Department of Science and Technology Education

Teaching Natural Sciences in the Senior Phase

TMS3728 Study Guide

University of South Africa

Complied by:

Munasi KR
Table of contents
Learning unit Page

PREFACE

i. Introduction and welcome

ii. Purpose of the module

iii. Overview of the module

vi. Module outcomes

v. Learning material

vi. The approach to teaching and learning

vii. Some suggestions and guidelines

viii. How to use myUnisa

ix. Studying versus reading

x. Assessment in this module

xi. Activities in this study guide

xii. Assignments

xiii. Assessment questions in the online study guide

xiv. Examination

xv. What you can expect from Unisa

xvi. Your responsibilities

xvii. Unisa’s responsibilities

xviii. Concluding remarks

LEARNING UNIT 1: THE PURPOSE OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

Table of contents
Learning objectives

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Nature of science

1.3 Natural science education

1.3.1 The nature and origin of Natural Sciences

1.3.2 The limits of Natural Science

1.3.3 Science as a body of knowledge

1.3.4 Ways of thinking that is non-science

1.3.5 Science as a method or process

1.4 What is science education really for?

1.5 Indigenous knowledge (IK) and natural sciences

1.6 Supporting young explorers in our classrooms

1.7 Linking theory to practice

1.8 Conclusion

1.9 Self-reflection questions

LEARNING UNIT 2: OPENING UP SCIENCE TO ALL LEARNERS

Learning objectives

2.1 Introduction

2.2 How learners in Grade 7–9 think

2.3 How learners in Grade 4–9 learn

2.3.1 Learning theories

 2.3.2 Learning, knowledge and mental frameworks

2.3.3 Implications for teaching science

2.4 English as a first additional language

2.5 Contemporary theories and practices

2.6 Conclusion

2.7 Self-reflection questions

LEARNING UNIT 3: ENGAGING LEARNERS IN SCIENCE

Learning objectives

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Engagement and science

3.3 Factors affecting engagement

3.4 Barriers to engagement in school science

3.4.1 Disappointment

3.4.2 Irrelevance

3.4.3 Not enough experiments

3.4.4 Too much content

3.4.5 Level of difficulty

3.4.6 Teaching science

3.5 Models of teaching science that lead to engagement

3.6 Conclusion

3.7 Self-reflection questions

LEARNING UNIT 4: PLANNING FOR ENGAGEMENT

Learning objectives

4.1 Introduction
4.2 The attitudinal factor

4.3 The knowledge factor

4.4 The skills factor

4.5 What effective science teachers do

4.6 Planning models

4.7 Planning science lessons

4.8 Lesson plans

4.9 How to get started

4.10 Strategies for engaging learners

4.11 Conclusion

4.12 Self-reflection questions

LEARNING UNIT 5: SCIENCE LITERACY

Learning objectives

5.1 Introduction

5.2 The role of language in science education

5.3 Literacies in science

5.4 What you need to know about reading and writing in science

5.5 Conclusion

5.6 Self-reflection questions

LEARNING UNIT 6: ASPECTS OF ASSESSMENT

Learning objectives

6.1 Introduction

6.2 What is assessment?

6.3 Why assess?

6.4 Types of assessment

6.4.1 International and national testing

6.4.2 School-based assessment

6.5 Factors that affect assessment

6.6 How to assess

6.7 Conclusion
6.8 Self-reflection questions
PREFACE

i. INTRODUCTION AND WELCOME

Welcome to Teaching Natural Sciences in the Senior Phase (TMS3728). I trust that
you will find this module interesting and that you will be able to apply the insights you
gain here to your teaching. Although you are studying on your own, remember that I
am always available to assist you. Do not hesitate to contact me if you have any
problem with this module or even if you would like to share something interesting about
the subject with me. You will find my contact details in the tutorial letters for this module.

ii. THE PURPOSE OF THIS MODULE

The purpose of this module is to equip students to teach Natural Sciences in the Senior
Phase using their pedagogical content knowledge of the subject. Students who
complete this module will have the knowledge, skills, values and attitude they need to
teach Natural Sciences in the Senior Phase, to facilitate learner engagement in diverse
contexts and to accommodate learners with diverse learning needs. The module gives
students the opportunity to acquire, integrate and practise the foundational, practical
and reflective competences needed to facilitate the teaching and learning of Natural
Sciences in the Senior Phase.

iii. OVERVIEW OF THE MODULE

The module comprises six learning units. The topics covered are: the purpose of
science education; opening up science to all learners; engaging learners in
science; planning for engagement; science literacy; and aspects of assessment.
The module provides you with different kinds of information in preparation for your
teaching duties. All the learning units are presented separately below. Please take
your time to go through each one of them. If you want to be successful in this module,
you need to be interested in and observant of what is happening in the teaching
environment every day.
iv. MODULE OUTCOMES

The following are the specific outcomes for the module:

Specific outcome 1

Develop an understanding of Natural Sciences as a subject in the South African

teaching and learning environment.

Assessment criteria

• Concepts related to Natural Sciences teaching are explained.

• The effective use of subject content knowledge that enhances learning in the
classroom situation is discussed.

• Teachers’ roles in the Natural Sciences classroom are debated.

• The content and concepts of Natural Sciences are formulated.

• Different ways of presenting knowledge and facilitating learning in Natural

Sciences are described.

• An understanding that pedagogical knowledge can be combined with subject

knowledge and context is developed.

Specific outcome 2

Evaluate contestable standpoints on various teaching methods, learning strategies and

teaching media that might be applicable to the teaching of Natural Sciences in different
contexts.

Assessment criteria

• Various teaching methods, learning strategies and teaching media relevant to

Natural Sciences teaching are discussed.

• The teaching and learning of different aspects of Natural Sciences in different

contexts are debated.

• Teaching media that can be used to teach different aspects of Natural Sciences
are designed.
• The appropriate technology for teaching different aspects of Natural Sciences in
different contexts is selected.

Specific outcome 3

Analyse the planning of Natural Science lessons.

Assessment criteria

• The criteria for formulating learning intentions are correctly demonstrated.

• Appropriate learning strategies, teaching methods and teaching media are applied
to in the Natural Sciences classroom.

• The subject content of the curriculum, relevant pedagogical knowledge and

contextual realities are used to plan and present Natural Sciences lessons.

• Learning needs, the responsibility for meeting these needs, decision-making

and the use of resources are discussed. Specific outcome 4

Reflect on assessment in the subject of Natural Sciences.

Assessment criteria

• The instruments to be used to assess learners effectively and objectively are

explained.

• Appropriate assessments for the school environment are discussed.

• Assessments are designed at the appropriate cognitive levels.

• Assessment decisions are made based on scenarios, case studies or practical

examples.

• Assessments based on given scenarios, case studies or practical examples are

recorded in accordance with curriculum requirements.

• The principles of assessment design are applied.

Specific outcome 5

Demonstrate an understanding of how to prepare a Natural Sciences classroom for

teaching.
Assessment criteria

• The ideal Natural Sciences classroom is described.

• Innovative ways to overcome challenges and create a unique classroom

atmosphere that is conducive to learning in a less than perfect context are
identified.

• The management of learners’ behaviour in the Natural Sciences classroom is

described.

• Teachers’ administrative tasks are discussed.

• The responsibility of Natural Sciences teachers and their actions, decision-making

and use of resources are explained.

v. LEARNING MATERIAL

The following learning material will support your learning experience in TMS3728:

Study guide

This study guide is available to be downloaded from the module site. The purpose of
the study guide is to help you understand and apply new concepts, to stimulate
discussion and to give you activities to complete. All this should help you to achieve
the learning outcomes for this module.

Prescribed book

There is no prescribed book for this module.

Recommended book

Gregson, R & Botha, ML. 2016. Teaching Science: Foundation to Senior Phase.
Cape Town: Oxford University Press.

Tutorial letters

Tutorial Letters 101, 201 and 202 will be sent to you during the year, or will be available
on the module site. This module forms part of a distance education course and tutorial
letters are our method of communicating with you. The tutorial letters contain valuable
information on the module itself, as well as important information on your assignments
and their due dates.

vi. THE APPROACH TO TEACHING AND LEARNING

You will be studying independently most of the time. Therefore, the tutorial letters are
there to guide you through the learning material, to help you to master the outcomes
and to prepare you for the assessments that follow.

It will not be sufficient only to remember the content of the module – you also need to
understand, apply, critically analyse, synthesise and evaluate your newly acquired
knowledge. Everything you learn in this module must become part of a coherent and
functional whole. If you wish to complete the module successfully, you must
understand the implications of the level at which the module is presented (level 7). The
purpose of studying Teaching Natural Sciences in the Senior Phase (TMS3728) is NOT
simply to memorise facts, concepts or theories. You must develop a deep
understanding of important concepts, learn how to apply them in the classroom, and
develop the ability to communicate effectively using visual, mathematical and/or
language skills.

In order to develop your understanding, you need to process the information you read.
Identify the main ideas while you are reading. Ask yourself why they are important,
how they relate to one another and what their implications are for your learners.

vii. SOME SUGGESTIONS AND GUIDELINES

The following study framework shows you how to approach your studies. We strongly
suggest that you follow this framework and work through each topic systematically:

1. Read Tutorial Letter 101.

2. Make a note of the due date(s) of the compulsory assignment(s).

3. Carefully review the preface at the beginning of this study guide.

4. Start with learning unit 1. Do all the activities. Complete the self-reflection section.
Test yourself to make sure that you have achieved the learning outcomes and
meet the assessment criteria.
5. Start with the next learning unit. Repeat the instructions in step 4 for all the
learning units. Work through the whole study guide. Remember to answer the
self-reflection questions in the study guide as you proceed with your studies
during the semester.

6. Revisit sections and topics that you have not fully mastered to ensure that you
achieve all the learning outcomes.

viii. HOW TO USE myUNISA

You need to be able to use the various menu options on the myUnisa site as they will
enable you to participate actively in the learning process.

The myUnisa menu options include the following:

myUnisa menu option What you will find here

Official Study Material Your study guide, tutorial letters and

previous examination papers are stored
under this option.

Announcements From time to time the lecturer or your e-

tutor will use this facility to give you
important information about this module.
You should receive e-mail notifications
of new announcements placed on
myUnisa.

Calendar This tool shows important dates, such

as examination dates and assignment
deadlines. You need this information to
manage your time effectively and plan
your own schedule.

Additional resources The lecturer (or your e-tutor) may use

this folder to provide any additional
learning support material that might help
you in your studies for this module. We
 will send an announcement to inform
you when we add anything to this folder.

Discussions This tool allows us to hold discussions

as if we were in a contact setting. Check
your e-tutor site for any topics that the
e-tutor might have posted. You can also
post any specific queries to the lecturer
on the main module site. There will also
be a discussion forum for students,
where you can discuss issues among
yourselves or just support one another.

Assessment info This tool allows you to submit your

assignments electronically and to
monitor your results. If you can, please
submit your assignments via myUnisa.
If you do not know how to do this,
consult Tutorial Letter 101.

When interacting online, always remember to be mindful of and respectful towards your
fellow students and your lecturers. The rules of polite behaviour on the internet are
referred to as netiquette – a term that means “online manners”.

Visit the following websites to learn more about netiquette:

• http://networketiquette.net/

• http://www.studygs.net/netiquette.htm

• http://www.carnegiecyberacademy.com/facultyPages/communication/netiquett
e.html

Please observe the rules of netiquette during your normal, everyday online
communications with colleagues, lecturers and friends. In particular, remember to be
courteous to your fellow students when using the Discussions tool.
ix STUDYING VERSUS READING

We clearly distinguish between the parts you have to read and those that you must
study.

Studying

We have clearly indicated the sections that you must study in each learning unit. These
sections form the basis of your assignments. To do the activities and assignments for
this module and to achieve the learning outcomes, you need an in-depth understanding
of the material in these sections of this study guide. To master the learning material,
you must first accept responsibility for your own studies. Secondly, learning is not the
same as memorising – you are expected to show that you understand and are able to
apply the information, not simply remember it.

Reading

In some instances, you will be referred to a certain section of the study guide. This
means that you should take note of the contents, which may contain useful background
information, offer another perspective or perhaps give an interesting example. This will
enhance your understanding of the material you are studying and help you to place it
in context.

x. ASSESSMENT IN THIS MODULE

You will be assessed continuously in this module, firstly by means of your assignments
during the year. You will also assess yourself through activities in this study guide and
the self-reflection questions that are included at the end of each learning unit.

xi. ACTIVITIES IN THE STUDY GUIDE

You will come across the following types of activities:

➢ activities that require reflection on the work covered

➢ assessment questions to be answered
➢ self-reflection exercises
You are urged to complete all the activities in this study guide. The activities have been
developed in such a way that they will help you to develop your application skills.
Application skills are important in the teaching environment. The activities afford you
an opportunity to think of ways to apply new knowledge in your classroom. If you refer
back to the learning outcomes for this module, you will see that in several instances
you have to interpret specific concepts, which means that knowledge and insight are
required. Studying the study guide may provide you with knowledge, but by doing the
activities and assignments you will gain the necessary insight into the module.

xii. ASSIGNMENTS

The assignments for this module are provided online on myUnisa under Assessment
Shells, which also contains the assessment criteria and formats of the assignments.
There are various reasons why it is imperative for you to complete the assignments:

• Your final assessment mark is calculated based on the marks you have
earned for the compulsory assignments.
• Completing the assignments will help you to achieve the learning outcomes for
the module.
• The assignments afford you the opportunity to apply theory to a classroom
situation.
Testing yourself

It is of the utmost importance that you test yourself regularly through the self-reflection
activities. Although each learning unit ends with an exercise that requires you to reflect
on what you have learned and whether you have achieved the outcomes, it is important
that you test yourself by constantly asking yourself: “What do I know now that I did not
know before?” By making mind maps of each of the learning units, you are also testing
yourself.

xiii. ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS IN THE ONLINE STUDY GUIDE

At the end of each learning unit in this study guide you will find a list of possible self-
reflection questions based on the work covered in that learning unit. You are advised
to work through these questions diligently, since this will help you to prepare for
possible assignment questions. Self-reflection questions play a key role in mastering
the learning outcomes, therefore it is important to answer the self-reflection questions
and complete the self-reflection activities in this study guide. You will find most of the
answers to these questions in the learning material covered in the tutorial letter. This
basically means that you will not be faced with any surprises in the assignments. It is
therefore in your own interest to work through these self-reflection questions.

xiv. EXAMINATIONS

There is no examination for this module. This is a continuous assessment module.

xv. WHAT YOU CAN EXPECT FROM UNISA

Bear in mind that learning is a two-way process. This means that you, the student,
have certain responsibilities and tasks, and that we at Unisa also have certain
responsibilities and tasks.

xvi. YOUR RESPONSIBILITIES

You have to take responsibility for your own online studies. Your studies will enrich
your life and give you a different perspective on teaching Natural Sciences in the Senior
Phase if you commit yourself to the following responsibilities:

• You need access to the internet as this is a fully online course and only some
learning material will be supplied in printed format.
• You must register as a user on myUnisa to access the online modules.
• You need to study the prescribed tutorial matter (which includes this study guide,
and the tutorial letters) conscientiously according to the guidelines and sequence
provided.
• You need to relate what you are learning to your classroom.
• You need to plan your studies according to the time available.
• You need to submit your assignments on time.
xvii. UNISA’S RESPONSIBILITIES

• We will provide you with up-to-date and relevant learning material.

