INTERNET OF THINGS IN HEALTH

CARE

Prof. Naveen T.S.

Assistant Professor
Department of Medical Electronics Engineering
Dayananda Sagar College of Engineering
Bangalore
 Broadband
• Broadband refers to various high-capacity transmission
technologies that transmit data, voice, and video across long
distances and at high speeds.

• Common mediums of transmission include coaxial cables, fiber

optic cables, and radio waves.

• Broadband is always connected and removes the need for dial-up.

• Its importance is far-reaching; it allows for high-quality and quick

access to information, teleconferencing, data transmission, and
more in various capacities, including healthcare, education, and
technological development.

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/broadband.asp
 Broadband Components
• The backbone: Large fiber optic pipes, often buried deep underground, crossing
state and national boundaries, that are the main data routes on the internet and
the primary path for internet traffic between and within countries.
• The middle mile (aka “backhaul”): The part of a broadband network that connects
the backbone to the last mile.
• The last mile: The segment of a broadband network that connects a local internet
service provider to a customer, such as via a cable line to the home
How do broadband networks affect user experience?
The slowest link in this system—usually the last mile—determines how quickly
content loads on your screen.

• Bandwidth: The capability of telecommunications networks to transmit data and

signals, measured in bits per second (bps).
• Throughput: The amount of data that can pass through a communications system.
Throughput is a function of bandwidth: the greater the bandwidth, the greater the
throughput.

https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/fact-sheets/2023/08/broadband-basics-how-it-works-why-its-important-and-what-comes-
next
 Think of the relationship between these two metrics as
a road. Bandwidth is the number of lanes, and
throughput is the amount of traffic. The wider the road,
the more traffic it can carry at full speed before
becoming congested and slowing down.

Remember the backbone? It’s like an interstate, offering high bandwidth.

And the middle mile might be a state highway.

The last mile is more like a neighbourhood street. It’s the narrowest stretch, and therefore
the one most likely to be congested.
Some individual homes may require a line extension—a connection to
existing wired broadband infrastructure along the road or to a
neighbourhood fiber node. This final segment is like a home’s
driveway, which links the house to the network of roads.

Even though the last mile is the most likely to experience

slowdowns, any part of the network can get congested,
leading to endless spinning wheels and buffering.
 Internet service provider (ISP)
• An internet service provider (ISP) is a company that provides access to the
internet.
• ISPs can provide this access through multiple means, including dial-up, DSL (Data
subscriber line), cable, wireless and fiber-optic connections.
• A variety of companies serve as ISPs, including cable providers, mobile carriers,
and telephone companies. In some cases, a single company may offer multiple
types of service (e.g., cable and wireless), while in other cases, a company may
focus on just one type of service (e.g., fiber-optic).
• Without an ISP, individuals and businesses could not reach the internet and the
opportunities it provides.
Typical services offered by ISPs
• Equipment rental
• Tech support
• Email access
• Tiered connection plans

https://www.verizon.com/about/blog/isp-meaning
 How do you access the internet
• The content on computers, phones, tablets, and other devices is largely generated
by edge providers—large retail, social media, technology, or video streaming
companies (such as Google, Netflix, and Facebook) or individuals who offer
content, such as blogs or websites.
• Their data reaches users via content delivery networks (CDNs), systems of servers
typically owned by large technology firms such as Amazon CloudFront and Akamai.
• CDNs function as data warehouses, storing copies of web content in various
locations to shorten the distance between users and the content they want.
• This arrangement cuts the time it takes for data to load after the user clicks a link.
 Types of Broadband

• Digital subscriber line (DSL)

• Cable modem
• Fiber
• Wireless
• Satellite
• Broadband over power lines (BPL).
 Are broadband and WiFi the same?
• Broadband is actually a type of high-speed internet connection.
• It is a standard way to connect to the internet. It can be accessed at any time.
• Generally, broadband packages come in all shapes and sizes.
• Previously, the users need to hand up the phone to use the internet but today with the help of broadband,
the frequencies can be split into channels so that you can use both the internet and the telephone.

• Wi-Fi is modern technology and it uses radio waves in order to supply network connectivity.
• This kind of connection gets established by using a wireless adapter to craft hotspots.
• Once, it gets configured, Wi-Fi offers wireless connectivity to the devices.

Broadband gives-
• Comparatively low cost
• Less downtime
• Less network congestion
• Less portability but you can manage that if you get a Wi-Fi router
Wi-Fi offers-
• Amazing portability
• Comparatively expensive
• Greater network congestion
• Good downtime
 Digital subscriber line (DSL)
• DSL transmits data over copper wires that already exist in homes and businesses
from telephone lines.

• The speed of DSL broadband ranges from several hundred Kbps to millions of bits
per second (Mbps).

• There are two primary types of DSL technologies:

 Asymmetrical digital subscriber line (ADSL)

 Symmetrical digital subscriber line (SDSL).
 Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line
(ADSL)
• ADSL is asymmetrical because its users receive a lot of data but do not send a lot
of data. Home residences—where individuals use the Internet primarily for
surfing, watching movies, and playing video games—fall under ADSL.

