Republic of the Philippines

DR. EMILIO B. ESPINOSA, SR. MEMORIAL STATE COLLEGE

OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY
www.debesmscat.edu.ph | Mandaon, Masbate

LEARNERS’ MODULE
DS 101 DISCRETE
STRUCTURE 1
LEO C. LAURIO, LPT
INSTRUCTOR
 Republic of the Philippines
DR. EMILIO B. ESPINOSA, SR. MEMORIAL STATE COLLEGE
OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY
www.debesmscat.edu.ph | Mandaon, Masbate

SUBJECT: DS 101 DISCRETE STRUCTURE 1

COURSE: BSCS 1A, 1B

DESCRIPTION: This course includes areas as set theory, logic, graph theory, and probability
theory.

TOPIC: POBABILITY THEORY

WEEK #: 14 - 17

HOURS: 12 hrs

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this module, the learner should be able to:

 Develop a solid understanding of basic probability concepts.

 Calculate probabilities, understand conditional probability and work with random variables.
 Apply probability theory to real-world problems

OVERVIEW
The word ‘probability’ means the chances of occurring of a certain event. It is generally
possible to predict the future of an event quantitatively with a certain probability of being
correct. The probability is used in such cases where the outcomes of trials is uncertain.

Probability theory is a branch of mathematics that investigates the probabilities associated

with a random phenomenon. A random phenomenon can have several outcomes.
Probability theory describes the chance of occurrence of a particular outcome by using
certain formal concepts.

LEARNING CONTENT
IMPORTANT TERMS RELATED WITH PROBABILITY

1. Trial – The performance of an experiment.

2. Experiment – It is a well-defined process that leads to a well-defined outcome.
 Example: tossing a coin is an experiment. It may consist of one or more trials.
3. Sample Space – The set of all possible outcomes of an experiment. It is denoted by S.
Example: when a die is thrown, sample space is S = (1,2,3,4,5,6). It consists of six
outcomes 1,2,3,4,5 and 6.
4. Event – The possible outcomes of a trial. In other words, event is a subset of the sample
space.
Example: In the throw of a single die, getting a number less than four is an event. If this is
denoted by L, then L = (1,2,3) which is a subset of S.
5. Complement of Event – The set of all outcomes which are in sample space but not in
event.
Example: in case of above example, the complement of even is 𝐿 = (4,5,6).
6. Equally Likely Events – Events are said to be equally likely if one of them cannot be
expected to occur in preference to others. In other words, it means its outcome is likely
to occur as any other outcome.
Example: when a die is throw, all the six faces i.e., 1,2,3,4,5 and 6 are equally likely to
occur.
7. Mutually Exclusive or Disjoint Events – Events are called mutually exclusive if they
cannot occur simultaneously.
Example: suppose a card is drawn from a pack of cards, then the events getting jack
and getting a king are mutually exclusive because they cannot occur simultaneously.
8. Exhaustive Events – The total number of all possible outcomes of an experiment.
Example: in the tossing of a coin, either head or tail may turn up. Therefore, there are
two possible outcomes. Hence, there are two exhaustive events in tossing a coin.
9. Independent Events – Events are said to be independent if occurrence of any one
event does not depend on occurrence of any other event.
10. Dependent Events – Events are said to be dependent if occurrence of one effect the
occurrence of other events.
Example: the outcome of throwing a die is independent of outcome of drawing a king
from pack cards.

PROBABILTY DEFINITION

The probability of happening of an event A, denoted by P(A), is defined as:

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝐴
P(A) = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠
.

Thus, if an event happens in m ways and fails to happen in n ways and m + n ways are
equally likely to occur then the probability of happening of the event A is given by
𝑚
P(A) = 𝑚 + 𝑛

And the probability of non-happening of A is

𝑛
P(Ā) =
𝑚+𝑛

Points to be noted

1. The probability of an event which is certain to occur is one.

 2. The probability of an event which is impossible is zero.
3. If the probability of happening of an events P(A) and that of not happening is P(Ā),
then
P(A) + P(Ā) = 1, 0 ≤ P(A) ≤ 1, 0 ≤ P(Ā) ≤ 1.

ADDITION THEOREM

Theorem I. If A and B are two mutually exclusive events, then

P(A ∪ 𝐵) = P(A) + P(B).

Proof. Let n = total number of exhaustive cases

n1 = number of cases favorable to A

n2 = number of cases favorable to B.

Now, we have A and B two mutually exclusive events. Therefore, n 1 + n2 is the number of
cases favorable to A or B.
𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2
Therefore: P(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = = = +
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

𝑛1 𝑛2
But we have, P(A) = and P(B) =
𝑛 𝑛

Hence 𝑃 (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑃 (𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵).

Example 1. In a single throw of two dice find the probability of having 8 or 11.