• We will see that the learning material is in line with the needs of learners.
• We will assist you in developing competencies and skills at a certain level. The
outcomes correspond to the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) level 7.
You will be assessed according to the level descriptors of the NQF.
• We will support you when you require assistance. You may contact us, your
lecturers, by making an appointment to see us in person, by telephoning us
during office hours, or by sending us an e-mail. We understand that studying
 through distance education is more challenging than attending a residential or
contact university.
• We will give you clear indications of what we expect from you in terms of your
assessment.
• We will provide you with prompt feedback on the assignments.

xviii. CONCLUSION

We hope that you will enjoy your studies and that you will be just as excited as we are
about teaching Natural Sciences in the Senior Phase once you have finished this
module. We are looking forward to being your partners in this exciting endeavour.

Best wishes

Mr Khathutshelo Ronald Munasi

E-mail: emunask@unisa.ac.za

Dr Patricia Photo

E-mail: photop@unisa.ac.za

Tel: 012 429 2662

Department of Science and Technology Education

LEARNING UNIT 1: THE PURPOSE OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

Table of contents
Learning objectives

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Nature of science

1.3 Natural Sciences education

1.3.1 The nature and origin of natural science

1.3.2 The limits of natural science

1.3.3 Science as a body of knowledge

1.3.4 Non-scientific ways of thinking

1.3.5 Science as a method or process

1.4 What is the real purpose of science education?

1.5 Indigenous knowledge (IK) and Natural Sciences

1.6 Supporting young explorers in the classroom

1.7 Linking theory to practice

1.8 Conclusion

1.9 Self-reflection questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
On completion of this learning unit, you should be able to:

• Discuss the nature of science and science education.

• Discuss IK and Natural Sciences.
• Discuss how to encourage learners to become explorers of the world.
• Explain the purpose of science and the link between theory
and practice in science education.

1.1. INTRODUCTION
The importance of knowing your own values and views about teaching and learning
cannot be overstated. These values and views are what shape you as a Senior Phase
Natural Sciences educator. Simply knowing the subject content well is not enough. It
is important to know how to teach science to help learners develop an understanding
of and appreciation for the nature of science (NOS).

1.2. NATURE OF SCIENCE

The nature of science (NOS) seeks to describe the nature of the scientific enterprise
and the characteristics of the knowledge it generates. Read more about NOS at:
https://www.nsta.org/nstas-official-positions/nature-
science#:~:text=Nature%20of%20science%20(NOS)%20is,based%20personal%20a
nd%20societal%20issues

Your job as a science educator is a tough one. Not only must you teach scientific
knowledge, develop learners’ scientific skills and foster scientific attitudes, you must
also convey messages about the nature of science and the work of scientists
(Wellington & Ireson, 2012).

What are the key messages about science and scientific activity that we wish to convey
(Wellington & Ireson, 2012:11)?
• Science is contextualised as Science and scientists operate in a spiritual, moral
and political context. However they also cross boundaries (e.g. genetically
modified food can be imported and exported).
• Science is provisional. Its ideas and theories change over time. However,
Newton’s laws are centuries old and they got us to the moon and back. Theories
may be tentative, but many laws are not (e.g. Ohm’s law and Boyle’s law), nor
are facts (e.g. facts about the expansion of metals). Copper will still conduct
electricity in 100 years’ time.
• Science is not value-free, but some scientific facts, laws and theories are
independent of people and society. Newton’s second law works as well in
Durban as it does in Dzivarasekwa. The kinetic theory of particles can be
applied globally.
• Science is limited. It cannot explain everything, but it does explain at least 80%
of phenomena.
• Science is a double-edged sword and has drawbacks, but would you have liked
to live in the days before science started making our lives so much easier?
• Science deals in relative, not absolute, truth. This might be the case, but an iron
bar will always expand when it is heated. This is absolutely true in any place
and at any time.
• Science is determined by reality, but a lot of good scientific theories have come
from creative thinking, hunches and leaps of the imagination. Many scientific
explanations depend on entities and ideas that are not real or observable (e.g.
magnetic fields and frictionless surfaces).
• Science is theory-laden. This is mostly true, but some research at the frontiers
of science may not be theory-laden (e.g. research into genetically manipulated
foods).
• Science is an objective, rational activity, but it is not totally objective in its pursuit
of the truth and not totally guided by the natural world. It is a human activity and
as such it is driven by personalities, egos and funding. Science is often practised
in the context of large institutions and driven by social movements, the media,
public opinion, politicians or other decision-makers. Science involves
completion as well as cooperation.
• Science is tentative. This is true, but some scientific knowledge is reliable. We
ride in planes, we drive over suspension bridges and we take antibiotics. People
quite rightly have some faith in science.
Activity 1.1
1. Define the nature of science (NOS).
2. Explain why you think it is important to teach South African learners about the
NOS.

1.3. NATURAL SCIENCES EDUCATION

Activity 1.2
Answer the following questions:

1. What is Natural Sciences education?

2. Name three fields of science education.
3. Discuss the historical background of science education.

1.3.1 The nature and origin of natural science

An interest in natural science involves finding out about and making sense of the
natural world. Natural science is rooted in the belief that nature is comprehensible. In
other words, nature is not capricious and magical – it is rationally ordered and can
therefore be known and understood. Natural science as we know it today combines
and direct the experimental investigation of nature with reasoned, inductive logical
thinking in order to interpret, explain and make generalisations about the patterns or
regularities observed in nature.

Natural science as we know it today originated in 16th-century Europe. The founders

of natural science were: Nicholas Copernicus (1473–1543); Sir Francis Bacon (1561–
1626) (Bacon was the father of what might be called the experimental scientific
method); Galileo Galilei (1564–1642); Johannes Kepler (1571–1630); and Sir Isaac
Newton (1642–1727). However, this does not mean that science had not existed before
these men started their work. The ancient Greeks, Arabs and Chinese were great
mathematicians, engineers and astronomers, but their reasoning was based mainly on
intuitive ideas and perceptual experience. The founders of experimental science
emphasised human fallibility and the subsequent need for testing intuitive ideas and
perceptual experience against reality. Their concern was to subject theories (e.g. the
geocentric Ptolemaic theory) to the test of observation and experimentation.

On the basis of the assumption that ideas and reasoning must be tested against reality,
natural science made phenomenal progress, and both natural science itself and the
technology it made possible have become transcultural. Experimental science and
technology are among the very few cultural products that have crossed all cultural
boundaries and are globally acknowledged and used.

From the above, it should be clear that natural science as we know it today is both:

– a body of knowledge (i.e. ideas and concepts explaining

natural things and events), and
– a method (or process) of acquiring knowledge

1.3.2 The limits of natural science

As a body of knowledge and a method of acquiring knowledge, natural science is
limited to a study of:

– processes in the natural world

– physically observable and/or measurable things
– repeatable events (an unrepeatable, once-off event cannot be investigated in the
laboratory)

Science cannot address ethical, philosophical or religious questions about the origin,
destiny and purpose of the universe and life. This does not mean that the answers to
such questions are matters of personal opinion only, but that the answers to such
questions must be sought beyond the confines of science.

1.3.3 Science as a body of knowledge

Answers to matters that fall within the above-mentioned limits of science, may be any
one of the following:

– facts
– hypothetical explanations, theories
– natural laws
Factual scientific knowledge is actual observed data. It includes matters such as the
properties and composition of the various substances; the morphology or anatomy
(structure or build) of the various plants and animals; and the adaptation of plants or
animals to specific habitats; and the specific functions of the parts of an animal or a
plant (e.g. the heart pumps blood; chlorophyll in plants produces starch).

Scientific theories are not facts, but explanations or interpretations of empirical data. A
scientific theory is a set of properly argued conclusions drawn from observed and/or
quantified data. These conclusions are usually a matter of the most probable theory
based on the data available. Scientific theories are scientists’ “means of trying
observed facts together, and the best theories are those which achieve this objective
with the least number of inconsistencies” (Gitt, 1997:23).

The following are examples of scientific theories:

➢ Newton’s theory of gravity explains why falling objects always fall towards the
centre of the earth; his theory of gravity also explains the orbital paths of the
planets. (Gravity is in fact a natural law.)
➢ The theory of magnetism explains why two opposite magnetic poles exist or can be
induced in some materials. It also explains why opposite magnetic poles attract one
another, while like poles repel each other.
➢ The kinetic-molecular theory explains why substances expand or contract when
heated or cooled.

A theory can be accepted as valid if it can be experimentally verified and/or applied

technologically. For example, we know that the theory (law) of aerodynamics is valid
because its application resulted in manned flight (aircraft). Valid theories describe and
therefore correspond with phenomena in the natural world.

A valid theory implies neither an exhaustive nor a final description of a natural

phenomenon because, firstly, human theories can never be absolute or perfect.
Secondly, empirical results are never final. The possibility that hitherto unknown
counter examples may exist can never be excluded. Scientific theories are therefore
provisional and must be modified or discarded if found to be in conflict with subsequent
observations.
A good theory is a theory that could very easily be falsified; if it can survive all open
criticism and tests, such a theory can be accepted as valid.
Examples of discarded theories that evidence proved to be totally false are the flat
earth theory; the geocentric theory; the existence of a material medium (dubbed ether)
through which electromagnetic waves are conducted in space; the generation of life
from non-living matter (disproved by Louis Pasteur); and so forth. An example of a
modified and expanded theory is the progressively improved theory of atomic structure,
a theory that began with Democritus (who lived in ancient Greece from approximately
460 to 370 BC) and that continues to be developed in the present.

Natural laws: If the truth of a scientific theory is verified repeatedly to the extent that it
can be regarded as generally valid, then we have a natural law (Gitt, 1997:22). For
example, we accept that the law of conservation of energy (i.e. we can neither destroy
nor create energy) is a law rather than a mere theory because a contradiction of the
law of conservation of energy has persistently shown itself as an impossibility (despite
unceasing efforts to demonstrate otherwise in the form of a perpetual motion machine).
No patent office will accept an “invention” that disregards a law of nature.

In addition to valid scientific theories, scientists also advance theories about things that
go beyond the limits of science. Such theories are interpretations of or more correctly,
extrapolations from, observed factual data, but the extrapolation itself cannot or has
never been successfully verified. The factual data could, in fact, be interpreted
differently. Such theories are speculative and are only possibly true or possibly false.

In other words, a speculative theory is a theory that considers matters that (1) are not
physically observable and/or measurable; and/or (2) not repeatable events. Such
theories should not be taught as facts because the data on which they are based can
be interpreted in a different, but also logical, way. The interpretations depend on the
scientist’s presuppositions.

In other words, the presuppositions of the scientist determine the way in which data or
facts are interpreted. Scientists always interpret evidence in terms of presuppositions;
if scientists’ presuppositions differ, their interpretations of the evidence will also differ.

Learners must learn that presuppositions determine the path of reasoning. Only when
we know the undergirding presuppositions of an untestable, speculative theory, can
we evaluate it and weigh it up against another theory that is based on different
presuppositions.

By teaching learners to delve into the presuppositions undergirding speculative

theories, they will learn the importance of forming informed opinions rather than simply
endorsing the accepted majority opinion. True critical thinkers are people who strive to
discover truth, and they value truth above majority opinion and group acceptance.

An example of a speculative theory is the theory of evolution, which is a hypothetical

extrapolation from variations within a species. From the factual evidence of
evolutionary changes within a species, Charles Darwin (1809–1882) concluded that
radically new and different species can and have evolved from another species. The
theory of evolution is speculative for the following reasons, among others (Sunderland,
1988:134):

– All breeding experimentation has produced only changes within a species and has
consistently failed to produce any change from one species to another. The wide
variety within a species is not evidence for evolution.
– No fossil of any intermediate species (Darwin’s missing link) has ever been found.
– Mathematicians have calculated the number of selections and/or mutations
required for species change and they were so astronomically large that, when fed
into supercomputers, the machines simply jammed.
– When amino acids (the building blocks and basis of life) combine to form
polypeptides (the basis of proteins), the chemical reactions are reversible and water
is a product on the right: A + B . C + H20. In a watery medium such as the primeval
ocean, in which evolutionists maintain life started, the reaction to the left will be
promoted and peptide synthesis (essential for life) will therefore not take place.
– Evolutionary change would always require an increase in genetic information, but
genetic information can only be lost. It can NEVER be gained.

The theory of evolution refers to macroevolution and not to microevolution.

Microevolution is the observable and demonstrable evolutionary variations within a
species lineage that occur both in nature and in the laboratory when a new breed of a
plant or an animal species is bred, for example a new rose or a new variety of dog.
Microevolution is the result of amazing machinery within the living cell that can shuffle
and recombine genetic information.
If we do teach speculative theories like the theory of evolution as hard facts, we are
not teaching learners independent, critical thinking. Instead, we are teaching them to
accept, passively and unquestioningly, other people’s opinions. Unesco (1980:23)
states the following in this regards:

We shall be teaching the kind of thinking of the Middle Ages and earlier. The
children will not be learning science. They will have been denied what might be
man’s [humanity’s] greatest achievement. We shall have left them unprotected
against the myths of the politicians, advertisers and other dangerous prophets.

1.3.4 Non-scientific ways of thinking

Faith and religion: Research reveals that the term “faith” is used mostly when
referring to beliefs and trust in a god. The term “faith” is also used to refer to convictions
or commitments to other systems of belief, for example humanism, Ubuntu and
ancestral spirituality. Research also shows that there are naive communities that have
religious expression that recognises an element that is beyond human control. Naive
communities such as ancestral worshippers sometimes believe that ancestors still
influence people who are still alive. Faith is an essential aspect of the lives of many
people who belief in a supernatural god or ancestral influences, and plays an important
role in how they interpret and explain the world.

1.3.5 Science as a method or process

As a method of acquiring knowledge, science includes mental skills such as the
following:

– accurate observation
– reasoned, logical thinking based on evidence
– the recognition of relationships and contradictions
– problem-solving
– desirable scientific attitudes, for example a sense of wonder about the intricacies
of nature and a desire to get closer to the truth about how nature works

Activity 1.3
1. One of the controversial science topics that teachers must teach is the theory of
evolution. Reflect on your personal opinion about how humans came into being.
 Also reflect on the views of those around you. How do your views and those of
people around you affect the way you would teach the theory of evolution?
2. Give FIVE examples of the basic science process skills learned in Natural
Sciences.

1.4. WHAT IS THE REAL PURPOSE OF SCIENCE EDUCATION?

As individuals with our own sets of values and priorities we attach different meanings
and purposes to science education. Use the links below to read about the different
purposes of science education and the value of science education.

https://www.elementaryschoolassemblies.com/assembly-programs/importance-
teaching-science-children/.

https://www.ascd.org/el/articles/teaching-the-value-of-science

Also read about the specific aims of Natural Sciences teaching in the Senior Phase in
the CAPS document for Natural Sciences (DBE, 2011).

Activity 1.4
1. What is the purpose of science education?
2. Why should anyone learn science? Why should science be taught?
3. What aspects of science should the science curriculum cover? Explain your
answer.
4. What is the intrinsic value of science education?
5. Discuss the citizenship argument for scientific knowledge.