• ADSL has faster speeds for the incoming stream than for the outgoing stream.
 Symmetrical Digital Subscriber Line
(SDSL)
• SDSL is primarily used by businesses that require fast speeds for both sending and
receiving data.
• Business Internet needs exceed the typical Internet needs of home residences and
require sending large amounts of data, such as for videoconferencing.
 Cable modem
• Cable modems allow for data transmission on the same coaxial cables used by
cable companies to send pictures and sound to your television.
• Cable modems are external devices that provide speeds of 1.5 Mbps or more.
• Speeds vary depending on the option selected from your cable provider, the cable
modem, and traffic.
 Fiber

• Fiber broadband uses fiber optic technology that converts electrical signals to
light.
• The electrical signals carry data. When converted to light, the light is sent through
transparent glass fibers.
• The speed at which fiber transmits data is significantly greater than that of DSL and
cable modems, usually by tens or hundreds of Mbps.
• Fiber connections can also deliver voice and video and act as an alternative to
traditional cable connections.
 Wireless
• Wireless broadband is either mobile or fixed and transmits data via radio
signals from the service provider's facility to the customer's location.
• Wireless helps provide long-range transmissions to areas that are remote
and do not have access to DSL, cable, or fiber.
• The speed of wireless is similar to the speeds of DSL and cable.
 Satellite

• Satellite broadband is a form of wireless broadband but uses satellites in the

Earth's orbit to transmit data.

• Satellite broadband is critical for providing broadband connectivity to remote

areas in the world and is a focus of many technology companies that have the goal
of providing Internet to the entire globe.

• Satellite broadband speeds vary depending on many factors but are generally 25
and 150 Mbps.
 Broadband over powerlines (BPL)

• BPL transmits data over existing powerlines, can be set up via a building's existing
electrical system, and offers speeds similar to DSL and cable.

• BPL is a relatively new technology and is only available in select areas.

• However, there is a lot of buzz surrounding it mainly because its use of powerlines,
which are installed everywhere, reduces the need to build new costly
infrastructure to serve each broadband customer.
 IoT in Healthcare
• The Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) is transforming the healthcare industry by
improving patient health while connecting doctors and patients virtually.
• The Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) is a network of connected devices that
collect data in real-time.
• It is one of the key applications of IoT for healthcare, positively impacting the
industry, and can potentially solve medical issues.
• The technology has been implemented into wearables so patient health can be
monitored easily.
 Segments
• On-body Segment – This focuses on customer health wearables and other medical-grade
wearables. Some products used in this segment are Fitbit, Apple Watch, Amazfit Smartwatches, etc.

• In-Home Segment – This aims at an individual’s personal health tracker solutions. This segment
includes personal emergency response systems (PERS), telehealth virtual visits, and remote patient
monitoring (RPM).

• Community Segment – It consists of five components: Kiosks that dispense products and provide
services, mobility services to patients’ vehicles, emergency response intelligence, point-of-care
devices that act like medical camps, and logistics that keep a record of all the medical equipment
and goods.

• In-Clinic Segment – This segment includes IoMT devices that can be used inside a clinic to provide
healthcare services. The medical IoT solutions of the in-clinic segment also provide point-of-care
devices.

• In-Hospital Segment – This includes various IoT healthcare solutions for several management areas.
Asset management monitors, personnel management, patient flow management, inventory
management, and environment and energy monitoring are some of the devices in this segment.
 How Does the Internet of Healthcare
Things (IoHT) Work?
• IoT products typically function by going through a four-stage process that is carried
pragmatically by the medical IoT companies. Each stage is further tightly integrated
in terms of data capture and processing.

https://appinventiv.com/blog/iot-in-healthcare/
• Stage 1: Deployment of Interconnected Devices – This involves sensors, actuators,
monitors, detectors, and camera systems that collect data.

• Stage 2: Data Digitization – The analog data received from sensors and other
devices is then aggregated and converted into a digital form.

• Stage 3: Cloud Migration – The data is transferred to a cloud data center after the
pre-processing and standardization process.

• Stage 4: Insight Extraction – Advanced analytics are applied to this processed data
after management and analysis, producing actionable insights.
 Benefits of IoT in Healthcare

• Simultaneous Reporting and Monitoring

IoT for the healthcare industry has enabled doctors to monitor the real-time
conditions of a patient, which can prevent any emergencies like heart failure,
diabetes, asthma attack, cardiac arrest, etc.
• End-to-End Connectivity and Affordability
The Internet of Things in healthcare applications can allow a better connection and
use of the latest technology to enhance connectivity and data sharing. With
Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and other features, tracking and identifying illness becomes easier
and less time-consuming.
• Data Analysis and Data Assortment
The IoT benefits in healthcare involve storing massive patient medical history data.
The IoT devices send data to other devices. IoT devices transmit this data to other
devices, and while analyzing such extensive datasets may seem impossible, IoMT
devices have the power to accomplish this task in minutes.
https://appinventiv.com/blog/iot-in-healthcare/
• Assisting the Elderly
 One major area that is particularly benefiting from the implementation of IoT
healthcare solutions is the assistance of the elderly.
 By equipping seniors with IoT medical devices that can track their vital signs
and provide reminders for taking medications, caregivers can provide a higher
level of care while reducing the risk of hospitalization or other health
complications.

• Real-Time Tracking and Alerts

 Imagine how many lives can be saved with emergency alerts sent by patients. The
Internet of Medical Things has made this possible.
 With the help of smart devices in healthcare, a patient’s medical information is
recorded in real time and can be sent to the doctor. If there is any threat, the
doctor will be informed immediately and can assist accordingly.
• Check-Up on the Go
 With the help of IoT healthcare devices, patients can easily contact doctors on
their mobile devices and get immediate assistance.
 With the latest IoT medical devices, doctors can identify any ailments on the go
while saving travel costs and time.
IoT in Healthcare Use Cases

https://appinventiv.com/blog/iot-in-healthcare/
Examples of the IoT Medical Devices