Solution: number of favorable cases for throwing 8 are {(6,2),(5,3),(4,4),(3,5),(2,6)} = 5

Number of total cases = 36
5
Therefore the probability of having, 8=
36
Number of favorable cases for throwing, 11 are {(6,5),(5,6)} = 2

2
Therefore: the probability of throwing, 11 =
36

5 2 7
So, probability of throwing 8 or 11 = 36 + 36
= 36.

Example 2. A card is drawn at random from a well-shuffled pack of 52 cards. Find the
probability of getting (a) a jack, a queen and a king (b) a two of heart or two of diamond.

Solution: (a) In a pack of 52 cards, we have 4 jacks, 4 queens and 4 kings.

4 1
P(jack) = =
52 13
4 1
P(queen) = 52 = 13

4 1
P(king) = 52 = 13
By addition theorem of probability

1 1 1 3
P(jack or a queen or a king) = 13 + 13
+ 13
= 13
 (b) P(two of heart or two of diamond) = P(two of heart) + P(two of diamond)
1 1 2 1
= + = =
52 52 52 26

Example 3. Two dice are tossed once. Find the probability of getting an even number on first
dice or a total 8.

Solution: An even number can be got on a die in 3 ways because any one of 2,4,6 can come.
The other die can have any number. This can happen in 6 ways.

3𝑥6 18 1
Therefore; P(an even number on 1st die) = = =
36 36 2
A total of 8 can be obtained in following cases {(2,6), (3,5), (4,4), (5,3), (6,2)}

5
Therefore; P(a total of 8) = 36

1 5 23
Total probability = 2 + 36
= 36
.

Theorem II. If A and B are two events that are not mutually exclusive, then
𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑃 (𝐴) + 𝑃 (𝐵) − 𝑃 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵).
Proof. Let n = total number of exhaustive cases
n1 = number of cases favorable to A.
n2 = number of cases favorable to B.
n3 = number of cases favorable both A and B.
But, A and B are not mutually exclusive. Therefore, A and B can occur simultaneously.
So, n1 + n2 – n3 is the number of cases favorable to A or B.
𝑛1 + 𝑛2− 𝑛3 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛3
Therefore; 𝑃 (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑛
= 𝑛
+ 𝑛
− 𝑛

𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛3
But we have, P(A) = 𝑛
, P(B) = 𝑛
and P(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑛

Hence, 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃 (𝐵) − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵).

Example 1. A card is drawn from a deck of cards. Find the probability of getting an ace or a
spade card.

Solution: Let A be an event that a card drawn is a spade and B be an event that a card
drawn is an ace.
13 4 1
Therefore; P(A) = 52, P(B) = 52 and 𝑃 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 52

13 4 1 16 4
P(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) − 𝑃 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 52
+ 52
− 52
= 52
= 13

Example 2. Two dice are tossed once. Find probability of getting an even number on first die
or a total of 8.

Solution: P(even number on 1st die or a total of 8) = P(even number on 1 st die) + P(total of 8) –
P(even number on 1st die and a total of 8)
18
Now, P(even number on 1st die) =
36

Ordered pairs showing a total of 8 = {(6,2), (5,3),(4,4),(3,5),(2,6)} = 5

 5
Therefore; Probability; P(total of 8) =
36

3
P(even number of 1st die and total of 8) = 36

18 5 3 20 5
Therefore; Required probability = 36 + 36
− 36
= 36
= 9

Example 3. A card is drawn from a deck of cards. Find probability of getting a king or a heart
or a red card.

Solution: Let A be an event that a card drawn is a king

Let B be an event that a card drawn is heart
Let C be an event that a card drawn is a red card

4 13 26
P(A) = 52 , P(B) = 52, P(C) = 52

1 13 2 1
P(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 52
, 𝑃(𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 ) = 52
, 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐶 ) = 52
, 𝑃 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 ) = 52

𝑃 (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 ) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃 (𝐵) + 𝑃(𝐶 ) − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) − 𝑃 (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 ) − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐶 ) + 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)

4 13 26 1 13 2 1 28 7
= 52 + 52
+ 52
− 52
− 52
− 52
+ 52
= 52
= 13
.

MULTIPLICATION THEOREM

THEOREM III. If A and B are two independent events, then the probability that both will occur is
equal to product of their individual probabilities i.e., 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) 𝑥 𝑃(𝐵).
Proof. Let event
A can happen is n1 ways which p are successful
B can happen in n2 ways which q are successful
Now, combine successful event of A with successful event of B.
Thus, the total number of successful cases = p x q.
We have, total number of cases = n1 x n2.
Therefore, from the definition of probability
𝑝𝑥𝑞 𝑝 𝑞
𝑃 (𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵) = 𝑃 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑛1 𝑥 𝑛2
= 𝑛1
𝑥 𝑛2

𝑝 𝑞
We have, 𝑃 (𝐴) = 𝑛1
, 𝑃 (𝐵) = 𝑛2

So, 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃 (𝐴) 𝑥 𝑃 (𝐵)

If, there are three independent events A, B and C, then

𝑃 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 ) = 𝑃((𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶) = 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) 𝑥 𝑃(𝐶 )

= 𝑃 (𝐴) 𝑥 𝑃 (𝐵) 𝑥 𝑃(𝐶 ).