1.5. IK AND NATURAL SCIENCES

Specific aim 3 of the CAPS document says that “learners should understand the uses
of Natural Sciences and indigenous knowledge [IK] in society and the environment”
(DBE, 2011:10). What are IK and indigenous knowledge systems (IKSs)? The
information that follows here comes from the CAPS document for Natural Sciences
and the IKS document published by the Department of Science and Technology (DST).

Our forebears would not have survived if they had not been able to learn about the
natural world they depended on. They made careful observations and recognised
regular patterns in seasons, the life cycles of plants and the behaviour of animals. They
had theories about cause and effect too, and understood many of the relationships in
the environment where they lived. These sets of knowledge, each woven into the
history and place of people, are known as IKSs.
IK includes knowledge about agriculture and food production, pastoral practices and
animal production, forestry, plant classification, medicinal plants, the management of
biodiversity, food preservation, the management of soil and water, iron smelting,
brewing, making dwellings and understanding astronomy. As society changes, some
of that knowledge is lost. People such as biologists, pharmacists and archaeologists
are seeking it out and writing it down before it is gone (DBE, 2011:8).

The IKSs developed and maintained by South Africa’s indigenous peoples pervade the
lives and belief systems of a large proportion of the country’s population. Such IK
manifests itself in areas ranging from cultural and religious ceremonies to agricultural
practices and health interventions. IK is generally used synonymously with traditional
and local knowledge to differentiate the knowledge developed by and within distinctive
indigenous communities from the international knowledge system generated through
universities, government research centres and private industry, sometimes incorrectly
called the Western knowledge system.

Under apartheid, IKSs in South Africa and their practitioners were marginalised,
suppressed and subjected to ridicule. This had profoundly negative effects on the
development of South Africa’s economy and society, resulting in the distortion of the
social, cultural and economic development of the vast majority of its people.

Across every measurement of socio-economic status and wellbeing, and across all
age groups, geographical circumstances and both genders, indigenous people are
severely disadvantaged. The disadvantages they face have the potential to increase
and further entrench the disparity between indigenous and other sectors of society over
the coming decades, unless greater effort is made now to redress the ongoing
inequalities, not least of which is in respect of the knowledge systems of indigenous
communities and specific knowledge traditions within these, such as guilds of
traditional healers and specific knowledge traditions held by women in communities.

Integrating and celebrating African perspectives in South Africa’s knowledge systems

is not only a matter of redress. It can help to create new research paradigms and
mental maps, as well as enrich existing ones. Juxtaposed against the backdrop of
centuries of oppression, there exists an indisputable wealth of IK that has survived and
even thrived within the protective confines of African societies and communities. Much
of the IK that has persisted has shaped and informed African thinking on issues such
as art, music, religion and theology, governance, justice, health and agriculture.
Personal and cultural identities, including social belief systems, have remained strong
and vibrant through the repeated observance of IK tenets, in spite of the very hostile
sociopolitical environment characteristic of colonialism and apartheid. Women are
often the custodians of these bodies of knowledge.

Activity 1.5
1. What is indigenous knowledge (IK)?
2. How would you define an IKS?
3. How is knowledge acquired in indigenous societies?
4. Why is IK important?

1.6. SUPPORTING YOUNG EXPLORERS IN THE CLASSROOM

It is important to remember that knowing how to do something and being able to do it
are two different things. You might know what to teach, and which theory and method
should be used, but you might still not be able to teach well. Teaching is a skill that
requires many hours of practice and experience. One of the great arts of teaching is to
explain things; that is, to talk about difficult ideas in terms that learners can understand.
As you develop as a teacher, you learn a range of different ways to represent and
formulate the ideas of science to ensure that learners understand them (Wellington &
Ireson, 2012: 5).

Building a science teacher repertoire may entail the following:

– knowing the learning environment

– knowing the policies
– knowing the pedagogical content
– knowing the pedagogies
– developing scientific skills

– knowing the learners

Activity 1.6
1. Explain how you would support young explorers.
2. Describe any FIVE aspects that should be addressed when a science
teacher is developed.

1.7. LINKING THEORY TO PRACTICE

The science teaching theories are irrelevant if they are not practised. When we
embrace the idea that learners are explorers of the world, we no longer focus on
teaching scientific facts – we focus on helping learners to realise that science is
applicable to their everyday lives. Visit the following website to read about the
components of science education:

https://www.norad.no/en/front/thematic-areas/education/education-quality/six-key-
elements-of-quality/

There are factors that affect science teachers and their teaching (theory and practice).
These factors include pressures and constraints, but there are also many that will
assist teachers in enhancing their teaching.

Activity 1.7

Go to Discussion Forum 1.1 and discuss the following with your classmates:

The factors below affect science teachers and their teaching theory:

– The curriculum. How does this affect you as a science teacher?

– The science department. How does this affect you as a science teacher?
– Learners’ and parents’ expectations. How do these affect you as a science
teacher?
– The school: politics, principal, status. How do these affect you as a science
teacher?
– Teachers’ views of science and science education. How do these affect you as
a science teacher?
– The learners. How do they affect you as a science teacher?
– The teacher’s strengths, weaknesses, attitudes and experiences. How do
these affect you as a science teacher?
Your own image or view of what science is will affect how you present and teach
science (content and process) in the classroom.

1.8. CONCLUSION

In this learning unit we attempted to move away from the traditional content focus of
most science curricula, to thinking about science education as a means of encouraging
students to become explorers of their world. If we focus on the nature of science, the
process of science and the way in which scientific understanding is constructed, we
are more likely to motivate, engage and educate our students. In the next learning unit
we discuss a number of these aspects in more detail. By using an explorer-of-the-world
framework, we are more likely to heighten your curiosity as a science teacher so that
you become a life-long learner of science.

1.9. SELF-REFLECTION QUESTIONS

This section contains self-reflection questions that you can use to test your
knowledge of the learning unit.
Section A

At the end of the following questions, reflect on what you have learned in learning unit
1:

1. Explain the nature and origin of natural sciences.

2. Identify the limits of natural sciences.
3. Analyse science as a body of knowledge.
4. Discuss the purpose of science education explanatory frameworks and activities.
5. Distinguish between valid and speculative theories.
6. Discuss IK and natural sciences.
7. How would you support young explorers?
8. Explain the factors that affect you as science teacher and your teaching.

8REFERENCE LIST
Beyers, J. 2010. What is religion? An African understanding. HTS Teologiese
Studies/Theological Studies 66(1).

Department of Basic Education. 2011. Curriculum and Assessment Policy

Statement. Grades 7–9, Natural Sciences. ISBN: 978-1-4315-0528-9.

Department of Basic Education. 2011. Curriculum and Assessment Policy

Statement. Grades 10–12, Life Sciences. ISBN: 978-1-4315-0578-4.

Gitt, W. 1997. In the beginning there was information. Bielefield: Christliche

Literatuur-Verbreitung.

Gregson, R & Botha, ML. 2016. Teaching Science: Foundation to Senior Phase.
Cape Town: Oxford University Press.

Sunderland, LD. 1988. Darwin’s enigma: fossils and other problems. 4th revised
edition. Santee, CA: Master.

Wellington, L & Ireson, G. 2012. Science learning, science teaching. 3rd edition.
London: Routledge.
LEARNING UNIT 2: OPENING UP SCIENCE TO ALL LEARNERS

Table of contents
Learning objectives

2.1 Introduction

2.2 How learners in Grades 7 to 9 think

2.3 How learners in Grades 4 to 9 learn

2.3.1 Learning theories

2.3.2 Learning, knowledge and mental frameworks

2.3.3 Implications for teaching science

2.4 English as a first additional language

2.5 Contemporary theories and practices

2.6 Conclusion

2.8 Self-reflection questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
On completion of this learning unit, you should be able to:

• Discuss the worlds, worldviews, and ways that learners in Grades 7 to 9 think
and learn.
• Explain what misconceptions are and why correcting them is essential.
• Discuss how learners with limited proficiency in English can be helped.
• Explain contemporary theories and practices.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In the 21st century we cater for a diverse range of learners. Learners bring their
own understandings of the world with them when they come into our classrooms.
Some learners have limited proficiency in English that affects their learning of
science. Furthermore, new technologies can change the way learners engage with
science. Educational theories provide us with a framework to support our teaching
and assist us in establishing connections with our learners’ world.

2.2 HOW LEARNERS IN GRADES 7 TO 9 THINK

Jean Piaget, a Swiss developmental psychologist, formulated a theory of how children
think. Piaget suggests that a child’s ability to think develops in stages. He lists the
following stages:

➢ the sensorimotor stage (0 to about 2 years)

➢ the preoperational stage (from about 2 to about 7 years)
➢ the concrete operational stage (from about 7 to about 12 years)
➢ the formal operational stage (from about 12 years)

The learners you teach will certainly display evidence of formal operational thought,
which is the ability to deal with abstractions. However, few adolescents (and adults)
can consistently operate at the formal, abstract level of thought, especially when the
material to be learned is new to them.
According to Piaget, the concrete, operational thought processes of these learners
entail the following:
• They can think logically and reason, but such thinking and reasoning are still tied
to concrete experiences. They may have difficulty with abstract concepts and with
purely verbal problems and explanations.
• They can recognise contradictory explanations. If a contradiction is pointed out to
them, they will try to eliminate it.
• Their belief in magic declines. They are now interested in the real world and seek
natural explanations for natural events.
• They begin to use explanations that display evidence of logical reasoning and
make sense. Their explanations may not be scientifically correct, but they are
logical and show judgement on their part.
• They are prepared to consider viewpoints that differ from their own.
• They can classify and order.
• They can understand the idea of subclasses. For example, they can understand
that all trees are plants, but that not all plants are trees.
• They can classify in different ways. For example, they can classify leaves from
different trees according to shape and size.
• They can understand that some feature or property may remain constant during
many transformation processes. For example, when water is poured from one
container into another container of a different shape, they can understand that
although the volume of water appears to be different, it remains the same.

On the basis of Piaget’s ideas, we can identify the following implications for teaching
Natural Sciences to learners in the Senior Phase:
− Learners in Grades 7 to 9 learn best when their learning experiences are related
to concrete materials.
− Well-thought-out, simple experiments that learners can perform themselves and
demonstrations by the teacher will help them to learn.
− Avoid the temptation to employ an overly verbal teaching method that results in
the learners becoming a passive audience.
− Learners must work with concrete materials before they can understand
underlying abstract concepts.
Activity 2.1
9

Discuss the following with your classmates in Discussion Forum 2.1:

1. Think carefully about Grades 7 to 9 learners in your Natural Sciences class. List
the thinking processes and skills that you can expect of such learners.
2. What in your opinion are the implications of the characteristics of the thought
processes of learners in Grades 7 to 9 for teaching Natural Sciences?

2.3 HOW LEARNERS IN GRADES 4 TO 9 LEARN

2.3.1 Learning theories

Learning is about using experiences to acquire or change our knowledge,

understanding and skills. This new knowledge helps us to understand ourselves and
our world. What we learn from these experiences is not always what has been
intended, nor is it always correct. However, what we understand and how we
understand evolve as we develop and as our world changes. As teachers we need to
recognise how unique each learner is in terms of their abilities, needs and the prior
experience they bring to our classrooms.

Throughout the ages philosophers and researchers have developed ideas and
theories about learning in an attempt to explain what is happening when we learn or
when we fail to learn. Their ideas are based on analyses of prior theories or on
empirical research that provides new insights. As such theories are “sets of
assumptions and assertions used to interpret and sometimes to explain psychological,
social, cultural and historical processes. Theories are tools to help us think about things
in new ways” (Gregson & Botha, 2016). These theories are valuable because they
provide the vocabulary and framework we need to analyse learning situations, as well
as solutions to problems encountered during learning. Theories inform self-reflection
on our teaching, which in turns leads to the modification of our practices.

2.3.2 Learning, knowledge and mental frameworks

In recent years, cognitive psychologists and learning theorists have expanded on
Piaget’s work. From their findings it has become clear that people construct a personal
mental framework, network or schema of related ideas from their experiences and
perceptions.

A personal mental framework may be described as how a person thinks things are,
which shapes their personal frame of reference. However, this frame of reference may
be incorrect because how someone thinks things are is not necessarily how things are
in reality. A person’s idea of something may be wrong because mental frameworks are
usually constructed based on perceptual experience, and perceptual experience is
often incorrect. For example, we all experience the earth as being flat, but we know
that it is spherical.

Knowledge of something means that our ideas of it correspond to how it really is. In
other words, knowledge is limited to correct ideas, while a mental framework consists
of both correct ideas (knowledge) and incorrect ideas.

A teacher’s task is to ensure that learners construct mental frameworks that are also
knowledge frameworks; in other words, that learners’ ideas correspond to how things
really are.

Thus, a person’s mental framework of ideas constitutes knowledge only if it

corresponds to reality. Learning therefore implies that the learner constructs his or her
mental framework of ideas in accordance with the way things are in reality; in other
words, successful teaching and learning occur “only when the mind of the learner
passes from a state of ignorance or error to a state of knowledge’’ (Adler, 1988:168).

The process of constructing a personal mental framework of ideas (which may either
be correct or incorrect) from your views and interpretations of all that you experience,
starts during early infancy. “Child science’’ is children’s way of making sense of the
natural world. Child science therefore refers to the explanatory ideas of natural
phenomena that children construct for themselves. These ideas are often wrong.

Child science may also include wrong information given by adults. It is the duty of the
Natural Sciences teacher to correct such wrong ideas. This means the following:
• Learners do not arrive at our science lessons with empty minds. They have often
already constructed their own interpretative ideas about natural phenomena.
These ideas may be incorrect, but they seem entirely logical and sensible to the
learner; in other words, learners have their own personal child science.
• If the meanings and ideas that a learner has constructed for himself or herself are
incorrect, any new information that is linked thereto is also likely to be wrong, or to
be wrongly applied.
• Learners cling strongly to the ideas and meanings that they have constructed for
themselves; in other words, learners (like all people) are reluctant to admit that
their ideas and preconceptions are wrong.

Activity 2.2
11

1. Discuss how Natural Sciences learners in Grades 7 to 9 think and learn.

2. Explain what learners’ worlds and worldviews are with respect to learning
science.

2.3.3 Implications for teaching science

The ideas that (1) learners are actively involved in constructing mental schemata
(which may constitute either false or true knowledge) and (2) learners have their own
idiosyncratic child science, are powerful tools for improving our teaching skills and
benefiting our learners. These ideas imply a teaching approach that views learners’
existing mental schemata as the starting point in facilitating the enrichment or
modification of such schemata.
The aim is to promote the successful learning of science; that is, to transform child
science into true scientific understanding. It therefore appears that Natural Sciences
teachers should pay attention to the following:

✓ New information should be explained in terms of knowledge that learners have

already acquired (the principle of teaching from the known to the unknown).
✓ Conscious efforts to help learners recognise relationships between old and new
(i.e. between existing mental schemata and new information) facilitate the
construction of an organised mental structure of related concepts and ideas. As
Gega (1994:45) points out: “Well-organised schemata allow more usable
information to be stored in memory, [and] then [to be] efficiently retrieved and
applied as needed.’’
✓ Scientific ideas and concepts (the subject matter) should be related to learners’
everyday world, experiences and interests. Exploring the natural world as it is
 seen through learners’ eyes helps them to make sense of new scientific
explanations that may conflict with their own preconceptions (child science).
✓ To promote optimal learning, use examples and deal with problems that learners
may have had in the past or are likely to have in the future. This implies that we
should not ignore the social and environmental setting within which learners live,
but should ensure that our teaching takes into account the environment of the
school so that local needs and problems are addressed.
✓ Rote learning (i.e. memorisation without understanding) should be avoided.
✓ To determine whether or not learners understand what they have been taught,
learners should be expected to explain their answers, even if their answers were
correct.
✓ Never ridicule, ignore or simply condemn learners’ incorrect ideas. Do not be
dictatorial. Listen to learners’ ideas so that you can determine what it is that they
misunderstand. This will enable you to present scientific ideas and explanations in
such ways that would avoid further misunderstanding.
✓ Find out what ideas your learners may already have formed about the concepts
you are trying to teach them. If there are misconceptions, try to correct these in
the following ways:
Ask learners several questions that they cannot answer correctly on the basis of
their wrong ideas. Make sure that you explain the new ideas at the appropriate level
of understanding and use language that learners can understand.