DDos - DDoS attacks are carried out

with networks of Internet-connected
machines.
These networks consist of computers
and other devices (such as IoT
devices)which have been infected with
malware, allowing them to be
controlled remotely by an attacker.
https://appinventiv.com/blog/iot-in-healthcare/
 https://www.peerbits.com/blog/internet-of-
things-healthcare-applications-benefits-and-
challenges.html

https://appinventiv.com/blog/iot-in-healthcare/
 Local Area Network

• A local area network (LAN) is a collection of devices connected together in one

physical location, such as a building, office, or home.
• A LAN can be small or large, ranging from a home network with one user to an
enterprise network with thousands of users and devices in an office or school.
• Regardless of size, a LAN's single defining characteristic is that it connects devices
that are in a single, limited area.
• A wide area network (WAN) or metropolitan area network (MAN) covers larger
geographic areas. Some WANs and MANs connect many LANs together.

https://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/products/switches/what-is-a-lan-local-area-network.html#~what-it-is
 LAN
• The advantages of a LAN are the same as those for any group of
devices networked together.
• The devices can use a single Internet connection, share files with one
another, print to shared printers, and be accessed and even controlled
by one another.
• LANs were developed in the 1960s for use by colleges, universities, and
research facilities (such as NASA), primarily to connect computers to
other computers.
• It wasn't until the development of Ethernet technology (1973, at Xerox
PARC), its commercialization (1980), and its standardization (1983) that
LANs started to be used widely.
• While the benefits of having devices connected to a network have always been
well understood, it wasn't until the wide deployment of Wi-Fi technology that
LANs became commonplace in nearly every type of environment.

• Today, not only do businesses and schools use LANs, but also restaurants, coffee
shops, stores, and homes.
 What equipment is needed to set up a LAN?

• The simplest Internet-connected LANs require only a router and a way for
computing devices to connect to the router, such as via Ethernet cables or a WiFi
hotspot.
• LANs without an Internet connection need a switch for exchanging data. Large
LANs, such as those in a large office building, may need additional routers or
switches to more efficiently forward data to the right devices.
 How do LANs work?
• Most LANs connect to the Internet at a central point: a router.
• Home LANs often use a single router, while LANs in larger
spaces may additionally use network switches for more
efficient packet delivery.
• LANs almost always use Ethernet, WiFi, or both in order to
connect devices within the network.
• Ethernet is a protocol for physical network connections that
requires the use of Ethernet cables.
• WiFi is a protocol for connecting to a network via radio waves.
• A variety of devices can connect to LANs, including servers, desktop
computers, laptops, printers, IoT devices, and even game consoles. In
offices, LANs are often used to provide shared access to internal
employees to connected printers or servers.
• Early LANs had data rates in the 4 to 16 Mbps range. Today, speeds are
normally 100 or 1000 Mbps. Propagation delay is very short in a LAN.
• The smallest LAN may only use two computers, while larger LANs can
accommodate thousands of computers. LAN has a range up to 2km.
• A LAN typically relies mostly on wired connections for increased speed and
security, but wireless connections can also be part of a LAN.
• The fault tolerance of a LAN is more and there is less congestion in this
network.
• A bunch of students playing Counter-Strike in the same room (without
internet).
Advantages:
• Provides fast data transfer rates and high-speed communication.
• Easy to set up and manage.
• Can be used to share peripheral devices such as printers and
scanners.
• Provides increased security and fault tolerance compared to WANs.
Disadvantages:
• Limited geographical coverage.
• Limited scalability and may require significant infrastructure
upgrades to accommodate growth.
• May experience congestion and network performance issues with
increased usage.
 Wide Area Network
• WAN or Wide Area Network is a computer network that extends over a large
geographical area, although it might be confined within the bounds of a state or
country.
• WAN has a range of above 50 km. A WAN could be a connection of LAN connecting
to other LANs via telephone lines and radio waves and may be limited to an
enterprise (a corporation or an organization) or accessible to the public. The
technology is high-speed and relatively expensive.
• There are two types of WAN: Switched WAN and Point-to-Point WAN. WAN is
difficult to design and maintain.
• The fault tolerance of a WAN is less and there is more congestion in the network. A
Communication medium used for WAN is PSTN (Public Switched Telephone
Network)or Satellite Link.
• Due to long-distance transmission, the noise and error tend to be more in WAN.
• WAN’s data rate is slow about a 10th LAN’s speed since it involves increased
distance and increased number of servers and terminals etc.
• The speed of WAN ranges from a few kilobits per second (Kbps) to megabits per
second (Mbps). Propagation delay is one of the biggest problems faced here.
• Devices used for the transmission of data through WAN are Optic wires,
Microwaves, and Satellites.
• An example of a Switched WAN is the asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) network
and Point-to-Point WAN is a dial-up line that connects a home computer to the
Internet.
Advantages:
• Covers large geographical areas and can connect remote locations.
• Provides connectivity to the internet.
• Offers remote access to resources and applications.
• Can be used to support multiple users and applications
simultaneously.
Disadvantages:
• Can be expensive to set up and maintain.
• Offers slower data transfer rates than LAN or MAN.
• May experience higher latency and longer propagation delays due
to longer distances and multiple network hops.
• May have lower fault tolerance and security compared to LANs.
Difference between LAN & WAN
 Open Interconnection Standards
• The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model is a conceptual model created by
the International Organization for Standardization that allows various
communication systems to communicate using standard protocols.
• The OSI provides a standard for different computer systems to be able to
communicate with each other. The OSI Model can be seen as a universal language
for computer networking.
• It’s based on the concept of splitting up a communication system into seven
different layers, each one stacked upon the last.
• Each layer of the OSI Model handles a specific job and communicates with the
layers above and below itself.
• The OSI model is designed to be robust, error correcting, and efficient. However,
sometimes hackers attempt to break individual communications at various layers
of the OSI Model.
• Often they attempt this with a DDoS attacks which target specific layers of a
network connection; application-layer attacks target layer 7 and protocol layer
attacks target layers 3 and 4.

https://cyberhoot.com/cybrary/open-systems-interconnection-osi-model/
 Characteristics of OSI Model

• A layer should only be created where the definite levels of abstraction are needed.

