Cryptography and

Network Security
Overview & Chapter 1
Fifth Edition
by William Stallings

Lecture slides by Lawrie Brown

Editied by R. Newman
 Chapter 0 – Reader’s Guide

The art of war teaches us to rely not on the

likelihood of the enemy's not coming, but
on our own readiness to receive him; not
on the chance of his not attacking, but
rather on the fact that we have made our
position unassailable.
—The Art of War, Sun Tzu
 Roadmap
➢ Cryptographic algorithms
⚫ symmetric ciphers
⚫ asymmetric encryption
⚫ hash functions
➢ MutualTrust
➢ Network Security
➢ Computer Security
 Standards Organizations
➢ National Institute of Standards &
Technology (NIST)
➢ Internet Society (ISOC)
➢ International Telecommunication Union
Telecommunication Standardization Sector
(ITU-T)
➢ International Organization for
Standardization (ISO)
➢ RSA Labs (de facto)
 Chapter 1 – Introduction

➢ The combination of space, time, and

strength that must be considered as the
basic elements of this theory of defense
makes this a fairly complicated matter.
Consequently, it is not easy to find a fixed
point of departure..
— On War, Carl Von Clausewitz
 Computer Security
The protection afforded to an automated
information system in order to attain the
applicable objectives of preserving the
integrity, availability and confidentiality of
information system resources (includes
hardware, software, firmware,
information/data, and telecommunications)
 Key Security Concepts

The three concepts embody the fundamental security objectives

for both data and for information and computing services
 INTEGRITY (covers both data and system integrity)

Data Integrity: Assures that information (both stored and in

transmitted packets) and programs are changed only in a
specified and authorized manner.

System integrity: Assures that a system performs its intended

function in an unimpaired manner, free from deliberate or
inadvertent unauthorized manipulation of the system

Also includes ensuring information non-repudiation and

authenticity.

A loss of integrity is the unauthorized modification or

destruction of information.
CONFIDENTIALITY (data confidentiality & privacy)

Data confidentiality: Assures that private or confidential

information is not made available or disclosed to
unauthorized individuals.

Privacy: Assures that individuals control or influence what

information related to them may be collected and stored and
by whom and to whom that information may be disclosed.

A loss of confidentiality is the unauthorized disclosure of

information.
AVAILABILITY

Ensuring timely and reliable access to and use of information.

And service is not denied to authorized users.

A loss of availability is the disruption of access to or use of

information or an information system.

AUTHENTICITY:

The property of being genuine and being able to be verified

and trusted; confidence in the validity of a transmission, a
message, or message originator.
This means verifying that users are who they say they
are and that each input arriving at the system came from
a trusted source.
ACCOUNTABILITY:

The security goal that generates the requirement for

actions of an entity to be traced uniquely to that entity.
This supports nonrepudiation, deterrence, fault isolation,
intrusion detection and prevention, and after-action
recovery and legal action.

Because truly secure systems are not yet an achievable

goal, we must be able to trace a security breach to a
responsible party.
Systems must keep records of their activities to permit later
forensic analysis to trace security breaches or to aid in
transaction disputes
 Levels of Impact
➢3 levels of impact from a security breach
⚫ Low
⚫ Moderate
⚫ High
 Low Impact
➢ The loss could be expected to have a limited adverse
effect on organizational operations, organizational
assets, or individuals.
➢ A limited adverse effect means that, for example, the
loss of confidentiality, integrity, or availability might
(i) cause a degradation in mission capability to an
extent and duration that the organization is able to
perform its primary functions, but the effectiveness of
the functions is noticeably reduced;
(ii) result in minor damage to organizational assets;
(iii) result in minor financial loss; or
(iv) result in minor harm to individuals.
 Moderate Impact
➢ The loss could be expected to have a serious adverse effect
on organizational operations, assets, or individuals.
➢ A serious adverse effect means that, e.g., the loss might
(i) cause a significant degradation in mission capability to
an extent and duration that the organization is able to
perform its primary functions, but the effectiveness of the
functions is significantly reduced;
(ii) result in significant damage to organizational assets;
(iii) result in significant financial loss; or
(iv) result in significant harm to individuals that does not
involve loss of life or serious, life-threatening injuries.
 High Impact
➢ The loss could be expected to have a severe or
catastrophic adverse effect on organizational operations,
organizational assets, or individuals.
➢ A severe or catastrophic adverse effect means that, for
example, the loss might
(i) cause a severe degradation in or loss of mission
capability to an extent and duration that the organization
is not able to perform one or more of its primary
functions;
(ii) result in major damage to organizational assets;
(iii) result in major financial loss; or
(iv) result in severe or catastrophic harm to individuals
involving loss of life or serious life threatening injuries.
 Examples of Security
Requirements