Ensure that the new ideas make sense and fit into learners’ present framework of
knowledge. Learners understand new ideas in terms of those that they have
already mastered. If they do not understand the new ideas, such ideas will not seem
reasonable and they will be rejected.

Present the new ideas in such a way that they can be used to solve problems.

Focus on the problems that learners’ present ideas could not solve. In this way,
there is a good chance that learners will change their ideas or let go of old ideas.
They can then make the necessary effort to learn the new idea.

Correcting misconceptions is important for three reasons:

❖ Firstly, learners who are not empowered with true scientific understanding are
denied the scientific literacy that they need to succeed in a contemporary society
that relies heavily on science and technology.
❖ Secondly, scientifically illiterate people do not always see the need for
environmental programmes. For example, many learners believe that during
combustion the burning substance simply disappears. If this view is not corrected,
they will not see the connection between combustion and air pollution, and
consequently they will not see the need for smoke-free zones.
❖ Thirdly, if we do not transform child science into true scientific understanding,
learners’ wrong ideas and the information imparted during science lessons will
exist side by side in their minds. This will prevent the development of an orderly,
integrated and holistic understanding of the natural world. What will then occur is
a compartmentalisation of ideas where “students think that nature works one way
at home and another way at school’’ (Watson & Konicek, 1990:684).
While misconceptions should be corrected, we should be careful never to teach
invalidated and unprovable theories posited by scientists (e.g. the theory of evolution)
as scientifically validated facts. If we do, we are encouraging learners to view scientists
and their opinions as the final and absolute authority. This is dogmatic, dictatorial and
contrary to the spirit of science and democracy.

12Activity 2.3

1. What could you do to ensure that an activity focuses on science and is not just
given for the sake of keeping learners busy?
2. Discuss what misconceptions are and why correcting them is essential.

2.4 ENGLISH AS A FIRST ADDITIONAL LANGUAGE

Many learners who attend science lessons do not only have their own preconceived
ideas, but also have a limited understanding of English. How best to help learners with
limited English proficiency (LEP) to learn science correctly is a major challenge.

Many LEP learners experience some culture shock, since what they observe now may
differ radically from their earlier environment. They may be reluctant to speak because
they are afraid to make mistakes. Your warm acceptance and frequent praise will boost
their confidence. Whatever you can do to reduce anxiety, to increase meaning of
content studied, to model good English and increase chances to interact informally
with English speakers, will benefit them. Here are some things that can work for you,
based on what many effective teachers have learned from helping LEP learners:

(1) Use a listening–speaking–reading–writing sequence in teaching whenever

possible. Listening lays the foundation for other language skills. It is easier to
speak what we have first heard, read what we have spoken and write what we
have read.
(2) Use multisensory, hands-on teaching methods whenever you can. Concrete
materials, investigations, demonstrations, audio-visual media, graphs,
diagrams and so on are more likely to foster meaningful learning than studying
printed matter. One great advantage of hands-on science over most other
subjects is that the actual doing demands very little verbal ability. Most
speaking occurs before and after the event.

(3) Pair LEP learners with bilingual partners who can supply brief translations as
needed, but coach these partners to focus on teaching English words and
phrases for actions taken or objects observed during investigations. For a
good pattern, ask them to say the word or phrase referring to an action or
object, and then ask the LEP learner to repeat it immediately.

(4) Place LEP learners in cooperative learning groups to increase chances for
frequent, low-anxiety, informal interactions with other learners.

(5) Speak slowly, use short sentences and rephrase what you say if a learner
seems unsure rather than repeat what you have said. Use body language,
props, pictures and sketches to clarify your words. Check more specifically
whether a learner understands by asking questions that require only “yes” or
“no” answers, or by asking the learner to do something that you can observe,
such as point to an object.

(6) Avoid idiomatic expressions as they can be confusing when taken literally.
Examples of such idiomatic expressions include “It is as easy as pie” or
“Please take your chair’’.
 (7) Make whatever you refer to as concrete as possible and use what you know
the learners have done or observed in the past. Also give observable
examples in the present: “The handle of this pencil sharpener is also a lever.”

(8) To help learners build schemata, write the key concepts and vocabulary used
during a lesson on the chalkboard. Draw a concept map to outline what is to
come in a lesson or to summarise the content of a lesson.

(9) Emphasise and repeat key words during the lesson to help learners to
remember important words and how they sound.

Learners who are progressively increasing their English proficiency may require some
additional time and attention, but they can also enrich the curriculum by bringing
multicultural knowledge and perspectives to what is being studied.

To forge a link between the home and school, write letters to parents in their home
language (have the letters translated) as well as in English to inform them of the facets
of science their children will be studying and how they may be of assistance at home.

13Activity 2.4

Discuss how learners with limited English proficiency can be helped.

2.5 CONTEMPORARY THEORIES AND PRACTICES

Contemporary theories of learning that emerged in the latter part of the last century
focus on practice and the individual. Where early theories related to the acquisition of
knowledge, more recent research has focused on emotional, social and cultural factors
that affect learning. Follow the link below to read about 15 learning theories in
education (Loveless, 2022):

https://www.educationcorner.com/learning-theories-in-education/

In 1956, American educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom categorised tasks into

three psychological domains:

❖ cognitive domain: the ability to process and use information

❖ affective domain: involving attitudes and feelings associated with learning
❖ psychomotor domain: manipulation and physical skills
Bloom’s major influence on educational practices came from his development of a
taxonomy relating to learning objectives and assessment. He defines the different
levels of learning, which leads to greater insight into the differences between surface
and deep learning and understanding. Bloom bases his taxonomy on the belief that
different activities and assessment tasks require different skills, some of which are
easier than others (Loughran, 2010). There are six levels in Bloom’s taxonomy that are
often apparent in lesson planning and marking guides. Follow the link below to read
about Bloom’s Taxonomy in more detail (McNulty, 2019):

https://www.niallmcnulty.com/2019/12/introduction-to-blooms-taxonomy/

Howard Gardner (1983) researched cognitive abilities and developed the theory of
multiple intelligences, which proposes that there is not just one type of intelligence. His
theory shows similarity to the visual, auditory, kinaesthetic (VAK) learning styles model
developed in the 1920s (Hramiak & Hudson, 2011). The VAK model suggests that
people show a preference for learning through either visual, auditory or kinaesthetic
(hands-on) activities, or a combination of these activities. Gardner refers to eight
intelligence types. Every individual may function in all or some and at differing levels
of each type. Follow the link below to watch a video about Gardner’s theory of multiple
intelligences:

https://youtu.be/rOoyRYkhabY

Supporters of Gardner’s theory suggest that it confirms what teachers already know,
namely that learners learn in different ways. In science teaching we have the
opportunity to provide a broad range of activities, most importantly hands-on activities
that promote kinaesthetic learning.

Activity 2.5
14

1. Do you think that a teacher could teach without having any theory, whether

conscious or unconscious, about learning? Explain.

2. A teacher might say, “I don’t have time to finding out more about learners’ pre-
teaching ideas.” What is the point? What would you say to this? Do you think
there could ever be advantages to not knowing about learners’ prior ideas?
Discuss.
2.6 CONCLUSION
Throughout this learning unit we discussed strategies for learners in a range of diverse
situations and with a range of diverse needs. We presented a range of theories to
support the various techniques and strategies for teaching science and the multiple
ways in which learners learn science. Learners with cultural backgrounds, economic
circumstances, genders, abilities and/or disabilities need to be accommodated in the
science classroom. Regardless of background or circumstance, some elements are
clear: learners need the content to be related to their own context; they need clear
connections between what they are learning and their world outside school; they need
information and activities that are presented in a variety of ways to enhance their ability
to learn in their own way; learners need a good relationship with their teacher, they
should be respected for their prior knowledge and interests, and they must never be
perceived as deficient.

Science is a human endeavour, therefore we must relate science to humanity.

Learners need to understand the purpose of science and how it relates to their world,
their personal interests and their future ambitions. Include your learners’ viewpoints
and capture their imagination in order to engage them in science learning for life.
Science should not be something that learners only “do” at school; scientists should
not be the “other”. Learners need to know that they too are scientists and that their
learning adds to the scientific knowledge of the world.

2.7 SELF-REFLECTION QUESTIONS

This section contains self-reflection questions that you can use to test your knowledge
of the learning unit.

1. Consider the topic “Sources of energy”. How could this topic be developed
across year levels?

2. How might learners’ different backgrounds be catered for in lessons on

sustainability?

3. What activities do you remember from school that really engaged you and
your classmates or caught your attention?

4. Explain the contemporary theories.

 5. Analyse the link between theory and practice in science education.

REFERENCE LIST
15

Adler, MJ. 1988. Reforming education: the opening of the American mind, edited by
G van Doren. New York: Macmillan.

Bloom, BS (ed). 1956. Taxonomy of educational objectives, the classification of

educational goals – handbook I: cognitive domain. New York: McKay.

Gardner, H. 1983. Frames of mind: the theory of multiple intelligences. New York:
Basic Books.

Gega, PC. 1994. How to teach elementary school science. 2nd edition. New York:
Macmillan.

Gregson, R & Botha, ML. 2016. Teaching Science: Foundation to Senior Phase.
Cape Town: Oxford University Press.

Hramiak, A & Hudson, T. 2011. Understanding learning and teaching in secondary

schools. Harlow: Pearson.

Loveless, B. 2022. 15 learning theories in education. Education Corner.

https://www.educationcorner.com/learning-theories-in-education/ [accessed on 22
August 2022].

Loughran, J. 2010. What expert teachers do; enhancing professional knowledge for
classroom practice. Sydney: Allen & Unwin.

McNulty, N. 2019. Everything you’ve ever wanted to know about Bloom’s Taxonomy.
https://www.niallmcnulty.com/2019/12/introduction-to-blooms-taxonomy/ [accessed
on 26 August 2022].

Watson, R. 2000. The role of practical work, in Good practice in science teaching:
What research has to say edited by M Monk & J Osborne. Berkshire: Open
University Press:57–71.

Watson, B & Konicek, R. 1990. Teaching for conceptual change. Phi Delta Kappan
May: 680-685

Wellington, L & Ireson, G. 2012. Science learning, science teaching. 3rd edition.
London: Routledge.
LEARNING UNIT 3: ENGAGING LEARNERS IN SCIENCE

Table of contents
Learning objectives

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Engagement and science

3.3 Factors affecting engagement

3.4 Barriers to engagement in school science

3.4.1 Disappointment

3.4.2 Irrelevant

3.4.3 Not enough experiments

3.4.4 Too much content

3.4.5 Level of difficulty

3.4.6 Teaching practices

3.5 Teaching models promoting engagement

3.6 Conclusion

3.7 Self-reflection questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

On completion of this learning unit, you should be able to:

• Explain what learner engagement is and how learners can be engaged in

science.
• Discuss factors that affect engagement.
• Discuss barriers to engagement in school science.
• Explain the models of teaching science that lead to engagement.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Engagement does not simply mean that learners pay attention in class. Engagement
is affected by emotional, behavioural and external factors. What and how science is
taught can create barriers to learner engagement in science. There is a worldwide
crisis in science education as learners are being put off school science. They do not
want to choose science anymore, especially not in the high school. We need models
for teaching science to increase learner engagement.

3.2 ENGAGEMENT AND SCIENCE

Senior Phase learners believe that learning about science is important for their futures,
and they enjoy elements of school science. However, research also shows learners’
positive attitudes towards science are in decline. During times of great technological
advances that require an increasing range of scientific skills, fewer and fewer South
African learners are choosing science. The number of candidates writing the Physical
Sciences Matric examination dropped by 17% in the period 2009 to 2013 (Campbell &
Prew, 2014), while the number of those passing the Matric examination dropped by
6% between 2013 and 2014 (Nkosi, 2015). Follow the link below to read more about
engagement and science:

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feduc.2019.00038/full

We tend to think that learners who are “engaged” are those who are enthusiastic and
focused, and who complete their work. However, the term “engaged” is used to
describe deeper, more meaningful involvement with a learning environment. According
to researchers, engagement is the following:
✓ An on-going cyclical process where learners have a feeling of belonging and
value the goals of education.
✓ Interest in learning that develops because learners have some level of ownership
and control over what and how they learn.
✓ The thoughts, emotions and behaviours that arise from being motivated.
✓ Participation in activities to achieve those goals that lead to academic success,
which in turn creates a positive attitude to learning and a sense of being valued.
Academic success then provides the motivation for still greater participation and
even deeper engagement.

Motivation is learners’ drive and willingness to expend energy to learn and to achieve
their potential. It is multidimensional rather than just cyclical, and can only be applied
when learners are engaged at the behavioural, emotional AND cognitive levels:
• Learners who are engaged at behavioural level are involved in academic, social
and extracurricular activities.
• Engagement at an emotional level involves positive and negative reactions to
school and their classes, teachers and peers.
• Cognitive engagement is characterised by thoughtfulness and willingness to
tackle complex ideas and master difficult skills.

16Activity 3.1

1. Explain what learner engagement is.

2. Discuss how learners can be engaged in science.

3.3 FACTORS AFFECTING ENGAGEMENT

The engagement, motivation and academic outcomes of learners are of significant
concern to educational policy-makers, school systems, teachers and parents. While
not all learners encounter problems during their school careers, various factors interact
to affect their experiences at school. While not extensive, the following discussion
highlights the important learner, teacher, school, parent and community factors that
affect learner engagement at school and in science classrooms. Click on the following
link to read more about the factors that affect learner engagement in science:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0883035519312182

Activity 3.2
17

Discuss factors that affect learners’ engagement at school and in the science
classroom.

3.4 BARRIERS TO ENGAGEMENT IN SCHOOL SCIENCE

Our experience as science teacher educators has shown that while our students claim
to be interested in science, they dropped school science as soon as they could, usually
at the end of Grade 9. Although learners remain highly curious about science in the
world around them as they grow older, they choose subjects other than science to
study in high school and at tertiary level. Why is it that so many learners become
disconnected from school science?