Example 1. Two cards are drawn from a pack of cards in succession (with replacement). Find
the probability that both are jacks.
4
Solution: Probability that I card is a jack = 52
 4
Probability that II card is jack = 52

4 4 1
Probability that both cards are jack = 52 𝑥 52
= 169

Example 2. A die is tossed twice. Find the probability of having a number greater than 3 on
each toss.

Solution: The event is W,B,W,B and B,W,B,W, where W is for white and B for black ball.

Probability of having W,B,W,B in that order

5 3 4 2 1
= 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 = (multiplication Theorem)
8 7 6 5 14

Probability of finding B,W,B,W in that order

3 5 2 4 1
=8 𝑥 7
𝑥 6
𝑥 5
= 14

Probability of having balls of different colors alternately

1 1 2 1
= + = = (Addition theorem)
14 14 14 7

Example 3. Two dices are thrown. Find the probability of getting an odd number on one and a
multiple of three on other.
3 1
Solution: P(A) = P(an odd number) = 6 = 2
[therefore 1,3,5 will be odd number]

2 1
P(B) = P(a multiple of 3) = = [therefore 3 and 6 will be multiple of 3]
6 3

1 1 1
Therefore, required probability = 2 𝑥 3
= 6

CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY

Theorem IV. If A and B are two dependent events, then the probability of occurrence of A
given that B has already occurred and is denoted by P(A/B) is given by
𝐴 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) 𝐴
P(𝐵 ) = 𝑃(𝐵)
; P(A ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐵) 𝑥 𝑃 (𝐵 ).

Similarly, the probability of occurrence of B given that A has already occurred is given by
𝐴 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) 𝐵
P(𝐵 ) = 𝑃(𝐴)
; P(A ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) 𝑥 𝐴
.

Proof. Let S be the sample space.

Then, we have
𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) 𝑃(𝐴)
P(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = = 𝑥
𝑃(𝑆) 𝑃(𝐴) 𝑃(𝑆)

𝑃(𝐴) 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) 𝐵

= 𝑃(𝑆)
𝑥 𝑃(𝐴)
Therefore; 𝑃(𝐴)
= 𝑃 ( 𝐴) eqn. i
𝐵
= 𝑃 (𝐴) 𝑥 𝑃 ( 𝐴)
Interchange A and B in eqn. (i), we get
𝐴
= P(B) x P( ). 𝐵
Example 1. Find the probability of drawing a heart on each of two consecutive draws from a
well shuffled pack of cards if the card is not replaced after the draw.

Solution: Let event A is heart on the first draw and event B is heart on the second draw.
𝐵
Then, P(A ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃 (𝐴) 𝑥 𝑃 ( ) 𝐴
13
Now, P(A) = 52
When we get a heart on the first draw, the second draw has 51 outcomes and 12 are
favorable.
𝐵 12 4
Therefore; P( ) = =
𝐴 51 17

13 4 1
Therefore; 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑥 = .
52 17 17

Example 2. A bag contains 5 whites, 7 red and 8 black balls. If four balls are drawn one by one
without replacement, what is the probability that all are white?

Solution: Let events A, B, C and D represent Ist, II, III and IV white ball drawn.

5 𝐵 4
P(A) = 20, P( 𝐴) = 19

𝐶 3 𝐷 2
P( )= and P( )=
𝐴∩𝐵 18 𝐴∩𝐵∩𝐶 17

𝐵 𝐶 𝐷
Therefore; 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 ∩ 𝐷) = 𝑃 (𝐴) 𝑥 𝑃 ( 𝐴) 𝑥 𝑃 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ) 𝑥 𝑃 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 )
5 4 3 2 1
= 20 𝑥 19
𝑥 18
𝑥 17
= 969

REFERENCES:

 Discrete Mathematical Structures for Computer Science, Bernard Kolman, Robert C.

Busby
 Discrete Mathematics, Richard Johnsonbaugh
 Discrete Mathematics and Structures, Sixth Edition by Dr. Satinder Bal Gupta.

MODULE ASSESSMENT

Direction: Solve the following problems. Show your complete solution for the required data. (10
points each).

1. Two cards are drawn from a pack of 52 cards, one after the other without replacement.
Find the chance that one of these cards is an ace and other is queen of opposite
shade.
2. From a deck of cards, three cards are drawn one by one without replacement. Find the
probability that each time it is a card of spade.
3. A card is drawn from a well shuffled deck of 52 cards. The outcome is noted, the card is
replaced and the deck reshuffled. Another card is then drawn from the deck. Find the
probability of getting first card a jack and the second card a black queen.
4. From 30 tickets with the first 30 natural number one is drawn at random. Find the
chance that is a multiple of 3 or 7.
5. Find the probability of getting a sum of 5 or 7 in toss of two dice.