SOIL SURVEY, CLASSIFICATION, AND LAND USE
SOIL
CLASSIFICATION
ROGELIO JR. PICART, MSA
Lesson Outline
Description of Soil Profile
Diagnostic Horizons
Soil Classification
Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lesson, you'll be able to:
know about soil diagnostic horizons
identify soil classification from
broadest to the most specific
Introduction
Soil classification makes safe and productive uses
possible for each kind of soil. In this time of
increasing pressure on the land, the systematic
approach of modern soil classification is a
great help in avoiding abuse of soils and mistaken
investments in land and operations that are
incompatible with soil conditions.
Soil classification and mapping (surveys) permit the
transfer of soils information from one place to
another and from present to future generations.
Jenny’s Equation
S/s = f(cl, o, r, p, t...)
The Modern Soil
• composition of the surface
layer in place at the time the
current set of environmental
circumstances began to
have an impact
• modifications resulting from
the effect of these factors
over time.
The Soil Profile
• The soil profile is the vertical
cross-section of the soil in
which is delineated by color
differences (called horizon).
• Simonson (1959) discussed
the basic soil processes
(gains, losses,
transformation, &
translocation) which
contributed to what we call
the present soil
Processes of Mineral Soil Formation
1. Additions - water, OM, air, soil particles, salt
2. Losses - H2O, CO2, water, crop removal,
3. Transformation - Changes to soil structure,
development of clay minerals, weathering of
mineral elements, chemical reactions
4.Translocation - movement from one horizon to
another of OM, clay, water, and nutrients of
colloidal size; clay film on peds (evidence of
translocation)
Addition
s
Losses
Transfor
mation
Soil Horizons
Due to the gradational nature of
soils, arbitrary limits must be placed
on the size of soil bodies used for
description and classification. For
descriptive purposes, the size is
limited to that of the pedon.
• •
•
Basic System Horizon and Layer Designations
There are 4 kinds of symbols used in various combinations to
designate horizons and layers:
• Capital letters - used to designate master horizons and layers
• Lowercase letters - used of suffixes to indicate specific
characteristics of master horizons and layers
• Numbers - used both as suffixes to indicate vertical subdivisions
with a horizon or layer and as prefixes to indicate discontinuities.
• Special symbols - used to indicate layers formed in human -
transported material or sequences of horizons having otherwise
identical designations.
Naming Soil Horizons
• Soil horizons (layers in the
soil) are named so
differences between soils
can be identified
• Naming soil horizons takes
practice
Master Horizon
• layers dominated by organic soil
materials
• some are saturated with water for long
periods; some were once saturated but
are now artificially drained; and others
have been saturated
• A horizon forced by illuviation of OM into
a mineral subsoil is not an O horizon
Description of Soil Profile
Description of Soil Profile
Master Horizon
• layers include both OM and mineral limnic mat’ls
that were either:
⚬ deposited in water by precipitation or
through the actions of aquatic organisms
(i.e. algae & diatoms)
⚬ derived from underwater and, or; floating
aquatic plants and modified by aquatic
animals
• include sedimentary peat, diatomaceous earth,
and marl
• described only for Histosols (decomposed plant
material) and not for mineral soils (co, di, ma)
• have platy, prismatic, or columnar structure
Master Horizon
• mineral horizons that formed at the
surface or below an O horizon
• characterized by an accumulation of
humified OM closely mixed with mineral
fraction
• have properties resulting from
cultivation, pasturing or similar kings of
disturbance
Description of Soil Profile
Description of Soil Profile
Master Horizon
• zone of eluviation (formerly A2)
• mineral horizon in which the main
feature is loss of silicate clay Fe, Al, or
some combination of these
• this leaves a concentration of sand and
silt particles of quartz or other resistant
minerals
Master Horizon
• horizon that is formed below an A, E, or
O and are dominated by CO3, gypsum or
silica alone or in combination
2 kinds:
• Translocation in - below an A, E, or O
with an accumulation of clay, Fe, humus
or carbonates (CaCO3) (illuviation zone)
• alteration of the original parent
material, development of color or
structure
Description of Soil Profile
Master Horizon
B horizon exhibit obliteration of all or much of the original rock
structure and show one or more of the following as evidence of
pedogenesis:
• illuvial concentration of silicate clay, Fe, Al, humus,
sesquioxides, carbonates, soluble salts, or silica, alone or in
combination;
• evidence of removal of carbonates;
• residual concentration of sesquioxides;
• coatings of sesquioxides that make the horizon conspicuously
lower in value, higher in chroma, or redder in hue than overlying
and underlying horizons without apparent illuviation of iron;
• strong gleying when accompanied by the evidence of
pedeogenic change
• alterations that form silicate clays, formation of granular,
blocky, or prismatic structure, or combination of these
Description of Soil Profile
Description of Soil Profile
Master Horizon
• horizon or layer excluding strongly
cemented and harder bedrock
• little affected by pedogenic processes
and lack properties of O, A, E, or B
horizons
• unconsolidated parent material
Master Horizon
• consists of strongly cemented to
indurated bedrock (to include granite,
basalt, limestone, etc.)