3.4.1 Disappointment
Learners are often disappointed in how and what they do in science classes. Research
suggests that the lack in interest in science begins in the late Intermediate Phase and
as learners pass from the Intermediate Phase to the Senior Phase. In the Foundation
Phase, science is given low priority and only forms part of beginning knowledge in the
Life Skills curriculum. Science is not taught regularly – it is either taught once per
fortnight for an hour, or it is limited to a series of fun experiments as part of a science
day. Senior Phase teachers sometimes lack the confidence in their ability to
understand and teach science concepts, especially the aspects that involve physics
and chemistry. These teachers might tend to stick to what they know best, namely the
biology topics in the curriculum.
Learners are disappointed when they are taught concepts in Senior Phase science
classes that have already been covered in the Foundation and Intermediate Phases.
Further alienation occurs when they are faced with theory lessons that focus on
copying information that the teacher has written on a chalkboard or rewriting
information from a textbook.
3.4.2 Irrelevance
Learners recognise the value of scientific knowledge for understanding their world and
for the future, but often do not think what they are taught in science classrooms is
relevant to their lives. They find many aspects of science too difficult and therefore lose
interest. Unfamiliar language, the need for sustained effort and complex concepts are
all cited as reasons for learners’ lack of interest in science. However, Lindahl (2003)
argues that it is not that the material is too difficult; learners are not interested because
they are not told why they must learn the material and how it relates to their lives.

3.4.3 Not enough experiments

Learners love hands-on activities. They remember experiments that involve observing
animals, lighting Bunsen burners and burning magnesium, dissecting rats or eyes, and
mixing chemicals to make revolting smells or cause colour changes. They love the
drama of science that they experience by doing experiments and testing their own
understandings.

The National Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) highlights the
importance of inquiry-based approaches to science teaching (Department of Basic
Education, 2011). In the Intermediate Phase (IP) and the Senior Phase (SP) the first
of three specific aims involves “doing science”. In the Further Education and Training
(FET) Phase, practical inquiry-based activities must be carried out in a number of
different formats, including practical demonstrations, experiments and practical
investigations. Some of these activities are assessed formally or informally. The
curriculum also states that teachers must create opportunities for hands-on learner
activities and “connect the construction of substantive scientific knowledge to these
activities” (Ramnarain & Padayachee, 2015). Despite the curriculum imperative to
integrate hands-on activity-based approaches into science teaching, this aspect of the
curriculum is often severely neglected during science lessons. A number of factors
contribute to this, including a lack of resources (equipment, suitable venues),
overcrowded classrooms and a curriculum that contains too much work to cover.
3.4.4 Too much content
A science curriculum that is jam-packed with content that lacks relevance to the lives
of learners is a major cause of learners’ disconnection from school science. Science
lessons that focus on theory rather than practical activities have become the norm.
Teachers are concerned that curricula have too much content and that national testing
has placed a negative emphasis on getting through the content. This has led to an
increase in traditional pedagogies that focus on the transmission of information.
Getting through the work has become a greater priority than allowing time for the
development of learners’ own ideas and reflection on what has been learned. There is
not enough time to focus on learners’ questions about their world.

3.4.5 Level of difficulty

When learners are asked to name their favourite subject, they give a wide range of
answers, but learners in primary school science usually put science near or at the top
of their list. However, out of 480 learners in a study of Grade 7 to 10 learners, only 5%
chose science as their favourite (Gregson, 2003). In a survey completed by 220 senior
learners, not one selected a science subject as their favourite. These results are
reflected in Lyons’s (2006) study, where only half of the high-achieving students who
expressed an interest in science chose a science as their favourite subject. One of the
reasons that students give for this is that science has become too difficult. A
combination of the extensive use of technical language, abstract concepts, so much to
learn and the depth of understanding required to perform well has led to a perception
among learners that science is more difficult than other subjects they might choose.

3.4.6 Teaching practices

As learners pass from primary to secondary classes, there is a change in the way they
are taught and how they spend their time in the classroom. While there are still practical
activities, more lessons are based on theory or teacher-directed reliance on text-based
learning (Logan & Skamp, 2007). Writing has become a large component of what is
done in science classes. Copying off the board, summarising from textbooks or
websites, and research tasks dominate pedagogy in science classrooms. Green’s
(1998) study investigated the changes in writing as a learner moved from primary to
secondary school, finding that there is a subtle shift in writing strategies. There was a
reduction in the range of writing types as learners progressed from Grade 6 to Grade
7. Most significantly, most of the writing in Grade 7 was note copying and question-
and-answer activities.

Much of what the learners had to do was not writing so much as transcription,
demanding little thinking as the writing process was replaced by the writing product.
One example of such a task was the practical worksheet, which was given importance
without giving thought to teaching learners about the importance of sections such as
the aim, method and results. There was very little focus on discussion and personal
conclusions. When the question was asked, “Who is making all the decisions?” it
turned out that learners were not required to apply their minds at all. The teacher had
already made all the decisions.

18Activity 3.3

Reflect on all the barriers mentioned in section 3.4 above. Can you think of other
barriers to science teaching. Go to Discussion Forum 3.1 and discuss them with your
classmates.

3.5 TEACHING MODELS PROMOTING ENGAGEMENT

Teaching models are representations of teaching strategies that are linked by similar
goals, processes and outcomes. Before you use a model or combination of models,
you must identify your learning goals and then select the model that will help you to
achieve these goals. As with any model, it is difficult to find one that fits perfectly. Using
hoses to describe the movement of electricity, sheep hearts to facilitate the
understanding of the human heart or balls and sticks to represent chemical structures
are not without problems. While they provide a good overview, there are
inconsistencies with what we believe is the reality in each case.

Proposed models of teaching provide us with guidelines that in response to our needs
and the need of our learners. These models need to be flexible enough to allow us to
modify our teaching activities while providing a framework choosing such activities.

The way we think about teaching and learning is changing and, according to Gough
(2007), the change is not a moment too soon. In recent years, teachers and teaching
models have been influenced by constructivist theories. These theories promote
pedagogies that acknowledge learners’ prior understandings and their goals are to
provide activities that allow for the incorporation of new knowledge. However, Gough
writes that our teaching in primary and secondary science classrooms might not
produce scientifically confident and literate learners. Further change is required.

Teaching models provide frameworks that have been researched and can show us
how to teach.

Science teachers take complex and abstract concepts, and rearrange them to provide
explanations for a diverse group of learners. Teaching models often include steps or
procedures that can be followed to promote learning. They can be divided into three
types: mastery learning/teacher-directed; socially negotiated/learner-centred; and
learner directed (or the transmission, interactive and discovery approaches, according
to Fleer and Hardy [2001]). All three types involve social interaction through groupwork
or teamwork, but it is the value and focus of each type that distinguishes it from the
others.

Click on the following link to read more about different teaching models:

https://ugcnetpaper1.com/teaching-methodology/

Activity 3.4
19

You can pose a problem to your learners with reference to a wide range of topics.
Then encourage them to plan their learning, conduct an investigation and reflect on
the outcomes. An example could be testing, over a number of lessons, how an object
travels down different surfaces:

Lesson 1: The problem is posed. This could be open (i.e. learners are free to choose
the object and the different surfaces it travels down) or narrower (i.e. some variables
are given to learners). Learners work in groups to plan how to investigate the
problem, taking into consideration variables such as the surfaces, their angle and
length, and the object itself. Then the learners choose which variables to fix and
which to investigate.

Lesson 2: They carry out their investigation, collect data and perhaps make
modifications.
Lesson 3: Learners complete their investigation, collate and analyse the data, and write
down what they have discovered. Then they decide how to present their findings.

Lesson 4: They present their results to the class, explaining their experimental method.

The final lesson: The teacher draws ideas together, exploring the science (friction)
more deeply and perhaps following up with another version of the activity.

There are many simple activities like this that can lead to wide investigation. The less
specific the problem, the wider the variation and depth of the learners’ investigations
and hence responses. Problems could include:

• Investigating which materials would keep a person warmer.

• Designing a boat made from specific materials. The boat must float and support a
specified minimum weight.

3.6 CONCLUSION
Engagement does not only mean that learners pay attention in class. When they
engage and how they engage depend on many factors that are often beyond a
teacher’s control. Being aware of the factors that contribute to engagement can
certainly help a teacher to plan activities to enhance engagement by all learners.
Teachers can also take into account the barriers that affect learners’ engagement and
work with them to improve how they apply themselves in class. We know that this is
important, because there is a link between learners’ engagement and motivation, and
ultimately their success at school.

3.7 SELF-REFLECTION QUESTIONS

This section contains self-reflection questions that you can use to test your knowledge
of the learning unit.

1. List FOUR activities that could link learners’ learning at school to their life at
home.

2. Name THREE industries in your local area and identify the science involved in
each.
3. How could you engage your learners and the local community with activities like
those suggested? Activities such as science competitions (e.g. the Eskom Expo
for Young Scientists, see www. http://www.exposcience.co.za/) also engage
learners with the local community.

4. List THREE activities that learners could plan and execute.

5. Consider the topic “Chemicals in the environment”. How could the guided
discovery model be used to facilitate learning about this topic?

6. Discuss barriers to engagement in school science.

7. Explain models of teaching science that lead to engagement.

20REFERENCE LIST

Campbell, G & Prew, M. 2014. Behind the matric results: the story of maths and
science. http://mg.co.za/article/2014-01-07-behind-the-matric-results-the-story-of-
maths-and-science [accessed on 17 September 2015].

Fleer M & Hardy, T. 2001 Science for children: developing a personal approach to
teaching (2nd ed). Frenchs Forest, NSW: Prentice Hall.

Gough, A. 2007. Addressing the science in schools crisis: media images, scientific
literacy and students’ lives. Paper presented at the Australian Association of
Research in Education (AARE) Conference, Fremantle, 25–29 November 2007.
http://researchbank.rmit.edu.au/view/rmit:2151 [accessed on 29 March 2012].

Green, DW. 1998. Mental control of the bilingual lexico-semantic system.

Bilingualism: Language and cognition 1(02):67-81.

Gregson, R & Botha, ML. 2016. Teaching Science: Foundation to Senior Phase.
Cape Town: Oxford University Press.

Lindahl, J. 2003. Pupils’ response to school science and technology: a longitudinal

study of pathways to upper secondary school. English summary of dissertation.
www.mna.hkr.se-ll/summary.pdf [accessed on 6 February 2004].
Logan M & Skamp, K. 2007. Engaging students in science across the primary
secondary interface: listening to the students’ voice. Research in Science Education
38(4):501–527.

Lyons, T. 2006. Different countries, same science classes: students’ experiences of

school science in their own words. International Journal of Science Education
28(6):591–613.

Nkosi, B 2015. Matric pass rate drop disappointing but understandable.

http://mg.co.za/article/2015-01-06-matric- pass-rate-drop-disappointing-but-
understandable [accessed on 17 September 2015].

Ramnarain, U., & Padayachee, K. (2015). A comparative analysis of South African

life sciences and biology textbooks for inclusion of the nature of science. South
African Journal of Education, 35(1). https://doi.org/10.15700/201503062358
LEARNING UNIT 4: PLANNING FOR ENGAGEMENT

Table of contents

Learning objectives

4.1 Introduction

4.2 The attitudinal factor

4.3 The knowledge factor

4.4 The skills factor

4.5 What effective science teachers do

4.6 Planning models

4.7 Planning science lessons

4.8 Lesson plans

4.9 Getting started

4.10 Strategies for engaging learners

4.11 Conclusion

4.12 Self-reflection questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
On completion of this learning unit, you should be able to:

• Explain the attitudinal factor, knowledge factor and skills factor of the teacher.
• Discuss what effective teachers do.
• Explain the different ways of planning science lessons.
• Discuss strategies for engaging learners.

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Learners have a natural desire to probe, inquire and question. However, without the
help and guidance of a teacher, learners’ observations and enquiries may be
superficial and unsystematic. The teacher’s role is crucial, an each teacher interprets
their role in a uniquely individual way. Nevertheless, Natural Sciences teachers all
need specific knowledge, positive attitudes and teaching skills to be successful. They
must ask thoughtful and thought-provoking questions, develop their understanding of
content and teaching processes, and prepare and present lessons thoughtfully and
professionally. Throughout their lessons they must make judgments and respond to
the learning (or lack thereof). After their lessons, they must reflect about what worked
and what can be improved.

The 5Es teaching model is about preparing lessons that will be engaging for learners
and enhance their learning. Lesson plans can be presented in a variety of ways, but
they should have similar structures and foci. Each lesson should have an introduction,
a body and a conclusion that facilitate learning about specific content and skills in the
science syllabus.

4.2 THE ATTITUDINAL FACTOR

“Love begets love’’ is a well-known saying. Yet it is not only love that begets love. In
fact, all our attitudes towards other people tend to beget reciprocal attitudes. In science
teaching, this means that teachers’ attitude, the example that they set and their
enthusiasm can inspire learners to learn more about nature and to develop a sense of
concern for and responsibility towards nature. The importance of Natural Sciences
teachers’ interest in, love for and enthusiastic attitude towards learners, teaching,
learning and natural phenomena cannot be overstated. Good apparatus and
expensive teaching aids are actually of little use if we do not approach our teaching
tasks with commitment, enthusiasm, high standards and a sincere interest in each
child.

21Activity 4.1

Consult a teacher who is known to be an excellent Natural Sciences teacher. Arrange

an interview with him or her and try to establish why he or she is such an excellent
Natural Sciences teacher. Go to Discussion Forum 4.1 and discuss your results
with your classmates.

4.3 THE KNOWLEDGE FACTOR

To perform well as a Natural Sciences teacher, you will need subject matter
competency. Subject matter competency firstly refers to a basic understanding of the
scientific principles that must be taught. Secondly, it refers to the ability to package
scientific ideas so that learners can understand them.

Activity 4.2
22

Compare the teaching skills of the following two Grade 5 teachers. The topic of their
lessons is “Seed germination”.

Teacher A draws the stages of seed germination on the board. He asks the learners to
copy the drawings into their notebooks and instructs them to learn the drawings for
homework.

Teacher B germinates seeds in the classroom so that learners can observe and then
draw the various stages of germination. In addition, she lets the learners plant seeds
in the school garden and lets them visit the garden each day to see what has happened.
Once the seedlings appear, she lets them measure and record the height (in a table)
every day. Throughout the exercise, she explains to the learners what is happening.
Which teacher, A or B, do you think will increase the knowledge and understanding of
the learners concerned, the development of scientific skills and a positive attitude
towards nature?

4.4 THE SKILLS FACTOR

Teaching skills may be broadly categorised into two types, namely explanatory skills
and disciplinary skills. Explanatory skills refer to the ability to present the subject matter
in a way that facilitates understanding, while disciplinary skills refer to the ability to
create an orderly classroom atmosphere where learning can flourish.