• The function of each layer should be selected as per the internationally

standardized protocols.

• The number of layers should be large so that separate functions should not be put
in the same layer. At the same time, it should be small enough so that architecture
doesn’t become very complicated.

• In the OSI model, each layer relies on the next lower layer to perform primitive
functions. Every level should able to provide services to the next higher layer.

• Changes made in one layer should not need changes in other lavers.
 Why of OSI Model?

• Helps you to understand communication over a network

• Troubleshooting is easier by separating functions into different network layers.
• Helps you to understand new technologies as they are developed.
• Allows you to compare primary functional relationships on various network layers.
 7 Layers of the OSI Model
The Upper Layers: It deals with application issues and mostly implemented only in
software.

• The highest is closest to the end system user. In this layer, communication from one
end-user to another begins by using the interaction between the application layer. It
will process all the way to end-user.

The Lower Layers: These layers handle activities related to data transport. The physical
layer and datalink layers also implemented in software and hardware.

• Upper and Lower layers further divide network architecture into seven different
layers as below
• Application
• Presentation
• Session
• Transport
• Network, Data-link
• Physical layers
The File Transfer Protocol is a standard
communication protocol used for the transfer
of computer files from a server to a client on
a computer network.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the

foundation of the World Wide Web, and is used
to load webpages using hypertext links.
HTTP is an application layer protocol designed
to transfer information between networked
devices and runs on top of other layers of the
network protocol stack.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is a
TCP/IP protocol used in sending and receiving
email. SMTP is used most commonly by email
clients, including Gmail, Outlook, Apple Mail
and Yahoo Mail.

Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) is

an application layer protocol that operates
as a contract for receiving emails from the
mail server.
IPX is a networking protocol that conducts the
activities and affairs of the end-to-end process of
timely, managed and secured data.

Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a

distance vector protocol that uses hop count
as its primary metric.
RIP defines how routers should share
information when moving traffic among an
interconnected group of local area networks.

The OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) protocol

is one of a family of IP Routing protocols, and is
an Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) for the
Internet, used to distribute IP routing
information throughout a single Autonomous
System (AS) in an IP network.
Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer provides the
logic for the data link. Thus, it controls the
synchronization, flow control, and error
checking functions of the data link layer.

A MAC address (media access control address)

is a 12-digit hexadecimal number assigned to
each device connected to the network. Primarily
specified as a unique identifier during device
manufacturing, the MAC address is often found
on a device's network interface card (NIC).
Seven Layers of the OSI Model
Physical Layer
• The lowest layer of the OSI Model electrically or optically transmits raw
unstructured data bits across the network from the physical layer of the sending
device to the physical layer of the receiving device.
• It can include specifications such as voltages, pin layout, cabling, and radio
frequencies.
• At the physical layer, one can find ‘physical’ resources such as network hubs,
cabling, repeaters, network adapters, or modems.
• This layer includes the physical equipment involved in the data transfer, such as
the cables and switches.
• This is also the layer where the data gets converted into a bit stream, which is a
string of 1s and 0s.
• The physical layer of both devices must also agree on a signal convention so that
the 1s can be distinguished from the 0s on both devices.
Data Link Layer
• At the data link layer, directly connected nodes are used to perform node-
to-node data transfer where data is packaged into frames via MAC
addresses.
• The data link layer also corrects errors that may have occurred at the
physical layer.
• The data link layer is very similar to the network layer, except the data link
layer facilitates data transfer between two devices on the same network.
• The data link layer takes packets from the network layer and breaks them
into smaller pieces called frames. Like the network layer, the data link
layer is also responsible for flow control and error control in intra-network
communication.
• The data link layer is subdivided into two types of sublayers:
• Media Access Control (MAC) layer- It is responsible for controlling how device in a
network gain access to medium and permits to transmit data.
• Logical link control layer- This layer is responsible for identity and encapsulating
network-layer protocols and allows you to find the error.

Important Functions of Datalink Layer

• Framing which divides the data from Network layer into frames.
• Allows you to add header to the frame to define the physical address of the
source and the destination machine
• Adds Logical addresses of the sender and receivers
• It is also responsible for the sourcing process to the destination process
delivery of the entire message.
• It also offers a system for error control in which it detects retransmits damage
or lost frames.
• Datalink layer also provides a mechanism to transmit data over independent
networks which are linked together.
Network Layer
• The network layer is responsible for receiving frames from the data link layer and
delivering them to their intended destinations based on the IP addresses
contained inside the frame.
• This layer finds the destination by using logical addresses, such as IP (internet
protocol).
• At this layer, routers are a crucial component used to route information where it
needs to go between networks.
• The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring
variable length data sequences from one node to another connected in “different
networks”.
• Message delivery at the network layer does not give any guaranteed to be reliable
network layer protocol.
Layer-management protocols that belong to the network layer are:
• routing protocols
• multicast group management
• network-layer address assignment.
 Transport Layer