• may have fractures (too few or widely
spaced) to allow root penetration
• sufficiently coherent to make hand
digging impractical
Description of Soil Profile
Description of Soil Profile
Master Horizon
• root-limiting layers beneath the soil
surface consisting human-
manufactured materials (asphalt,
concrete, plastic, etc.)
Master Horizon
• water layers within or beneath
the soil (actually zones of eater
between soil layers)
• water layer is designated “Wf” (if
permanently frozen) and “W” (if
not permanently frozen)
Description of Soil Profile
Transitional Horizon
• Properties of an overlying or Distinct parts that are
underlying horizon are superimposed characteristic of one master
on properties of the other throughout horizon and are recognizable
the transition zone
and enclose are parts of
• the horizon is dominated by properties
of one master horizon but with characteristic of second
subordinate (lesser) properties of recognizable master horizon
another
Examples: Examples:
OA, AO, AB, BA, EB, BE, BC O/A, A/O, A/B, B/A, E/B, B/E,
B/C
Description of Soil Profile
Transitional Horizon
A horizon with characteristics of both
BC an overlying B horizon and an
underlying C horizon, but which is more
like the B than the C
A horizon comprised of individual parts
E/B of E and B horizon components in
which the E component is dominant
and surrounds the B materials.
Description of Soil Profile
Subdivision Horizon
Horizons are subdivided if the layer
is thick enough (40 cm or more) and
the numbering is made
consecutively within the same
horizon.
Examples: Ap1, Ap2; Bt1, Bt2, Btg1,
Btg2; B1, B2
Description of Soil Profile
Subordinate Distinction
Between Master Horizons
Distinct properties observed
during description are
indicated in the master
horizon where these are
observed using symbols
(suffix letters)
Description of Soil Profile
Subordinate Horizons
a highly decomposed
organic material (sapric) c concretions or hard non-
concretionary nodules of
Fe, Al, mn, or Ti cement
e
organic material of
intermediate
b identifiable buried
genetic horizon
decomposition
Description of Soil Profile
Description of Soil Profile
Subordinate Horizons
Subordinate Horizons
g gleyed soil - reduction in
Fe - gray color due to low
O2
i slightly decomposed OM
(fibric)
k
accumulation of
pedogenic carbonates
h iaccumulation of OM (in
the form of amorphous
particularly CaCO3
and dispensible OM)
Description of Soil Profile
Description of Soil Profile
Subordinate Horizons
Subordinate Horizons
m continuous or nearly
continuous cementation or
induration of soil by CO3s 00 residual accumulation of
sesquioxides
(km), silica (qm), Fe (sm),
gypsum (ym), CO3s & silica
(kqm), or salts more soluble
than gypsum (zm)
p plowing or other
n
disturbance of surface
accumulation of sodium layer
Description of Soil Profile
Description of Soil Profile
Subordinate Horizons
Subordinate Horizons
q accumulation of secondary
silica
t accumulation of silicate
clay
r weathered or soft
bedrock (Cr)
v plinthite which is
composed of Fe-rich,
humus poor, reddish mat’l
s illuvial accumulation of
sesquioxides and OM
Description of Soil Profile
Description of Soil Profile
Subordinate Horizons
Subordinate Horizons
w development of color or
structure in a horizon or
alterations
y accumulation
(CaSO4)
of gypsum
x z
fragic or fragipan accumulation of salts
characteristics such as more soluble than gypsum
firmness, brittleness, or (KCl, NaCl, NaSO4)
high BD
Description of Soil Profile
Description of Soil Profile
Subordinate Distinction
Within Master Horizons
A figure prefix (e.g. 2B) indicates
lithological discontinuity or the
soil has been derived from two
different parent materials.
A figure suffix indicates
subdivision of a horizon. The
numbering is done consecutively
(e.g. Bt1, Bt2; C1...)
Description of Soil Profile
Diagnostic Soil
Horizons
- the properties (single or combination)
used for classfying sols into the taxonomic
system.