Explanatory skills refer to the teacher’s ability to give explanations that are scientifically
correct, but also at the learners’ level of understanding. Explanatory skills are important
as they enable teachers to fulfil their duty to TEACH. It is your duty as teacher to
prepare learners’ minds for an activity and/or any research that they must do. It is a
teacher’s job and moral duty to TEACH. We must not assume that learners will learn
academic subject matter in an incidental, spontaneous manner. Teachers must always
bear in mind that academic subject matter is seldom mastered by learners (and
adolescents) without good teachers who take their responsibility to teach (i.e. to
structure lessons and learning activities, to explain subject content, to question and to
lead and guide learners’ observations and enquiries) very seriously. It is simply not
true that direct instruction (which includes verbal teaching) results in passive learners.
Good explanations in Natural Sciences classrooms are not purely verbal, but are
accompanied by one or more of the following:

✓ practical activities (hands-on activities or demonstrations) that lead to

concrete experiences, which are usually necessary to help learners grasp
the underlying abstract ideas
✓ graphic organisers and/or summaries that indicate the key words and the
links between the facts
✓ real-life examples and practical and/or technological applications

Discipline in the classroom does not mean that learners have to be passive
conformists. Instead, discipline in the classroom means that the reality of childhood is
taken seriously.
Learners are wonderful and it is refreshing to work with them, but they are in no position
to take charge of their own education. Their innocence and lack of inhibitions leave
them vulnerable to impulsive and self-destructive or socially destructive behaviour. It
is not patronising when a teacher treats children as children, (i.e. as immature persons
who need adult guidance and care). On the contrary, it reflects the teacher’s real love
for children and a real understanding of their innocence and vulnerability.

By withholding authoritative guidance, teachers are depriving learners of the

opportunity to engage in dialogue with confident, steering and caring adults; they are
denying learners satisfactory models for adulthood. Child psychologist David Elkind
(1989:21) states that withholding authoritative guidance is quite literally a return to the
views of medieval and earlier times when children were regarded and treated as
miniature adults.

Creating a protective classroom environment conducive to effective learning (of

subject matter and standards of decent behaviour) is every teacher’s moral
responsibility. A disciplined class can be achieved by teachers standing for self-control,
respect for older people and a sound work ethic.

This means that the teacher must do the following:

❖ Foster an ethos of respect by being a model of courtesy, and do not tolerate any
disrespect shown towards an adult.
❖ Make it very clear to learners that they are not only in school to study sciences,
mathematics, languages and so on, but also to learn about the standards of
decent behaviour and build character. Require that all learners do their best.
❖ Model self-control, self-discipline and conscientiousness by being prepared for
lessons, being punctual, not wasting time, working hard, etc.
❖ Insist on correctness, both with regard to the science learned and with regard to
matters such as spelling and grammar. This disciplines the mind and inculcates
humility, responsibility and self-discipline, all of which people require to achieve
professional and social success as adults.
❖ Punish misbehaviour and disobedience fairly and consistently. Learners must
learn that a civilised, democratic society can only exist within a system of
prohibitions, adjudication and punishment.
Teachers have a moral duty to act as stabilising forces in society. While other
socialising agencies are relinquishing their responsibilities, schools must stand for self-
control, respect for adults and the work ethic and values that are the primary
requirements for an effective learning environment.

23Activity 4.3

Are the following statements TRUE or FALSE?

(1) Effective Natural Sciences teachers are purposeful and enthusiastic about
learners, science and learning.

TRUE/FALSE? Explain your answer.

(2) School learners require interesting rather than correct explanations.

TRUE/FALSE? Explain your answer.
(3) Learners in Grades 7 to 9 cannot grasp abstract scientific concepts by means
of purely verbal explanations.

TRUE/FALSE? Explain your answer.

(4) Active participation by learners in their own learning process implies a

permissive classroom atmosphere that puts learners in charge of their own
education.

TRUE/FALSE? Explain your answer.

4.5 WHAT EFFECTIVE SCIENCE TEACHERS DO

Follow the link to read about effective teaching:
https://www.cmu.edu/teaching/principles/teaching.html

24Activity 4.4
Discuss what effective teachers do.
4.6 PLANNING MODELS
The CAPS document stipulates what we must teach, when we must teach it and how
long we must spend on that content. These decisions have been made at national level
based on certain ideologies and philosophies of teaching and learning. You will find
that there are similarities among planning models based on different educational
theories, but there are also subtle differences in the questions they pose. Table 4.1
sets out four planning models that prescribe the questions and actions that teachers
must consider during the planning phase. Which model was predominantly used by
the national curriculum planners when drawing up the current CAPS document?

TABLE 4.1
Four planning models

PLANNING MODEL QUESTIONS ACTIONS

Based on behavioural What do I want the learners Select syllabus outcomes.

theories to know and be able to do?

What is it that the learners Incorporate strategies such

currently know and can do? as concept maps and
brainstorming to identify what
learners know.

How will I help them to Design, select and sequence

know and do? strategies.

How will I know they have

Assess outcomes.
learned?

Evaluate the effectiveness of

How can I improve the
previous and current
teaching programme?
pedagogies.

What do the learners need

Based on cognitive theories Select syllabus outcomes.
to learn?

What do the learners want Identify what learners would

to learn? like to learn about the topic.

How do the learners learn Reflect on the outcomes of

best? prior assessment strategies
that have been directly linked
to pedagogy.

How will learners know Learners evaluate what they

what they have learned? have learned.

Based on humanist What are the safety

Risk assessment on activities.
theories concerns to be met?
 How can I create a positive Reflect on what makes a
learning environment? positive learning environment,
such as acceptance and
inclusion, and incorporate
specific strategies in learning.

How can learners feel they Incorporate specific activities

belong? that develop and enhance
inclusion.
Choose reinforcement that
What will I do to enhance
enhances learners’ self-
their self-esteem?
efficacy and motivation.

How can I satisfy their need Choose activities that provide

to grow intellectually? a link to their prior knowledge
and experiences, and yet
allow students to be
challenged by using such
activities as problem-solving
and problem-based learning.

How can I make what we Select science content and

do relevant? knowledge that are current
and age appropriate.
Allow learners to take
ownership.
Based on social What activities can I plan to Reflect on previously
constructivist theories develop social and cultural successful pedagogies and
interaction? explore further opportunities
for learners to collaborate in a
variety of different ways.

How will the learners Plan specific strategies for

participate in the activities I enhancing learner
plan? engagement using content
that is interesting and
relevant.

What do the learners know Incorporate strategies such

already? as concept maps and
brainstorming to identify what
learners know.

How can I plan activities Make the decision-making for

that allow learners to the content and activities the
engage with and have responsibility of the learners.
control over their learning? They choose what to learn,
how to learn it and how what
has been learned is
assessed.
2

Activity 4.5
Prepare a pro forma for a lesson that reflects the backwards planning model. Use
that pro forma to plan a lesson. Use any topic in the Natural Sciences curriculum for
the Senior Phase.

4.7 PLANNING SCIENCE LESSONS

The 5Es

The 5Es is an instructional teaching and learning model developed by Roger Bybee
(1997) based on Vygotsky’s constructivist approach to learning. It acknowledges that
learners learn best when they are allowed to work out explanations for themselves
over time by means of a variety of learning experiences structured by the teacher.
Learners use their prior knowledge to make sense of these experiences and then make
connections between new information and their prior knowledge. While making these
connections between what they already know and new information, learners evaluate
what they are learning.

The 5Es model provides a framework for improving learner engagement. Each E
represents a step in the learning process. See table 4.2 for a summary of the model:

TABLE 4.2
Assessing learner responses to the 5Es
What the LEARNER does What the LEARNER does that is
Stage of the
that is consistent with this inconsistent with this model
instructional
model
model

Engage • Asks questions such as: Why

did this happen? What do I • Asks for the “right” answer.
already know about this? • Offers the “right” answer.
What can I find out about • Insists on answers or explanations.
this? Shows interest in the • Seeks one solution.
topic.
Explore • Thinks freely, but within the • Lets others do the thinking and
limits of the activity. exploring (passive involvement).
• Tests predictions and • Works quietly with little or no
hypotheses.
interaction with others (only
• Forms new predictions and
hypotheses. appropriate when exploring ideas
• Tries alternatives and or feelings).
discusses them with others. • Plays around indiscriminately with
• Records observations and no goal in mind.
ideas.
• Suspends judgment.

Explain • Explains possible solutions • Proposes explanations from thin

or answers to others. air with no relationship to
• Listens critically to others’ previous experiences.
explanations. • Brings up irrelevant experiences
• Questions others’ and examples.
explanations. • Accepts explanations without
• Listens to and tries to justification.
comprehend explanations • Does not attend to other plausible
the teacher offers. explanations.
• Refers to previous activities.
• Uses recorded observations
in explanations.

Elaborate • Applies new labels, • Plays around with no goal in

definitions, explanations, mind.
and skills in new but similar • Ignores previous information or
situations. evidence.
• Uses previous information to • Draws conclusions from thin
ask questions, propose air.
solutions, make decisions, • Uses in discussion only those
design experiments. labels that the teacher
• Draws reasonable provided.
conclusions from evidence.
• Records observations and
explanations.
• Checks for understanding
among peers.
 Evaluate • Answers open-ended • Draws conclusions without
questions with reference to reference to evidence or
observations, evidence and previously accepted
previously accepted explanations.
explanations. • Offers only yes/no answers and
• Demonstrates an memorised definitions or
understanding or knowledge explanations as answers.
of the concept or skill. • Fails to express satisfactory
• Evaluates his or her own explanations in his or her own
progress and knowledge. words.
• Asks related questions that • Introduces new, irrelevant
would encourage future topics.
investigations.

Activity 4.6
26

Consider any Natural Sciences topic in the Senior Phase and describe how you would
use the 5Es instructional model to teach it in order to promote learners’ engagement.

4.8 LESSON PLANS

A lesson plan provides a framework for a lesson with a detailed description of what is
expected to happen and the identification of learning outcomes. Lesson plans vary
depending on specific school requirements, the subject and content being covered,
and the needs of learners. A well-developed lesson plan reflects what the teacher is
trying to teach and incorporates activities that the learners will enjoy and learn from.

Identification of the class. The class that will be taught determines the level of your
planned lesson, class materials and activities. You need to keep in mind the learners
in the class and anyone who has special needs.

Length of the lesson. Keep the amount of time you have in mind when you plan the
sequence and number of activities for each lesson. Teachers often find it difficult to
determine exactly what they will be able to fit in during a lesson. They often include too
many or too few activities because they underestimate or overestimate how long each
activity will take. A useful rule of thumb is to have the next few lessons fully prepared
so that if you get through the material for one lesson more quickly than expected, you
can continue with the next lesson.
Timing in the lesson. The timing of activities during a lesson is a difficult task for new
teachers. Even experienced teachers find that their timing goes awry because learner
interests or the need for remediation directs the focus of the lesson away from what
has been planned. A rule of thumb is to multiply by three the amount of time that an
activity would take you to complete – learners normally take three times as long as
their teacher to do most activities (especially assessment tasks).

Title of the lesson. The title states what the lesson is about and provides a guideline
for lesson activities. At the end of the planning process it is wise to return to the title to
see if what you plan reflects the title you gave the lesson.

Lesson objectives are statements that reflect what you want to achieve in the lesson
and what you want the learners to learn.

Lesson outcomes are statements taken from the curriculum that relate to the specific
skills, knowledge and understanding that will be assessed during and after the lesson.

Concepts. In this section you identify the scientific concepts covered by the lesson.
These are necessary so that you can refer to the previous and next lessons to ensure
that the sequencing of your lessons enables learners to link the ideas being taught.
Curriculum links. These are reminders of what has been covered as you record
directly from the curriculum what was covered in the lesson.
Learning activities. These are the activities that learners will do as part or as a result
of the lesson. The focus of each activity should be on learning and engagement. The
activities can be focused on individual learning or collaborative learning through whole-
class or group-based activities.
▪ Individual learning: Independent work done by each learner on their own, such as
reading and summarising; writing down their own ideas or reflections; and using
drawing activities to represent their ideas about the concepts being taught.
▪ Demonstrations: Learners observe a practical activity that may be too dangerous
for them to do or that requires specialised equipment. Sometimes there is simply
not enough equipment to allow all the learners to do the activity themselves.
▪ Small-group work: Learners work with others in pairs, threes or fours as a
community of learners. The tasks they do require development, planning and
execution so that the group members can learn from one another and produce
information that they share. This type of activity is extremely valuable as a
 teaching strategy. It allows the teacher to work with small numbers of learners
and assess their levels of social and group skills while supporting their academic
achievements. The teacher can ask and respond to questions to stimulate
learners’ ideas and progress. Learners in the group can listen to their peers’
contributions and compare their own understanding with other members’
interpretations. Learners are often more willing to ask a question for clarification
from their peers in small groups than when the whole class is together. As a
group they evaluate their understanding of the concepts and reflect on new ideas
they have developed. Their new knowledge can then be distributed to others via a
presentation, poster or whole-class discussion. If you have access to the internet,
then try getting this new knowledge posted on a class webpage or blog.
▪ Whole-class activities. When the whole class is together, instructions can be
given before learners divide into groups so that they all start from the same point.
Once the lesson reaches its end, the whole class can reflect on what has been
learned. This pedagogy tends to be teacher-directed as the teacher tells the class
what has been planned for the day. The advantages of whole-class activities are
that all learners hear the same instructions, and they can all evaluate the
contributions made by their peers in answer to teachers’ questions. It helps
learners to compare their own understanding with those of their peers.

4.9 GETTING STARTED

Once you know the names of all the learners in your class, the next important step is
to find out what they know about the subject you teach.

Much of the current research into teaching and learning emphasises the need to
establish learners’ prior knowledge, but there are many misconceptions about how to
do this. Asking the whole class for information that can be placed on the board may be
a quick way to identify a starting point, but it only provides information about those
learners who contribute. In our own teaching in school and at university it is apparent
that there are learners and students who willingly contribute to class discussions, those
who will contribute when specifically asked, and those who rarely or never contribute,
no matter how many opportunities you give them to do so. To find out what all learners
know, we can use concept and mind maps. Although time consuming, they will give
you a very good idea of learners’ prior knowledge and levels of understanding.
Concept and mind maps have been around for a while and tend to be overused (Novak
& Gowin, 1984), yet they remain excellent tools for establishing what every learner
knows. Basically, a concept or mind map is a diagrammatical representation of words
or terms that learners relate to a particular concept. The name of the concept is written
in the middle and then the learners provide links from the concept to the words or terms
they already know. We find them very useful when preparing our own work, not only
for establishing the number of ideas that can be linked to the concept but also for
grouping together like terms and planning the teaching sequences that we intend to
use in a lesson.

Concept and mind maps look very similar, but they have some differences that affect
how they are used and the outcomes they produce. A mind map has a central concept
with lines extending from that concept. Words are added in levels. The words or terms
that are directly related to the topic are added closest to the concept (level 1). Other
words are then linked to level 1 words. These new words are level 2 words, and so on.
When a topic is first introduced, learners can usually supply only level 1 terms. When
they reach the end of the lesson(s) on that topic, they are usually excited to see how
many new levels they can add to their mind map based on what they have learned.

4.10 STRATEGIES FOR ENGAGING LEARNERS

A tried-and-tested strategy used in schools and universities is to start by asking
students to make a list of questions they would like to be answered as part of the
course. After five to ten minutes, they are asked to share their ideas with another
student or in groups of four. The group must then choose their best questions and write
them on the board (or, in an online environment, Tweet them to the lecturer or teacher).

The whole class group then discusses the questions. Irrelevant questions are
identified and discarded after the group has discussed where their answers might be
found. The class group then looks at the relevant questions and the unit outline to
determine which sections will provide answers. The questions are recorded and often
referred to during the course. You will be surprised by how well learners’ questions link
to what you have planned for the course. There will be questions that you have not
expected and therefore you must tailor your activities to ensure that you answer those
questions. At the end of the course, you assess how the questions have been
answered and clarify any that are still not completely clear.

