic DNA
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Linear DNA (ends free)

Circular DNA (ends joined)

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PLASMID

-Extra chromosomal (other than nucleoid)

-Self replicating -> Have origin
-Double stranded
-Circular
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Double stranded Circular

Q) How plasmid differ from nucleoid ?

-Plasmid give extra feature

Q) Is Plamid +nt in all bacteria ?

-Not +nt in all bacteria

TYPE OF PLASMID

1) R-Plasmid
-Antibiotic resistance
-Use as a cloning vector
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2) Col plasmid
-Produce protein colicins — Kill other bacteria

3) F-Plasmid
-Fertility plasmid
-Help in sexual reproduction

4) Degradative Plasmid
-Pseudomonas putida — Break oil spill

5) Ti Plasmid
-Tumor inducing plasmid
-Agrobacterium tumifaciens

RIBOSOME

-Organelle within organelle

-Present in both prokaryotes & eukaryotes
-10—20nm size
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Many ribosome attached on single mRNA -> Polysomes/

Polyribosomes

INCLUSION BODIES
06-28, 9:43 AM

-Eukaryotes storage involve membrane bound structure

-In Prokaryotes no membrane bound organelle +nt

Q) How Prokaryotes store food ?

-Insoluble form without membrane in form of granules

Examples
1) Sulphur granule
2) Phosphorus granule (phosphorous store)
3) Cyanophycean granule (Amino acid store)
4) Glycogen granule
5) Gas vacuole — Not lipid layer
-Cyanobacteria
-Green sulfur bacteria
-Purple sulfur bacteria

BACTERIA
⬋ ⬊
Simple structure Complex behaviour

As a group most extensive metabolic diversity

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NUTRITION IN MONERA
⬋ ⬊
Autotrophic Heterotrophic
⬋ ⬇ ⬊
Saprophytic Symbiotic Parasitic
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NUTRITION IN MONERA
⬋ ⬇ ⬊
Saprophytic Symbiotic Parasitic
Ex-Lactobacillus Ex-Rhuzobium Ex-Typhoid
-Antibiotic -Frankia -Tetnus
producing bacteria -Cholera
-Cholera

Heterotrophic > Autotrophic

Saprophytic > Other nutrition

AUTOTROPHIC
Inorganic(CO2) ——> Organic (glucose)
⬋ energy ⬊
Chemoautotrophic Photoautotrophic
(Chemosynthetic) ⬋ ⬊
-Energy come from Oxygenic Anoxygenic
chemical reaction
-Oxidation occur outside cell
-Energy release use to make food

1) NH3 —> NO2-

Nitrosomonas
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Nitrococcus

2) NO2- —> NO3-

Nitrobacter
Nitrocystic

-Recycling N2 , phosphorus , iron & sulphur

PHOTOAUTOTROPH
⬋ ⬊
Anoxygenic Oxygenic

ANOXYGENIC
-H2O × H2S
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H2S - Donar of hydrogen

-Pigment
1) Green - Bacteriophyll
2) Purple - Bacteriopurpurin
-Source of hydrogen -H2S
-Other than H2S

Anoxygenic Types
1) Green sulphur bacteria (Pigment - Bacteriophyll)
(H2S use - By product)
2) Green non-sulfur bacteria (Pigment - Bacteriophyll)
3) Purple sulfur bacteria (P-Bacteriopurpurin)
-H2S
4) Purple non-sulfur bacteria

OXYGENIC
CO2 ——> Glucose
2 step
a) H2O + X —> XH + O2
b) CO2 + XH —> Glucose + X
-Source of hydrogen - H2O
-Prokaryotes example - Cyanobacteria
-Chlorophyll a pigment must
06-28, 9:43 AM

NUTRITION
⬋ ⬊
Autotrophic Heterotrophic
Inorganic —> organic -Saprophytic
⬋ ⬊ -Symbiotic
Chemo. Photosynthetic -Parasitic
-Oxidation ⬋ ⬊
of inorganic Oxygenic Anoxygenic
Ex-Cyanobacteria
-Chlorophyll A

REPRODUCTION
⬋ ⬊
Asexual Sexual
⬋ ⬊
Favorable Unfavorable
(main type) -Spore form
-Fission/Binary -Can tolerate temp , PH
fission -Ex : Bacillus

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
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Defination — Some primitive method of DNA

Transfer occur —> PRIMITIVE METHOD
(No true sexual reproduction)
-No gametes
-No zygote
-Sex organs -nt

TYPES

⬋ ⬇ ⬊
Transformation Conjugation Transduction

TRANSFORMATION (By Griffith)

-DNA enter from medium

CONJUGATION
-DNA transfer from one bacteria to another bacteria

TRANSDUCTION
-Through virus DNA enter into bacteria
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Conjugation

EXAMPLE OF BACTERIA
⬋ ⬊
Archaebacteria Eubacteria
(Primitive bacteria) (True bacteria)

ARCHAEBACTERIA
Habitat — Harsh conditions

Q) Difference between Archaebacteria & Eubacteria ?