• The transport layer builds on the network layer to provide data

transport from a process on a source machine to a process on a
destination machine.
• It is hosted using single or multiple networks, and also maintains
the quality of service functions.
• It determines how much data should be sent where and at what
rate. This layer builds on the message which are received from the
application layer.
• It helps ensure that data units are delivered error-free and in
sequence.
• Transport layer helps you to control the reliability of a link through
flow control, error control, and segmentation or desegmentation.
• The transport layer also offers an acknowledgment of the successful
data transmission and sends the next data in case no errors
occurred.
• TCP is the best-known example of the transport layer.
Important functions of Transport Layers
• It divides the message received from the session layer into segments and
numbers them to make a sequence.
• Transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct
process on the destination machine.
• It also makes sure that the entire message arrives without any error else it
should be retransmitted.
 Session Layer
• Session Layer controls the dialogues between computers. It helps you to establish
starting and terminating the connections between the local and remote
application.
• This layer request for a logical connection which should be established on end
user’s requirement. This layer handles all the important log-on or password
validation.
• Session layer offers services like dialog discipline, which can be duplex or half-
duplex. It is mostly implemented in application environments that use remote
procedure calls.
Important function of Session Layer
• It establishes, maintains, and ends a session.
• Session layer enables two systems to enter into a dialog
• It also allows a process to add a checkpoint to steam of data.
 Presentation Layer
• Presentation layer allows you to define the form in which the data is to exchange
between the two communicating entities. It also helps you to handles data
compression and data encryption.
• This layer transforms data into the form which is accepted by the application. It
also formats and encrypts data which should be sent across all the networks. This
layer is also known as a syntax layer.
The function of Presentation Layers
• Character code translation from ASCII to EBCDIC.
• Data compression: Allows to reduce the number of bits that needs to be
transmitted on the network.
• Data encryption: Helps you to encrypt data for security purposes — for example,
password encryption.
• It provides a user interface and support for services like email and file transfer.
 Application Layer

• Application layer interacts with an application program, which is the

highest level of OSI model. The application layer is the OSI layer, which
is closest to the end-user.

• It means OSI application layer allows users to interact with other

software application.
• Application layer interacts with software applications to implement a
communicating component.

• The interpretation of data by the application program is always outside

the scope of the OSI model.
• Example of the application layer is an application such as file transfer,
email, remote login, etc.
The function of the Application Layers are
• Application-layer helps you to identify communication partners, determining
resource availability, and synchronizing communication.
• It allows users to log on to a remote host
• This layer provides various e-mail services
• This application offers distributed database sources and access for global
information about various objects and services.
ASCH : ASCH : American Standard Code for Information Inter change

SSL : Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) certificates, sometimes called digital certificates, are
used to establish an encrypted connection between a browser or user's.

TLS :Transport Layer Security (TLS) encrypts data sent over the Internet to ensure that
eavesdroppers and hackers are unable to see what you transmit
POP3 : Post Office Protocol 3, or POP3, is the most commonly used protocol for receiving email over the internet.

SNMP : Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is an internet standard protocol used to monitor and
manage network devices connected over an IP. SNMP is used for communication between routers, switches,
firewalls, load balancers, servers, CCTV cameras, and wireless devices.

NetBIOS: NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output System) is a network service that enables applications on different
computers to communicate with each other across a local area network (LAN).

SAP: A Service Access Point (SAP) is an identifying label for network endpoints used in Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) networking.

TCP : Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a communications standard that enables application programs and
computing devices to exchange messages over a network. It is designed to send packets across the internet and
ensure the successful delivery of data and messages over networks.

UDP: The full form of UDP is User Datagram Protocol. UDP is a communication protocol that makes messaging
easy between various computing devices in a network. This message-oriented protocol works for data paths and
communication channels.

IPV5 : The IPv5 was the 5th version of the Internet protocol that was developed to stream voice data and video.

IPV6: IPv6 or Internet Protocol Version 6 is a network layer protocol that allows communication to take place over
the network.

ICMP: The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a protocol that devices within a network use to
communicate problems with data transmission.

IPSEC: IPSec is a set of communication rules or protocols for setting up secure connections over a network.

ARP: Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a communication protocol used to find the MAC (Media Access
MPLS : Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS) is a method for setting up dedicated paths across networks
without relying on the typical routing process.

Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a TCP/IP protocol that is used to connect one computer system to another.
Computers use PPP to communicate over the telephone network or the Internet.

Frame relay is a protocol that defines how frames are routed through a fast-packet network based on the
address field in the frame.

ATM: The acronym ATM stands for Asynchronous Transfer Mode and refers to a communication protocol
which can be used to transfer data, videos and speech.

RS-232 is capable of operating at data rates up to 20 Kbps and can transmit data about 15 meters (50 ft).

100BASE-TX is the most common Fast Ethernet physical layer, transmitting data through two twisted wire-
pairs (one for each direction), which provide full duplex operation with 100 Mbit/s of throughput in each
direction.

ISDN : Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of communication standards for simultaneous
digital transmission of voice, video, data, and other network services over the digitalised circuits of the
public switched telephone network.
Advantages of the OSI Model
• It helps you to standardize router, switch, motherboard, and other
hardware
• Reduces complexity and standardizes interfaces
• Facilitates modular engineering
• Helps you to ensure interoperable technology
• Helps you to accelerate the evolution
• Protocols can be replaced by new protocols when technology
changes.
• Provide support for connection-oriented services as well as
connectionless service.
• It is a standard model in computer networking.
• Supports connectionless and connection-oriented services.
• Offers flexibility to adapt to various types of protocols
Disadvantages of the OSI Model
• Fitting of protocols is a tedious task.
• You can only use it as a reference model.
• Doesn’t define any specific protocol.
• In the OSI network layer model, some services are duplicated in many layers such
as the transport and data link layers
• Layers can’t work in parallel as each layer need to wait to obtain data from the
previous layer.
Network Management
 Network Management

• Network management is the process of orchestrating network traffic and data

flow across the enterprise ecosystem.

• Network management is the process of orchestrating network traffic and data

flow across the enterprise ecosystem using network monitoring, network
security, network automation, and other tools hosted on-premise or on the
cloud.

• The primary purpose of network management is to deliver a secure, reliable, and

high-performing network to end-users, including business users in the enterprise
and end customers.