DP
Diagnostic Properties
• may occur either in the surface
(epipedon) or in the subsurface position
(endopedon).
DH
Diagnostic Horizon
Diagnostic Horizons
Epipedon Endopedon
• Ochric (pale or thin topsoil) Cambic (only moderate soil
• Mollic (thick dark topsoil, development evident)
neutral to alkaline, fertile) Argillic (enriched in clay leached down
• Histic (thick organic mat’l from above)
over mineral subsoil) Spodic (enriched in colloidal humus, Al,
and usually Fe leached from surface
horizons)
Oxic (severely weathered, infertile, high
in sesquioxide clays, usually reddish
colored)
Diagnostic Surface Horizons
Ochric Epipedon
• from the Greek word ochcrose which means“pale”
• most common type of A horizon (thin A horizon either
pale or dark colored)
⚬ contains <1% OM by weight
• usual condition where the native vegetation is a forest or
the climate is arid
• average temperature either warm or cold
• when the soils are plowed, fields have a grayish- or
yellowish-brown appearance (unless farmer will add OM)
Diagnostic Surface Horizons
Ochric Epipedon
Diagnostic Surface Horizons
Mollic Epipedon
• from the Latin word mollis which means“soft”
• epipedons have a thick A horizon (very dark brown or nearly
black) due to an enrichment of humus
⚬ contains >1% OM by weight
• native vegetation is prairie grass (cycle basic ions to the
surface)
• the limited precipitation prevents rapid leaching and
maintains high base saturation
• average temperature either warm or cold
• develops a strong granular structure
Diagnostic Surface Horizons
Mollic Epipedon
3 variants of Mollic Epipedon
1. Umbric
• comes from the Latin word “umbra”
meaning “shade”, which alludes to their
dark color
• appear to be mollic, but they have a low
base saturation due to their acidity
• not widespread, but humid/wet
conditions prevail where they occur
3 variants of Mollic Epipedon
2. Melanic
• comes from the Greek word “melanos”
which means black
• epipedons are black, humus-enriched
A horizons formed in loose volcanic
materials
• a low bulk density, are high in Al, and
have a high phosphate retention
capacity
3 variants of Mollic Epipedon
3. Anthropic
• comes from the Greek word
“anthropoes” which means “human”
• a human-induced form of the mollic
epipedon
• frequently occur in arid regions that
have a long history of irrigated
agriculture with organic matter
incorporation
Diagnostic Surface Horizons
Histic Epipedon
• from the Greek word “histose” which means “tissue”
• an O horizon made up of plant residue (20–60 cm)
thick over mineral soil
• develop in lowlands that are saturated >30 days per
year
• subdivided according to degree of decomposition
⚬ from least to greatest (fibric, hemic, sapric)
Diagnostic Surface Horizon
Histic Epipedon
Subsurface Horizons
Cambic
• from the Latin word “cambire” meaning “to change”
• the horizon must not be very sandy and must show some
alteration by processes of weathering.
• changes may be evidenced by changes in color, the
development of soil structure, or the removal of some
of its more soluble components.
⚬ modest amount of weathering and not much
accumulation of materials leached from above (Bw)
⚬ periodic wetness brought about a mottled color due
to the form and distribution of iron (Bg)
Subsurface Horizons
Cambic
Subsurface Horizons
Argillic
• from the Latin word “argillus” meaning “white clay”
• accumulation of high-activity clays
• visual evidence of clay films lining pores or bridging sand
grains
• some of the accumulated clay was moved down from the
A and E horizons, and some was formed within the B
horizon by the alteration of primary minerals into clay
minerals.
• the subsoils contain more clay than the A horizon and
usually more than the C horizon (Bt from German “tone”
meaning “clay”)
Subsurface Horizons
Cambic
Subsurface Horizons
Natric
• from the Latin word “natrium”
• must have all the properties of the
argillic horizon plus abundant
sodium (Btn)
• causes the soil to seal itself
against the percolation of water
Subsurface Horizons
Natric
Subsurface Horizons
Kandic
• Similar to the argillic horizon is the kandic
(Bt) horizon found in subtropical and warmer
regions.
• Kandic horizons have accumulations of low-
activity clay, primarily kaolinite, and
therefore do not hold nutrients well.