KWL

KWL (what I already Know – What I would like to learn – what I Learned) is another
form of questioning that engages learners’ interest. It gives them an opportunity to
reflect on what they already know about a topic and what they would like to know about
it. They write down their prior knowledge and think of questions they would like to be
answered.

This technique remains useful throughout a topic as learners record what they have
learned. When using a KWL table, learners are asked to paste the page on which they
have written down what they already know and their questions into their books. This is
regularly referred to and learners are asked to add what they have learned. If you
regularly look at what they have written, you will get an overview of what they believe
they have learned. It gives you the opportunity to identify misconceptions. Note that it
might be too time consuming to look at every learner’s book regularly. If possible, use
a discussion board on a website. This might make it easier to monitor learners’
submissions, and an added bonus is that learners can confer with one another to
stimulate discussion.

Floor storming

For this activity you need to know your learners and they need to know what you expect
of them. Floor storming requires learners to walk around the room and observe certain
images. The desks can be moved out of the way and the images placed on the floor in
a circle or pinned to a wall. The learners then move around to look at these images
and record their ideas. They can share their individual ideas in groups and then the
ideas can be collated to be shared with the whole class. Learners can also make
posters in their smaller group and display these on the wall. Use this activity to
introduce scientific equipment, famous scientists and/or their discoveries. An example
of a floor storming activity is to ask learners to identify the different parts of the digestive
system and then to add the parts like puzzle pieces to a large diagram. This can be
very entertaining, yet it helps learners to realise that they do not know as much about
their bodies as they think.
Poster drawing/annotated illustrations

Pictures are an engaging way to introduce complex scientific concepts. The fear of the
science is replaced by the enjoyment of engaging in a context that is real to the
learners. Pictures introduce creativity and allow learners to use their imaginations
without being hampered by scientific language. Show photographs to the learners and
ask them to explain what they see. Alternatively they can draw their own pictures to an
explain their understanding of a concept. These days learners can also use digital
cameras or cell phones to take pictures of their work and to add comments or
descriptions to the images. Whatever the origin of the pictures, learners can annotate
them before they learn the scientific terminology, or after as an assessment tool to see
what they have learned.

Concept cartoons

Keogh and Naylor (1999) suggest that cartoons be used to introduce science concepts
to learners. Over the years they have developed a unique brand of concept cartoons
that cover a myriad of science concepts. These concept cartoons are used in
classrooms throughout the world. They engage all types of learners: young learners,
secondary school learners, learners with higher and lower abilities, and university
students. The cartoons have been translated into a number of languages and their
style promotes engagement by first language as well as second and third language
learners.

Writing a story

For many learners the density of the language typically found in science textbooks is
a barrier to deep understanding. This is particularly the case when the language of
learning and teaching (LoLT) is not the learners’ first language. Writing stories such as
“A day in the life of a blood cell” allows learners to use their creativity and a narrative
to explain their knowledge. While the focus is on the development of the story, learners
can also incorporate meaningful scientific knowledge.

When teaching a lower-ability class a unit on astronomy, Robyn happened on the idea
of writing a book. Many of the learners in her class had reading ages well below their
Grade 9 status. The book was to be written for a Grade 6 class. Learners had to identify
the concepts relating to astronomy that they would cover in the six-chapter booklet.
Each chapter would include a game and a practical activity that learners were required
to perform to ensure that they achieved the learning outcomes. Because the book
focused on younger learners, Robyn and her class needed to visit a library that catered
for younger readers.
In fact the books selected were more appropriate for the reading age of her students.
When discussing this activity with other teachers, they told her that she was mad to
expect lower-ability readers and writers to write a book. Well, they did it. They were
able to use their many skills and worked together to produce many excellent booklets
that were shown to their families and the school principal. The learners realised that
they could be successful at a task they had thought they could not do. Their parents
and the principal were amazed by the learners’ dedication to the task and the final
products. Each learner received a full-colour copy of their booklet.

The alternative to this activity was to work through a teacher-selected text and practical
activities that the learners might or might not have engaged with. This task ensure that
learning outcomes were achieved and motivated learners to remain engaged in future
science learning.

Brainstorming

Whether as a whole class, in small groups or as individuals, the use of brainstorming

begins the process of self-evaluation of knowledge. During brainstorming learners’
memories are activated as they try to recall facts and ideas about a certain concept.
Their individual knowledge can then be pooled in small peer groups. This process of
comparing their knowledge with others in a small group can further stimulate ideas or
challenge currently held ideas. When group members hold different views, learners
can debate their understanding as they try to reach consensus. Some of these benefits
are lost during whole-class discussions where learners have to present their ideas to
a larger audience that includes the teacher. Only those learners who are confident in
their knowledge and communication skills will contribute in such situations.

Poems/songs

You should not underestimated the value of song writing for lower-performing, less
able learners. Learners are generally excited about producing songs that express their
ideas because they can relate to the format of songs. Look at the following example:
There was a learner who was well-known for getting into trouble in class and who did
not connect with the science content being taught. His teacher found out that he liked
rap music and decided to incorporate the writing of a song into their programme. The
topic was the environment and what learners could do to improve the school grounds.
The normally disengaged learner became focused on the task. The end product was
a recorded song that was used to raise money for the school. The song was played
regularly at assemblies to remind the school to consider their own environment. While
not all examples have a happy ending like this, the teacher involved found a way to
engage the learner in science by identifying his personal interests.

27Activity 4.5
1. Explain the different ways of planning science lessons.
2. Discuss strategies for engaging learners.

4.11 CONCLUSION
It is vital to provide learners with activities that they can relate to, that challenge their
ideas and that they can complete successfully. Effective teachers must ask themselves
questions while they are planning their lessons; they must develop their own
understanding of the concepts they are teaching and then identify pedagogy that will
support learning.

4.12 SELF-REFLECTION QUESTIONS

This section contains self-reflection questions that you can use to test your knowledge
of the learning unit.

Section A

Consider the topic of static electricity.

1. How could learners be engaged in the topic?

2. How could it be presented in an open-ended way?

3. What structured activities could be considered?

4. How might you adapt the topic to include appropriate references to IKS?

5. Name FOUR important factors that play a role in the preparation of class-room
ready resources?
 6. Identify THREE things you should NOT do when preparing resources.

7. Choose a topic and prepare a worksheet that you think would be engaging,
promote student-centred learning and be achievable during a lesson. Identify
the topic and the class. Share this resource with a colleague and ask for
feedback.

8. How could or would you adapt the worksheet for learners with disabilities?

9. How does the worksheet accommodate English second language (ESL)

learners?

Section B

At the end of the following questions, reflect on what you have learned in learning unit
4:

1. Explain the attitudinal factor with reference to teachers.

2. Discuss the knowledge factor with reference to teachers.

3. Discuss the skills factor with reference to teachers.

REFERENCE LIST
28

Bybee, RW. 1997. Achieving scientific literacy: From purposes to practices.

Portsmouth, NH: Heinema.
Elkind, D. 1989. Miseducation: Young children at risk. Pediatrics 83(1):119–121.
Gregson, R & Botha, ML. 2016. Teaching Science: Foundation to Senior Phase.
Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
Keogh, B & Naylor, S. 1999. Concept cartoons, teaching and learning in science: an
evaluation. International Journal of Science Education 21(4):431–446.
Novak, JD & Gowin, DB. 1984. Learning how to learn. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
LEARNING UNIT 5: SCIENCE LITERACY

Table of contents
Learning objectives

5.1 Introduction

5.2 The role of language in science education

5.3 Literacies in science

5.4 Reading and writing in science

5.5 Conclusion

5.6 Self-reflection questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
On completion of this learning unit, you should be able to:

• Explain the term “scientific literacy”.

• Discuss the role of language in science education.
• Discuss what teachers need to know about reading and writing in science.

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Literacy is fundamental to being successful in school science. Teachers can help
learners to overcome academic disadvantages caused by a lack of relevant cultural
capital. Many literacies need to be developed in school science. Teachers and learners
both need to understand that reading is essentially a problem-solving activity based on
prior knowledge in several areas. Writing can be an effective way of developing
understanding in science when learners are supported to use it in combination with
hands-on inquiry. Language can be a major barrier in learning science. There are many
teaching and learning strategies that can help to lower the language barrier in science.

5.2 THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE IN SCIENCE EDUCATION

Language skills are important for successful science learning, but this does not mean
that science learning is merely a matter of learning to use scientific terms and to
reproduce facts, theorems and principles transmitted from the teacher and textbooks
to learners.

Osborne (2002) has reviewed literature on attitudes towards science, and reports that
the lack of personal participation associated with rote-learning contributes to a
widespread lack of interest in science. This is especially true when learners think the
study of science has no bearing on their interests, identity and goals; when there is too
much emphasis on undemanding activities (e.g. recall, copying); and when learners
are not intellectually challenged in science classrooms.

It is important that language learning in science must not focus only on correct
terminology, spelling and grammar. While these are important, they are not what
science is about – there are more important but less obvious language skills that
students need to understanding science. The relationship between language skills and
understanding science is complex, as is implied by the term “science literacy”. IN
science education, the word “literacy” is used in phrases such as the following:

➢ scientific literacy
➢ literacies of science
➢ everyday literacies
➢ “critical literacy” in science

Firstly, there is wide agreement that scientific literacy (or its synonym “science
literacy”) is one of the principal goals of science education, even though the exact
meaning of the term is keenly disputed. Secondly, literacies of science (plural) refer
to the specific literacy skills needed to understand and talk or write about science.
Thirdly, everyday literacy refers to the non-disciplinary literacy skills used by learners
to learn the new literacies of science. Finally, critical literacy refers to a way of looking
at science texts that includes an awareness of the power relations implicit in them.
While these definitions are a start, a deeper understanding is needed to grasp what is
required of teachers in relation to literacy teaching in science, therefore we briefly
discuss each definition below.

29Activity 5.1

Discuss the role of language in science education.

5.3 LITERACIES IN SCIENCE
The term “literacies of science” has emerged in recent years. The following question
can now be asked: How do literacies of science differ from scientific literacy or general
literacy? In some contexts, literacy has been defined simply as being able to read and
write at least one’s own name and a limited range of other texts at a specified age. For
example, the Central Intelligence Agency (1996) notes that “the most common
definition” of literacy is that it is “the ability to read and write at a specified age”. People
can be said to be either literate or illiterate, and countries can be described as having
high or low literacy rates. However, we now understand that there are many different
kinds of literacy.

“Everyday literacies” are literacies that are used outside the classroom, but they can
also be used in science learning. Literacies are a range of different types of social
practices, and all literacies may entail reading and writing, talking, thinking, viewing
and acting for a wide range of purposes. “Everyday literacies” are processes and
practices that are used in everyday practice to “represent what learners can know, do
or demonstrate when they communicate”.

A more sophisticated perspective on literacy includes critical literacy, which

acknowledges that all texts are produced by someone for some purpose and
unavoidably embody values, make claims and promote particular ideas. In other
words, critical literacy is the skill to critique texts to determine what claims they make,
and what implicit values they promote for what purposes and for which audience.

Science is an evolving body of knowledge, and when science evolves, it has

consequences for how science should be taught and how scientific knowledge can be
applied to evaluate a range of texts. (Consider for example the scientific claims made
in advertisements, popular science articles and school textbooks.)

Click on the following link to read more about literacies in science:

https://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/teachingresources/discipline/englis
h/literacy/Pages/introduction_to_literacy_in_science.aspx#:~:text=Literacy%20in%20
Science%3A,understand%20and%20communicate%20scientific%20knowledge
3 0Activity 5.2
Explain the meaning of the term “scientific literacy”.

5.4 READING AND WRITING IN SCIENCE

Language is important in science learning, but the language of science is often foreign
to learners. This has implications for teaching and learning. Teachers need to be
familiar with how language is used in science. They must know how to support
learners’ reading, writing and speaking in science, especially when these differ from
what happens in classes on language arts, social studies and so on. Fortunately, much
has been written about teaching the art of reading, writing and speaking to promote
learners’ understanding and practice of science.

Another area of literacy that is very important in science learning is oracy. The greater
part of science learning happens through discussion. Such discussions start during
early childhood and continue through learners’ school years and beyond. At first these
discussions are important because they show the teacher what the learners already
know and therefore what to teach. During later stages, science discussions are
characterised by arguments and debating, and play a very important role in the
exploratory research done by scientists. However, partly because it is too important a
topic to gloss over briefly, the role of talk (and gestures and diagrams) in science
learning is seen as beyond the scope of this chapter. Here we limit ourselves to a
discussion of the literacy skills involved in reading and writing.
The following section looks at what reading in school science involves and
how it can best be supported.

Reading for understanding

Views of reading can be as simple as “word recognition and information location in

textbooks” or as complex as “inferring meaning from a variety of texts with varying
degrees of credibility and validity involving the integration of textual information,
readers’ background knowledge, and their concurrent experiences to fashion
interpretation of texts” (Gregson, & Botha, 2016). As such, reading is an interpretive or
problem-solving task that is more or less successful, depending on:

• readers’ prior knowledge of several areas, including their past experiences

• the (reading) context
• readers’ knowledge about the textual genre
• readers’ knowledge about related (e.g. science) texts and content

Reading is a complex task and learners need to learn “interpretive strategies for coping
with science text” (Kamil & Bernhardt, 2004). Different reading strategies and
knowledge are needed to read different kinds of texts, therefore learners need to be
taught how to read science texts.

Teachers and learners must understand that the structure of science texts is typically
different from other texts they come across at school. In science texts the sentences,
paragraphs and chapters are structured in ways that are unfamiliar to Senior Phase
learners and so need to be taught. The following examples from the literature argue
that the structure of science texts can present particular challenges to learners. The
first compares the structure of typical texts in language arts classes and typical texts
found in science. The second argues that identifying the structure of science texts can
help with understanding, and reports on research into strategies to teach learners how
to recognise different structural forms. Further examples from experience and the
literature emphasise that learners must monitor their own understanding.

Kamil and Bernhardt (2004) focus on text structures and compare those found in
different subject areas. They have found that “story” is the textual structure that is most
commonly encountered in language classes in primary schools, where learners mainly
read story books. They point out that the textual structures of stories are relatively
simple in comparison with the textual structures encountered in science, where
expository texts are the norm. They note the variety and complexity of expository texts,
and cite Mayer’s five categories of text structure as evidence of such complexity:
“description, collection, causation, problem and solution, and comparison” (Kamil &
Bernhardt, 2004:129). They state that research into reading instruction shows that
“current reading instruction deals primarily with the generalizable reading skills, not
with those specific to genres” and that “unique genre skills are not being taught as a
routine part of reading instruction” (Kamil & Bernhardt, 2004:130). They explain that
this leaves learners ill-equipped to deal with reading tasks in science, and suggest that
the boredom that results from such reading tasks can be attributed in part to a lack of
understanding of the structure.