Archaebacteria Eubacteria
Cell wall
-Pseudomurein -Peptidoglycon
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Cell membrane
-Unilayer -Bilayer
-Ether -Ester
-Branch chain lipid
Histones detail
-Histones in some archaebacteria
-16S RNA

TYPES OF ARCHAEBACTERIA
⬋ ⬇ ⬊
Methanogens Halophiles Thermoacidophiles

METHANOGENS (Obligate anaerobic)

-Location — marshy area , gut of ruminant animals
-Production of methane
-CO2 —> CH4
-Ex : Methanobacterium

HALOPHILES
-Extreme salty areas (2-5M)

THERMOACIDOPHILES (Hot springs)

-Tolerate high temperature
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-Temperature ⬆ - 80°C
-Acid PH = 2
-Ex : Thermus aquaticus
Sulfur spring

TYPES OF EUBACTERIA

1) Cyanobacteria
2) Mycoplasma
3) Actinomycetes (gram -ve)

CYANOBACTERIA
Habitat
-Aquatic
-Fresh Water
-Marine
-Terrestial

Structure
06-28, 9:43 AM

Unicellular Filamentous

Colonial

Cell Detail
Cell wall
06-28, 9:43 AM

-Peptidogylcon
-Flagella -nt
Pigment
-Chlorophyll A
-Chlorophyll B -nt
Storage
-Cyanophycean granules
-Chromatophores
-Forms blooms in water & make water polluted

Heterocyst
-Some cyanobacteria have specialised cell to fix N2
-Nitrogenase (Not like O2)
-Chlorophyll A -nt in heterocyst

Example
1) Nostoc
2) Anabena
3) Spirulina
4) Oscillatiria

Symbiotic Association
1) Azolla (fern) - In leaf cyanobacteria
06-28, 9:43 AM

-Anabena+nt
2) Corolloid Root - Cycas
-Nostoc +nt
-Anabena+nt

MYCOPLASMA
(Smaller than bacteria)
-Smallest PPLO
-Cell wall -nt
-Shape not fix
-Gram -ve
-Penicillin not effective
-Can be parasitic in plants & animals
-Can survive without O2
-Pathogenic

Bacteria Size —> 2-5 µm

ACTINOMYCETES
-Gram -ve
-Ray fungi
-Bacteria with fungi like hyphae
-Ex : Frankia , Mycobacteria , sterptomyces (antibiotics)
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PROTISTA
(Unicellular eukaryotes)
Features
-Well defined nucleus
-Membrane bound organelle
-Fusion of gamete , zygote
-Flagella (9+2 tublin protein) & cilia +nt
-Aquatic

CLASSIFICATION
⬋ ⬇ ⬊
Photosynthetic Saprophytic Heterotrophic
-Chrysophytes -Slime moulds -Protozoa
-Dinoflagellates
-Euglenoids

CHRYSOPHYTES
Diatoms & desmids (golden algae)
Habitat
-Fresh H2O + marine

Cell wall
-Cellulose + silica (industructible silica walls)
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-Overlapping shells - soap box

Structure

Pigment
-Chlorophyll A
-Fucoxanthin

Features
-Flagella -nt
-Microscopic
-Non-motile
-Float passively in water currents (Plankton)
-Cheif producer in ocean
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Storage
-Leucosin

Cell wall deposit (billions of years)

⬇
Diatomaceous earth
⬇
Due to gritty/rough surface
⬇
Used for polishing, filtration of oils & syrups

DINOFLAGELLATES
Habitat
-Marine

Cell wall
-Stiff cellulose plates

Structure
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Pigment
-Red — Phycoerythrin
-Yellow , green , brown , blue or red —> depends on
pigment

Flagella - Two flagella

1) Longitudinal
2) Transverse

Storage - Starch
-Divide by Binary fission

Example
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1) Red tides (gonyaulax)

⬇
Rapid multiplication (Fast divide)
⬇
Ocean Red

2) Some are Poisonous

Toxins - Harm aquatic life (fish)

EUGLENOIDS
Habitat
-Fresh water
-Stagnant water

Cell wall - Present

Pellicle (Protein cover) - Make cell flexible

Pigment - Pigments like higher plants

-Chlorophyll A
-Chlorophyll B

Structure
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Flagella - 2 flagella
-Unequal size
-Apical position

Storage - Paramylum

Mainly autotrophic but in absence of sunlight become

predator of small organisms Mixotrophic

SLIME MOULDS
(Saprophytic)
Habitat
-Grow on decaying twigs
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Structure