• According to the International Standards Organization (ISO), there are five types of
network management to look after the entire spectrum of network-related
processes.
• These types are fault, configuration, accounting, performance, and security
management, commonly referred to as FCAPS
Network fault management:
• You can have a designated network fault management team to anticipate, detect,
and resolve network faults to minimize downtime. In addition to fault resolution,
this function is responsible for logging fault information, maintaining records,
conducting analysis, and aiding in regular audits.

• There needs to be clear channels so that the network fault management team can
report back to the network administrator to maintain transparency. It will also
work closely with the end-user in case they report faults.

Network configuration management:

• Network configurations are a key aspect of performance. These configurations are
expected to change dynamically to keep up with data and traffic demands in a
large enterprise. An example of a network configuration management task is an IT
professional remotely altering the connectivity settings to boost performance.

• Network configuration management relies heavily on automation so that the team

does not need to manually look up configuration requirements and can provision
changes automatically instead. Like network fault management, the network
configuration management team must also keep detailed records of all changes,
their outcomes, and issues, if any.
Network accounting and utilization management:
• As network requirements evolve, employees will consume more network
resources and add to enterprise costs.
• The network accounting management team monitors utilization, finds anomalies,
and tracks utilization trends for different departments, business functions, office
locations, online products, or even individual users.

• In some businesses (especially digital service providers), network accounting

management is directly linked to profitability. For example, an ecommerce
company might need to track network utilization and benchmark against
profitability during peak and lull periods.
Network performance management:

• This is one of the most central aspects of network management.

• Network performance management involves various tasks that help boost network
uptime, service availability, and concurrent bandwidth speeds.
• A singular dashboard is connected to various network components that monitor
performance KPIs and raises an alert if a threshold is breached.

• For example, the network performance management team might want to map
network response times 24/7 to avoid impacting the end-user experience.

• If there is an anomaly, the network performance management team will work

closely with the network fault management team to resolve the issue.

FCAPS
Network security management:

• As most enterprise processes move online, network security is vital for resilience,
risk management, and success.
• For example, 68% of enterprises as surveyed by Telia Carrier in 2020 faced a
distributed denial of service (DDoS) attack last year.
• In a DDOS attack, multiple connected online devices target an enterprise website
with fake traffic to block legitimate traffic.
• Network security management involves protecting a system against these and
other issues.
• An enterprise network also generates a regular stream of logs analyzed by the
network security management team to find any threat fingerprints.

DDoS Attack means "Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDoS) Attack" and it is a cybercrime in which the
attacker floods a server with internet traffic to prevent users from accessing connected online services
and sites.
6 Key Components of Network Management

LENNSS
Endpoint connectivity
• A primary purpose of your network infrastructure is connecting enterprise
endpoints.
• This could be on-premise workstations, lobby kiosks, and conference room
systems.
• It could also involve a distributed landscape that helps connect remote employees
and multiple branch organizations.
• The endpoint type also varies depending on the business need. Network
management helps ensure that the necessary endpoint nodes are connected at all
times, and network admins have real-time visibility into the performance of each
node.
• IT teams may also use centralized network monitoring tools to supervise a single
interface’s endpoint connectivity for distributed locations.
Logging systems
• Logging systems are an essential component of network management as
they help monitor network performance as per industry-standard KPIs and
maintain exhaustive records.
• Logging systems are attached to both network hardware appliances and
software components.

• As these hardware and software tools are used, the logging system will
record all activity for future reference.

• One of the most popular logging mechanisms of network management is

the ubiquitous Syslog option — a protocol that lets you generate and
maintain records for all network events in a data format like JSON.

• That is why modern network management connects logging systems with

network analytics so that you can visualize the data, detect trends, and
receive alerts for anomalies.
JSON: Java script Object Notation : A standard text based for representing structured data based on java script
object syntax commonly used for transmitting data in web application.
Network Automation

• Network automation reduces the manual effort involved in the five

different types of network management.
• It can help auto-heal common issues based on a predetermined protocol
for network fault management.
• For network configuration management, automation can aid in the
automatic provisioning of new users.
• For network account management, it can help automatically roll out cost-
reduction measures if certain thresholds are breached.
Server connectivity

• The server connectivity component of network management looks after the

connectivity status of non-end-user-devices. For instance, if your enterprise relies
on virtual machines or a series of privately-hosted servers to power application-
related processes, these need to be kept online.
• Network management must ensure maximum uptime for server devices, just like
endpoints. This can be a challenge as server issues can be harder to detect, and
the problem becomes apparent only after it has spread across the enterprise.
• This is why most network management teams use server-specific network
monitoring tools to maintain and manage this component.
Switch management
• Network switches are hardware appliances that help connect
endpoint devices to the primary enterprise network while enforcing
the necessary IT protocols.
• Companies may use multiple levels of network switches, ranging
from floor switches to aggregation switches and the central
switchgear.
• Switch management gives you visibility into traffic flowing in and
out of switches so you can diagnose upstream issues, ensure
consistent speeds, and anticipate bottlenecks.
• Today, the switch management component has become highly
sophisticated. It allows you to monitor and orchestrate complex
landscapes using switch management software.
• This helps create a visual floor plan of your enterprise environment
and control switches connected to your end devices.
Network assurance
• The network assurance component of network management
involves policy enforcement to control risk, ensure internal
compliance, and keep out security threats.
• The purpose of network assurance is to deliver a safe and
reliable experience to all users.
• That’s why this component requires collaboration between all
five types of network management to operate smoothly. Also,
network assurance utilizes analytics as a key component to
monitor dynamic risk levels and alert the necessary stakeholders
before a severe issue can arise.
Network Security
 Definition

• Network Security refers to the measures taken by any enterprise or organization

to secure its computer network and data using both hardware and software
systems.