Subsurface Horizons
Kandic
Subsurface Horizons
Spodic
• from the Greek word “spodos” meaning “ash”
• In boreal (northern) forest regions and some wet
sandy areas of subtropical regions, the subsoil is
usually reddish brown to black
• This color is caused by coatings of humus together
with iron and aluminum oxides on the surfaces of
sand grains
⚬ It may carry the symbol Bh, Bs, or Bhs
• When these soils are plowed, the light gray
overlying albic E horizon associated with the
spodic horizon gives the field an ashy appearance
Subsurface Horizons
Spodic
Subsurface Horizons
Oxic
• very impoverished subsoil with almost no
primary minerals other than quartz
• found in tropical regions where severe
weathering has been in progress for a very long
time.
• It consists of quartz sand and an inert clay
fraction of kaolinite plus oxides of iron and
aluminum (Bo)
• The entire subsoil is commonly quite uniformly
weathered and lacks original rock features
Subsurface Horizons
Oxic
Other Diagnostic Subsurface Horizons
Albic
• from the Latin word “albus” which
means “white” E horizons (eluvial)
• (formed by light colored sand and silt
(whitish or gray in color with bleached,
uncoated mineral grains)
• Usually they are below a mat of forest
residue (O horizon) and at the surface
of the mineral soil
• bleaching is, at least in part, due to
organic acids leached from the O
horizon
Other Diagnostic Subsurface Horizons
Calcic
• from the German word “kalk”
which means “lime”
• an illuvial horizon in which
secondary calcium carbonate or
other carbonates have
accumulated to a significant
extent (Bk).
Gypsic
• an illuvial horizon with a gypsum-
enriched layer
Other Diagnostic Subsurface Horizons
Salic
• from the German word
“zalt”which means “salt”
• layers with a high accumulation
of soluble salts, typically sodium
chloride, in arid regions (Bz)
• salt is derived from periodically
shallow saline water in the
subsoil
Other Diagnostic Subsurface Horizons
Hardpans as DH
Petrocalcic
• from the Greek word “petra” which
means “rock”
• occur in the subsoil on old landforms
in arid regions where calcic horizon
development has progressed to the
point of becoming rock-like (Bkm)
• composed mostly of calcium
carbonate hardened around silicious
gravel (
• impenetrable by roots
Other Diagnostic Subsurface Horizons
Hardpans as DH
Duripan
• from the Latin word “durus” which
means “hard”
• more durable than petrocalcic
• horizons because the cement in
duripans includes much secondary
silica (SiO2) (Bqm)
• formed best where there is or has
been volcanic ash and the climate
has alternating dry and wet seasons.
Other Diagnostic Subsurface Horizons
Hardpans as DH
Fragipans
• from the Latin word “fragilus” which
means “brittle”
• occur in some forested regions that
are so dense they restrict the
penetration of water and roots (Bx or
Btx)
• the close packing of grains of sand
and silt causing weak cementation
• weak cementation causes the
horizon to be brittle when dry or
moist but not when wet
Other Diagnostic Subsurface Horizons
Hardpans as DH
Plinthite
• from the Latin word “plinthos” which
means “brick”
• horizons (Bv) form in warm humid
regions where iron is abundant in
parent materials
• iron becomes concentrated and
cemented into a continuous
reticulate (netlike) layer.
Soil Moisture and Temperature Regimess
Classes of Soil Moisture Regimes
Aquic Aridic/Torric
• saturated enough of the time most • dry most of the time
years to cause reducing conditions • used to indicate dryness that restricts crop
• SMR of wetlands production without irrigation
• SMR of the deserts
Classes of Soil Moisture Regimes
Udic
• moist but not wet, most of the time
• SMR of Corn Belt and Midwest
Ustic
• intermediate between udic and ustic
• Seasonal dry periods, but enough
precipitation during the growing season
• SMR of the Wheat Belt of theGreat Plains
Xeric
• Mediterranean climate
• with dry summers;cool, moist winters
• SMR of California, US
Classes of Soil Temperature Regimes
Pergelic • Mean annual temperature (MAT) is < 0 deg. C
• permafrost
Cryic • very cold soils; MAT is from 0-8 degrees C
• coldest soils have permafrost
Frigid • cold winters; MAT is < 8 degrees C
• summers are warm enough for crop production
Mesic • warmer than frigid; MAT is 8-15 degrees C
• summers are warm enough for crop production
Classes of Soil Temperature Regimes
• warmer than mesic
Thermic
• MAT is < 8 degrees C
• warmest of the temperature zone soils
Hyperthermic • MAT is > 22 degrees C
• found in the hottest parts of the region
Isohyperthermic
• hot tropical climate throughout the year
Iso • used if soil temperature is quite uniform throughtout the year
• attached if difference of summer and winter temp is < 5 deg. C