Life cycle of slime mould

Spores
-True cell wall
06-27, 10:00 PM

-Dispersed by air currents

PROTOZOANS
(Primitive relatives of animals)
-Cell wall -nt
-Heterotrophic
-Aquatic (fresh H2O/marine)
-Free living/parasitic

FOUR CATEGORIES
⬋ ⬇ ⬇ ⬊
Amoeboid Flagellated Ciliated Sporozoans

AMOEBOID
-Fresh H2O , marine , moist soil
-Silica shells
-Presudopodia (false feet) —> Capture prey
-Ex : Amoeba , Entamoeba histolytica

FLAGELLATED
-Free living/parasitic
-Flagella -nt
-Causes sleeping sickness
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-Ex : Trypanosoma

CILIATED
-Motile
-Cilia +nt
-Gullet cavity +nt —> opens outside
-Cilia allows food inside
-Ex : Paramecium

SPOROZOANS
-Plasmodium (malarial parasite)
-Spore stage in life cycle

Protozoans
06-28, 9:42 AM

PLANTAE
Features
-Eukaryotic
-Chlorophyll containing
-Cell wall — cellulose
-Autotrophic

PARTIALLY HETEROTROPHIC
⬋ ⬊
Insectivorous plants Parasites
-Bladderwort -Cuscuta
-Venus fly trap

ANIMALIA
Features
-Heterotrophic —> Depend on plants
-Eukaryotic
-Multicellular
-No cell wall
-Reserve food as glycogen or fat
-Holozoic—Ingestion mode of nutrition
-No chlorophyll
-Capable of locomotion
06-28, 9:42 AM

-Follow definite growth pattern

-Higher forms shows
1) Elaborate sensory
2) Neuromotor mechanism

VIRUS
(Not get place in five kingdom)
Basic features
-Acellular/non-cellular (No cell)
-Exception of cell theory
-Enter into cell & control machinery
-Not truely living
-Living cell have both DNA & RNA , Viruses have either
DNA or RNA
-Intracellular parasite (inside cell)
-Obligate parasite — completely dependent on host
-Only Virus —> genetic material RNA
-Glycolysis -nt
-Photosynthesis -nt
-Metabolic pathway -nt
-Enzyme can be -nt
-DNA enclosed in protein coat
06-28, 9:42 AM

DISCOVERY

Dimitri Ivanowsky (1892)

-Venom or Poisonous fluid term given by Dimitri
Ivanowsky
-Observed mosaic disease of tobacco
-Smaller than bacteria can pass through bacteria proof
filters

MW Beijerinek (1898)
-Contagium vivum fludium (Infections living fluid)
-Extract of infected tobacco infects healthy
06-28, 9:42 AM

WN stanley (1935)
-First time virus crystallize
-Virus is mainly protein & nucleic acid
-Obligate parasites
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Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV)

STRUCTURE OF VIRUS

Protein Coat —> Capsid

⬇
Made of small subunits - Capsomere
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Capsomere
-Protects nucleic acid
-Arranged in helical or polyhedral geometric form

n × Capsomere = Capsid
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Protein cover symmetry (shape)

Cylindrical/helical Spherical/polygonal

CLASSIFICATION OF VIRUS
⬋ ⬊
DNA Virus RNA Virus
⬋ ⬊ ⬋ ⬊
SS DNA DS DNA DS RNA SS RNA
-Single -Herps -HIV
strand -Hepatitis -Influenza
-lambdaphage -TMV
-Bacteriophage -Measles
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-Mumps
-Rabies
-Rhino virus

Plant Virus —> SS RNA Virus

Animal Virus —> SS RNA , DS DNA , DS RNA
Bacteria/Bacteriophage —> DS DNA

Bacteriophage

LYTIC VIRAL LIFE CYCLE

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LIFE CYCLE
⬋ ⬊
Lytic Lysogenic
-Bacteriophage -Virus genome multiply
-Harshy chase exp. with host genome
-Prophage - Virus DNA
get attach to DNA of host
cell

VIROIDS (To Diener-1971)

-Infectious particle without protein coat

-Free RNA
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-Low molecular Wt
-Smaller than Viruses
-SS RNA
-Disease — PSTD (Potato spindle tuber disease)

PORINS

-Protein which is infectious can change folding of other

protein
-No genetic material
-Size equal to virus
-Neurological disease
1) Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)
Mad cow disease - In cattle
2) CJD - Cretuzfeldt jacob disease (In humans)

LICHENS (Symbiotic)
-Slow grow
-Easily affect by pollution (sulfur)
-Good pollution indicator
-Do not grow in polluted area
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(ALGAE + FUNGI)
⬋ ⬊
Phycobiont Mycobiont (90%)
-Single cell green algae -Ascomycetes
-Cyanobacteria