➢ Confidentiality – student grades

➢ Integrity – patient information
➢ Availability – authentication service

– admission ticket
➢ Authenticity
➢ Non-repudiation – stock sell order
Computer Security Challenges

1. not simple – easy to get it wrong

2. must consider potential attacks
3. procedures used counter-intuitive
4. involve algorithms and secret info
5. must decide where to deploy
mechanisms
6. battle of wits between attacker / admin
Computer Security Challenges

7. not perceived to be of benefit until it fails

8. requires regular monitoring a process, not
an event
7. too often an after-thought
8. regarded as impediment to using system

“Unusable security is not secure”

 OSI Security Architecture
➢ ITU-T X.800 “Security Architecture for OSI”
➢ defines a systematic way of defining and
providing security requirements
➢ for us it provides a useful, if abstract,
overview of concepts we will study
 Aspects of Security
➢ consider 3 aspects of information security:
⚫ security attack
⚫ security mechanism (control)
⚫ security service
➢ note terms
⚫ threat – a potential for violation of security
⚫ vulnerability – a way by which loss can happen
⚫ attack – an assault on system security, a
deliberate attempt to evade security services
Passive Attack - Interception
Passive Attack: Traffic Analysis

Observe traffic pattern

Active Attack: Interruption

Block delivery of message

Active Attack: Fabrication

Fabricate message
Active Attack: Replay
Active Attack: Modification

Modify message
 Handling Attacks
⚫ Passive attacks – focus on Prevention
• Easy to stop
• Hard to detect
⚫ Active attacks – focus on Detection and
Recovery
• Hard to stop
• Easy to detect
 Security Service
⚫ enhance security of data processing systems
and information transfers of an organization
⚫ intended to counter security attacks
⚫ using one or more security mechanisms
⚫ often replicates functions normally associated
with physical documents
• which, for example, have signatures, dates; need
protection from disclosure, tampering, or
destruction; be notarized or witnessed; be
recorded or licensed
 Security Services
➢ X.800:
“a service provided by a protocol layer of
communicating open systems, which ensures
adequate security of the systems or of data
transfers”

➢ RFC 2828:
“a processing or communication service
provided by a system to give a specific kind of
protection to system resources”
 Security Services (X.800)
➢ Authentication - assurance that communicating
entity is the one claimed
⚫ have both peer-entity & data origin authentication
➢ Access Control - prevention of the
unauthorized use of a resource
➢ Data Confidentiality –protection of data from
unauthorized disclosure
➢ Data Integrity - assurance that data received is
as sent by an authorized entity
➢ Non-Repudiation - protection against denial by
one of the parties in a communication
➢ Availability – resource accessible/usable
 Security Mechanism
➢ a.k.a.control
➢ feature designed to detect, prevent, or
recover from a security attack
➢ no single mechanism that will support all
services required
➢ however one particular element underlies
many of the security mechanisms in use:
⚫ cryptographic techniques
➢ hence our focus on this topic
 Security Mechanisms (X.800)
➢ specific security mechanisms:
⚫ encipherment, digital signatures, access

controls, data integrity, authentication

exchange, traffic padding, routing control,
notarization
➢ pervasive security mechanisms:
⚫ trusted functionality, security labels, event

detection, security audit trails, security

recovery
Model for Network Security
 Model for Network Security
➢ using this model requires us to:
1. design a suitable algorithm for the security
transformation
2. generate the secret information (keys) used
by the algorithm
3. develop methods to distribute and share the
secret information
4. specify a protocol enabling the principals to
use the transformation and secret
information for a security service
Model for Network Access
Security
 Model for Network Access
Security
➢ using this model requires us to:
1. select appropriate gatekeeper functions to
identify users
2. implement security controls to ensure only
authorised users access designated
information or resources
➢ note that model does not include:
1. monitoring of system for successful
penetration
2. monitoring of authorized users for misuse
3. audit logging for forensic uses, etc.
 Summary
➢ topicroadmap & standards organizations
➢ security concepts:
⚫ confidentiality, integrity, availability
➢ X.800 security architecture
➢ security attacks, services, mechanisms
➢ models for network (access) security