• Network security is the field of cyber security focused on protecting computer

networks from cyber threats. Network security has three chief aims: to prevent
unauthorized access to network resources; to detect and stop cyber attacks and
security breaches in progress; and to ensure that authorized users have secure
access to the network resources they need, when they need them.

• Network security is a set of technologies that protects the usability and integrity
of a company’s infrastructure by preventing the entry or proliferation within a
network of a wide variety of potential threats.
• Aims at securing the confidentiality and accessibility of the data and network.
Every company or organization that handles a large amount of data, has a degree
of solutions against many cyber threats.
• The most basic example of Network Security is password protection which the user
of the network oneself chooses.
• In recent times, Network Security has become the central topic of cyber
security with many organizations inviting applications from people who have skills
in this area. The network security solutions protect various vulnerabilities of the
computer systems such as:
 Users
 Locations
 Data
 Devices
 Applications
 How does network security work?
• Network security combines multiple layers of defenses at the edge and in the
network. Each network security layer implements policies and controls.

• Authorized users gain access to network resources, but malicious actors are
blocked from carrying out exploits and threats.
 Benefits of Network Security
• Network Security helps in protecting clients’ information and data which
ensures reliable access and helps in protecting the data from cyber threats.
• Network Security protects the organization from heavy losses that may have
occurred from data loss or any security incident.
• It overall protects the reputation of the organization as it protects the data
and confidential items.
 Types of network security

• Firewalls
• Email security
• Anti-virus and anti-malware software
• Network segmentation
• Access control
• Application security
• Behavioral analytics
• Data loss prevention
• Intrusion prevention systems
• Mobile device security
• Security information and event management
• VPN
• Web security
• Wireless security
Firewalls
• Firewalls put up a barrier between your trusted internal network and untrusted
outside networks, such as the Internet.
• They use a set of defined rules to allow or block traffic. A firewall can be hardware,
software, or both. Cisco offers unified threat management (UTM) devices and
threat-focused next-generation firewalls.

Email security
• Email gateways are the number one threat vector for a security breach. Attackers
use personal information and social engineering tactics to build sophisticated
phishing campaigns to deceive recipients and send them to sites serving up
malware.
• An email security application blocks incoming attacks and controls outbound
messages to prevent the loss of sensitive data.
Anti-virus and anti-malware software

• "Malware," short for "malicious software," includes viruses, worms, Trojans,

ransomware, and spyware.
• Sometimes malware will infect a network but lie dormant for days or even weeks.
The best antimalware programs not only scan for malware upon entry, but also
continuously track files afterward to find anomalies, remove malware, and fix
damage.

Network segmentation
• Software-defined segmentation puts network traffic into different classifications
and makes enforcing security policies easier.
• Ideally, the classifications are based on endpoint identity, not mere IP addresses.
You can assign access rights based on role, location, and more so that the right
level of access is given to the right people and suspicious devices are contained
and remediated.
Access control
• Not every user should have access to your network. To keep out potential
attackers, you need to recognize each user and each device.
• One can enforce security policies. Block noncompliant endpoint devices or give
them only limited access.
• This process is network access control (NAC).

Application security
• Any software you use to run your business needs to be protected, whether your IT
staff builds it or whether you buy it.
• Unfortunately, any application may contain holes, or vulnerabilities, that attackers
can use to infiltrate your network.
• Application security encompasses the hardware, software, and processes you use
to close those holes.
Behavioral analytics
• To detect abnormal network behavior, you must know what normal behavior looks
like. Behavioral analytics tools automatically discern activities that deviate from
the norm.
• Security team can then better identify indicators of compromise that pose a
potential problem and quickly remediate threats.
Data loss prevention
• Organizations must make sure that their staff does not send sensitive
information outside the network.
• Data loss prevention, or DLP, technologies can stop people from
uploading, forwarding, or even printing critical information in an unsafe
manner.

Intrusion prevention systems

• An intrusion prevention system (IPS) scans network traffic to actively block
attacks.
• Next-Generation IPS (NGIPS) appliances do this by correlating huge
amounts of global threat intelligence to not only block malicious activity
but also track the progression of suspect files and malware across the
network to prevent the spread of outbreaks and reinfection.
Mobile device security
• Cybercriminals are increasingly targeting mobile devices and apps. Within
the next 3 years, 90 percent of IT organizations may support corporate
applications on personal mobile devices.
• Need to control which devices can access your network. You will also need
to configure their connections to keep network traffic private.

Security information and event management

• SIEM products pull together the information that your security staff needs
to identify and respond to threats.
• These products come in various forms, including physical and virtual
appliances and server software.

VPN
• A virtual private network encrypts the connection from an endpoint to a
network, often over the Internet.
• Typically, a remote-access VPN uses IPsec or Secure Sockets Layer to
authenticate the communication between device and network.
Web security
• A web security solution will control your staff’s web use, block web-based
threats, and deny access to malicious websites.
• It will protect your web gateway on site or in the cloud. "Web security"
also refers to the steps you take to protect your own website.

Wireless security

• Wireless networks are not as secure as wired ones. Without stringent

security measures, installing a wireless LAN can be like putting Ethernet
ports everywhere, including the parking lot.
• To prevent an exploit from taking hold, you need products specifically
designed to protect a wireless network.
 Active and Passive attacks

• Active attacks are a type of cyber security attack in which an attacker attempts to
alter, destroy, or disrupt the normal operation of a system or network.
• Active attacks involve the attacker taking direct action against the target system or
network, and can be more dangerous than passive attacks, which involve simply
monitoring or eavesdropping on a system or network.

• Types of active attacks are as follows:

 Masquerade
 Modification of messages
 Repudiation
 Replay
 Denial of Service
Masquerade –
• Masquerade is a type of cyber security attack in which an attacker pretends to be
someone else in order to gain access to systems or data.
• This can involve impersonating a legitimate user or system to trick other users or
systems into providing sensitive information or granting access to restricted areas.

Modification of messages
It means that some portion of a message is altered or that message is delayed or
reordered to produce an unauthorized effect.
Repudiation –
• Repudiation attacks are a type of cybersecurity attack in which an attacker
attempts to deny or repudiate actions that they have taken, such as making a
transaction or sending a message.

• These attacks can be a serious problem because they can make it difficult to track
down the source of the attack or determine who is responsible for a particular
action.
Replay
• It involves the passive capture of a message and its subsequent transmission to
produce an authorized effect.
• In this attack, the basic aim of the attacker is to save a copy of the data originally
present on that particular network and later on use this data for personal uses.
Once the data is corrupted or leaked it is insecure and unsafe for the users.
• Denial of Service

Denial of Service (DoS) is a type of cyber security attack that is designed to

make a system or network unavailable to its intended users by overwhelming
it with traffic or requests. In a DoS attack, an attacker floods a target system
or network with traffic or requests in order to consume its resources, such as
bandwidth, CPU cycles, or memory, and prevent legitimate users from
accessing it.
Passive attacks:

• A Passive attack attempts to learn or make use of information from the

system but does not affect system resources.
• The goal of the opponent is to obtain information that is being
transmitted. Passive attacks involve an attacker passively monitoring or
collecting data without altering or destroying it.
 Cluster Computing
Cluster computing is a collection of tightly or loosely connected computers that work
together so that they act as a single entity. The connected computers execute
operations all together thus creating the idea of a single system. The clusters are
generally connected through fast local area networks (LANs)

Cluster computing provides solutions to solve difficult problems by providing faster

computational speed, and enhanced data integrity. The connected computers
implement operations all together thus generating the impression like a single system
(virtual device). This procedure is defined as the transparency of the system.
Why is Cluster Computing important?
• Cluster computing gives a relatively inexpensive, unconventional
to the large server or mainframe computer solutions.
• It resolves the demand for content criticality and process
services in a faster way.
• Many organizations and IT companies are implementing cluster
computing to augment their scalability, availability, processing
speed and resource management at economic prices.
• It ensures that computational power is always available.
• It provides a single general strategy for the implementation and
application of parallel high-performance systems independent of
certain hardware vendors and their product decisions.
 Types of Cluster Computing

High performance (HP) clusters

HP clusters use computer clusters and supercomputers to solve advance computational problems. They
are used to performing functions that need nodes to communicate as they perform their jobs. They are
designed to take benefit of the parallel processing power of several nodes.

Load-balancing clusters

Incoming requests are distributed for resources among several nodes running similar programs or
having similar content. This prevents any single node from receiving a disproportionate amount of task.
This type of distribution is generally used in a web-hosting environment.

High Availability (HA) Clusters

HA clusters are designed to maintain redundant nodes that can act as backup systems in case any failure
occurs. Consistent computing services like business activities, complicated databases, customer services
like e-websites and network file distribution are provided. They are designed to give uninterrupted data
availability to the customers.
 Classification of Cluster

Open Cluster :
IPs are needed by every node and those are accessed only through the
internet or web. This type of cluster causes enhanced security concerns.

Close Cluster :
The nodes are hidden behind the gateway node, and they provide increased
protection. They need fewer IP addresses and are good for computational
tasks.
 Cluster Computing Architecture
• It is designed with an array of interconnected individual computers and
the computer systems operating collectively as a single standalone system.
• It is a group of workstations or computers working together as a single,
integrated computing resource connected via high speed interconnects.
• A node – Either a single or a multiprocessor network having memory,
input and output functions and an operating system.
• Two or more nodes are connected on a single line or every node might be
connected individually through a LAN connection.
Components of a Cluster Computer : OSCAR - Open Source Cluster Application
• Cluster Nodes Resources is a Linux-based software
installation for high-performance cluster
• Cluster Operating System computing.
• The switch or node interconnect
Scyld ClusterWare is a Linux-based high-
• Network switching hardware performance computing system.

Rocks Cluster Distribution is a Linux

distribution intended for high-performance
computing clusters.

Myrinet It was produced by Myricom as a

high-performance alternative to
conventional Ethernet networks.

InfiniBand (IB) is a computer networking

communications standard used in high-
performance computing.

Gigabit Ethernet a transmission

(GbE),
technology based on the Ethernet frame
format and protocol used in local area
networks
 Advantages of Cluster Computing

• High Performance :
The systems offer better and enhanced performance than that of mainframe computer networks.
• Easy to manage :
Cluster Computing is manageable and easy to implement.
• Scalable :
Resources can be added to the clusters accordingly.
• Expandability :
Computer clusters can be expanded easily by adding additional computers to the network.
Cluster computing is capable of combining several additional resources or the networks to the
existing computer system.
• Availability :
The other nodes will be active when one node gets failed and will function as a proxy for the
failed node. This makes sure for enhanced availability.
• Flexibility :
It can be upgraded to the superior specification or additional nodes can be added.
 Disadvantages of Cluster Computing

• High cost :
It is not so much cost-effective due to its high hardware and its design.
• Problem in finding fault :
It is difficult to find which component has a fault.
• More space is needed :
Infrastructure may increase as more servers are needed to manage and
monitor.
 Applications of Cluster Computing
• Various complex computational problems can be solved.
• It can be used in the applications of aerodynamics, astrophysics and in
data mining.
• Weather forecasting.
• Image Rendering.
• Various e-commerce applications.
• Earthquake Simulation.
• Petroleum reservoir simulation.