Bartlett (2003) also looks at such textual structures and explores the effect of
knowledge of “top-level structures” on reading comprehension. In his words, he
investigates the ability “to process a text at various levels of critical thinking and
memory, and to identify or create its key information” (Bartlett, 2003:16). Bartlett has
found very positive outcomes in a range of contexts where learners use strategies for
top-level structuring in reading, writing and speaking. He writes that the four main ways
of structuring paragraphs are “cause and effect”, “problem/solution”, “compare and
contrast”, and “listing”. He claims that “learners who do it write better assignments and
find textbooks friendlier than they had previously”, and that university students who are
top-level structurers (i.e. students who use top-level structures) generally achieve
higher marks.

Getting learners to explain their understanding of paragraphs allows them to generalise

the strategy across a range of learning contexts. Aulls (1975) explains a method of
teaching Intermediate Phase to use a particular strategy for finding the main point of a
paragraph. He tells about a Grade 6 teacher who trialled the use of particular
summarising strategies over nine weeks, using three groups that differed in how much
they used the strategies. During the first six weeks, the teacher used thinking aloud
and charts to help learners to identify the topics, subtopics and main ideas of
paragraphs. During the following three weeks, the teacher trained learners to use self-
questioning to arrive at the main idea. Aulls (1975) argues that success depended on
teacher modelling, guided practice and many examples, and on learners learning to
justify their answers. Only then could learners internalise the procedure. Learners who
were asked to justify their answers as part of the process were more able to summarise
effectively.

Similarly, Palincsar and Brown (1984) show that poor readers in Grade 7, when given
successful “comprehension-fostering and monitoring activities” in a “reciprocal
teaching” situation (i.e. they taught one another using a particular reading process),
became more successful readers and were able to compete with their previously more
able classmates. In all these cases, it seems that being taught good reading strategies
was not enough; learners also needed to monitor their comprehension and justify their
conclusions before they could transfer the strategies and use them independently.

Learners may have misconceptions about what reading is and reading does – they
may see it as the simple word-by-word decoding process. They fail to understand the
need for interpreting a text in the light of their prior knowledge and experience, a
process that requires active questioning and problem-solving.

Science writing is generally more abstract than everyday speech. In addition it has
several other features that make for more difficult reading. These features are as
follows:

✓ Informational density refers to the number of key words in a given amount of text.
Speech is the least dense as it includes many non-essential words, whereas writing
is generally denser. Scientific writing, even in textbooks for learners, is generally
very dense.
✓ Abstraction or nominalisation refers to the use of one word (e.g. weathering) to
refer to a whole process. (A grammatical metaphor such as “weathering” is one
example of abstraction or nominalisation)
✓ Technicality refers to the use of terms that have specific scientific meanings in the
context of science.
✓ Authoritativeness means that science texts are factual and correct, and are
characterised by an assertive, objective tone. The author of a science text is
virtually absent from the text.

Overall then, teachers must realise that reading science texts is a complex task – it is
not merely a matter of decoding words and paying attention to technical vocabulary.
Reading for comprehension is a challenging task for most learners because scientific
texts require considerable prior knowledge of the content, context, specific genres and
internal structures of science texts. All science teachers must therefore also teach their
learners how to read different kinds of science texts, keeping in mind that these texts
are much more complex than other texts encountered in school. Strategies that will
help learners to cope with science texts must be taught. They must learn how to
recognise top-level structures and the peculiarities of scientific texts. More specifically,
teachers must provide learners with strategies for noticing non-verbal cues in texts,
and for interpreting texts using active questioning and problem-solving.

However, reading is not the only challenging literacy task in science. Writing in science
is just as challenging. In fact, writing is often the aspect of school science that Senior
Phase learners most dislike.

Writing to learn

Learning science also involves writing. Yore, Bisanz and Hand (2003) recount the
history of writing in science classrooms. In earlier times, learners mainly copies text
verbatim from a blackboard, wrote science reports in a given format or wrote to be
assessed. They list teacher-directed tasks such as “keeping accurate records,
completing laboratory reports, and demonstrating an understanding of concepts for
assessment purposes” (Yore et al, 2003:713). Learners typically had to write their
notes in a particular formal style under the headings “hypothesis, procedures,
observations, results and discussions” (Yore et al, 2003:713). With regard to
assessment, Gregson and Aubusson (2005) report that secondary science learners
generally lacked writing skills, and while learners often disliked writing, they realised
its importance for achieving success at school.

Much can be said about the various ways that writing is used in school science. Writing
to learn requires learners to use everyday, non-specialised language as they try to
make sense of the concepts they are learning (Keys, 1999). Keys (1999, citing Britton,
1970) characterises this form of language as “expressive, because it resembles the
type of language used in everyday conversation” (Keys, 1999:116), both conveying
information and reflecting on that information. In the United States of America, writing-
to-learn in content areas has evolving out of the “writing across the curriculum”
movement. This movement initially focused on improving the explanation of
knowledge, but then moved towards writing more personally to form meaning (Keys,
1999). Learners often had to use logs or journals to reflect on their learning in an
attempt to “personalize the curriculum, foster student ownership and responsibility for
learning” (Keys, 1999). This followed a general move towards using journals across
the curriculum.

One researcher worked with a teacher who used “dialogue journals” with a Grade 8
science class who, on the whole, had low-level literacy skills. The journals gave them
a voice which the teacher heard and responded to (initially with responses to the
journal entries, but later with responses in what he did in lessons). As a result, the
enacted curriculum became more negotiated than it would otherwise have been.
Learners could come to terms (to some extent) with some of the difficulties they were
experiencing, and this seemed to give them hope that they could participate in their
own learning in science. For example, one student wrote the following about the use
of dialogue journals: “We can tell you how we really feel about Science and we should
have that more in every subject that we’re having trouble with” (AR). Another one
wrote: “Well, the advantages of it, um, like, you, the teachers, know what they have to
pick up in and what they don’t have to pick up in” (TA). The journals gave learners a
place to reflect on their learning, gave the teacher useful feedback, and facilitated
dialogue between the teacher and his learners. They also provided a non-threatening
learning environment and allowed learners to communicate their emotional experience
of science. The journals therefore helped the learners to develop their identity as true
science learners (Keys, 1999).
Writing can also be used in more creative, imaginative ways both primary and
secondary school science classrooms. For example, a primary school teacher
combined science learning about coastal ecology with writing an eco-mystery story. A
secondary school example is reported by Hildebrand (1998), who used imaginative
writing in a mixed scientific-literary mode as a way of helping female learners to learn
science. She used imaginative writing as “a link between pleasure and engagement”.
Combining facts and fiction in anthropomorphic writing (i.e. writing that gave human
characteristics to inanimate objects) helped the girls in the study to engage in learning
about biological processes in a way not associated with masculinity. In these cases, it
was thought that those who thought science was too dry or only the domain of male
learners could get new opportunities to engage with science by writing in genres they
already enjoyed. The use of different genres in science writing aims to make science
accessible to a wide range of learners who might be hard to reach in the traditional
way.

Keys (1999), however, is critical of such expressive and imaginative writing as it may
distract learners from the central goal, namely to learn authentic science practices and
language. She argues against the use of too much expressive writing in science as
writing in scientific genres to inform others (what Britton [1989] calls “transactional”
writing)can more effectively help learners to learn. She points out that participation in
an authentic, sense-making process of report writing could be just as engaging and
much more illuminating about the nature of science investigation and the thinking skills
needed. She writes as follows:

Writing in the accepted scientific genres can provide opportunities for

understanding the relationship of evidence to knowledge claims, and the
tentative nature of the scientific enterprise. Coupled with opportunities for
authentic investigation, writing to communicate science will provide the
opportunity for in-depth scientific thinking and will promote the crystallization of
new understandings through verbal modes of discourse (Britton, 1989). The
work of Keys and others has led to the practical application of these ideas in a
programme that integrates writing to learn with transactional writing. The
science writing heuristic (SWH) has been developed to help learners learn as
they undertake inquiry in a way that gives more of the planning and
responsibility to the learner, which is similar to the way scientists engaged in
inquiry might work in a laboratory. The dialogue that a scientist might have with
his or her team as they go through the inquiry process and write up their results
is simulated by a structure consisting of scaffolding questions for the student,
with questions such as, “What is my question?”, “What did I do?”, “What did I
see?”, ‘What is my claim?”, “What is my evidence?”, “What do others say (i.e.
peers or the textbook)?” and “Did I change my ideas?” It provides learners with
scaffolding questions that allow them to play an active role in constructing their
understanding and communicating it.

This approach to writing to learn may be most suitable for learners who are already on
the path towards identifying with scientists and who want to think and communicate
like scientists. Gregson and Botha (2016), writes that engagement is linked to “a
feeling of belonging and an acceptance of the goals of education”, and is related to
gender in science. For learners who may not easily identify with or who may feel
disenfranchised by traditional science, such as some female or minority learners, such
a direct approach may be less successful. Given the problem of motivation in science
referred to by Gregson, teachers need to address motivational issues as part of
teaching science, and this may mean separating out the teaching of new concepts, the
teaching of new scientific terminology and the teaching of new scientific genres, and
finding new ways of helping learners to connect learning to the wealth of knowledge
that they bring to the classroom.

In summary, there are several ways that writing has been used in science teaching
and learning over the last few decades. Traditionally it was used mainly for verbatim
copying of teacher or textbook notes, writing reports for “cookbook pracs” and
demonstrating knowledge, and many learners thought these activities were boring or
alienating. Such writing contributed to a loss of motivation in science learners because
they often had very little personal involvement in their learning and hardly any
autonomy. This led to a writing-to-learn movement that encouraged learners to express
their own ideas as they made meaning out of their experiences in science, initially in
everyday language, but generally with a goal of helping learners move towards
understanding and reporting in scientific terms and genres. It was noted that the
approach taken – whether using traditional genres or more creative genres – may
depend on context and motivation issues.

Do we need to use the big words?

One area of debate in science education is whether one can learn science without
learning all the jargon, which is often like a foreign language to science learners. Fang
(2005) lists “technicality” as one of the four unique features of science writing that
learners find difficult.

Some linguists and researchers insist that science language is necessarily dense and
abstract because this is the way science needs to communicate arguments based on
evidence and build these arguments into theories. While this may be true when new
scientific evidence is used to build a new theory, it is not necessary to use dense,
abstract language when learners are introduced to a lot of complex information for the
first time.
A typical science textbook or even a science-related trade book (i.e. a commercially
available book aimed at the general public) may introduce dozens of new words on
every page. Readers need to understand these words, otherwise the content of the
book will make no sense to them. This is similar to learning the vocabulary of a foreign
language, but language teachers know that learners need to practise the new
vocabulary repeatedly in many meaningful contexts. Language teachers repeat new
words many times, pay attention to pronunciation and assign vocabulary practice for
homework.

Science teachers, on the other hand, introduce science words once or twice, assign
one written exercise that requires learners to use the new words, and then expect the
new words to become part of learners’ vocabulary without further practice. However,
there is a limit to the number of new words that a learner can absorb in a given time.
In Benchmarks for science literacy, the American Association for the Advancement of
Science (AAAS, 1993) reports that the “curriculum has become grossly overstuffed
with topics … Shallowness is one consequence, incoherence another”. They
recommend reducing the number of topics and the amount of content to be taught,
including unnecessary technical terms, by “eliminating, pruning, and trimming”.
Although the AAAS does not specify which terms should be left out, also it is mentioned
that technical terms should not be used only “for their own sake”.

In addition to stating that too much technical vocabulary demands too much from
learners, the AAAS also writes that learners sometimes adopt technical terms without
understanding what they mean. Such a lack of understanding can remain hidden by a
learners’ “glib use of technical terms”. However, the AAAS points out that some terms
are useful: “Technical language is helpful when the same idea needs to be referred to
again and again. If there is a legitimate reason to refer to where food is oxidized in a
cell, it obviously does not make sense to endlessly repeat ‘that special part of the cell
where food is oxidized’.” This is consistent with Fang’s (2005) comment that
abstraction or nominalisation is a unique feature of science texts, which is used to
advance an argument efficiently by standing in for and summarising the detail of a
previous step in the argument.

The challenge of being overloaded with numerous new scientific terms and unfamiliar
genres may be why imaginative writing appeals to learners. Imaginative writing allows
learners to think about different elements in a system in a way that builds on prior
knowledge about both genres and systems. Learners can practise new technical terms
in the context of a familiar genre. Ritchie, Rigano and Duane (2008) found that the
learners who wrote an eco-mystery had an unexpected long-term gain in their use and
understanding of scientific terms related to coastal ecology.

It appears to be fruitful to divide the learning experience into two stages (Brown &
Ryoo, 2008). During stage 1 learners learn about scientific phenomena in everyday
terms, and in stage 2 academic, scientific language is introduced to ensure that the
phenomena are also understood in scientific terms. Brown and Ryoo (2008) compare
the results from two groups of language minority learners. One group learned about
photosynthesis using scientific language from the beginning, while the other group was
allowed to develop understanding of the same topic with everyday language before
they were introduced to the scientific language. They called the latter a content-first
approach. Their findings show that the content-first group developed a better
understanding of the science and also became more proficient in using correct
scientific language.

This suggests that using unfamiliar language to teach new concepts leads to poorer
understanding; however, once learners have grasped the basic principles and
understand the relationship between the different aspects, they more readily learn the
scientific terminology. Learners are likely to learn more deeply if the curriculum is
trimmed and technical language is not taught only for its own sake. Given that Chinn,
Hand and Yore (2008) state that science is like a foreign language, this approach
should even be followed in classrooms where English is the learners’ first language.

In summary, it might be too much to expect learners to understand new science topics
that are introduced in scientific language, especially if English is not the learners’ first
language. However, once learners have been introduced to new science topics in
everyday language and understand those topics, they should be able to learn and use
scientific terminology relating to those topics successfully. If the goal is universal
scientific literacy, then some understanding of scientific terminology is required, but
teachers must be careful not to introduce new terms at a rate that reduces
understanding of the concepts being taught. When scientific terminology is introduced
too quickly, learners may pick up and use the new terms, but (as the AAAS warns)
they may not really understand those terms. Teachers must therefore make sure that
learners not only learn, but also understand the scientific terminology that is taught.

31Activity 5.3
Go to Discussion Forum 5.1 and discuss the following with your classmates:

What must Senior Phase teachers know about reading and writing in science?

5.5 CONCLUSION
Science literacy fundamentally involves language and literacy skills, and both everyday
and specific language skills are needed to understand and communicate in science.
Critical literacy helps learners to read all texts (not only science texts) critically.
However, the fact that language skills are fundamental to science poses special
challenges to learners and teachers.

In this learning unit we discussed reading for understanding. Reading is essentially a

problem-solving activity that requires prior knowledge about content, context and text
types. Science texts, especially expository texts, are especially difficult for most
learners.

Secondly we focused on writing and how it can help learners to develop an

understanding of science, make science more relevant to their interests and needs,
and help them to be successful in inquiry-oriented science. However, writing needs to
be used with care. Teachers must always keep learners’ motivation to learn science in
mind. Writing must increase learners’ interest in science. Teachers should use
expressive or creative writing as well as traditional ways of writing, especially for
learners who have been alienated by traditional ways of communicating in science.

Thirdly we focused on the most obvious language feature in science, namely scientific
terminology, and how it can be best taught and learned. Research cited indicates that
it may be counterproductive to introduce scientific terminology too soon or too rapidly.
On the other hand, ESLLs should not be kept out of science classes while learning
English because literacies specific to science are unlikely to be learned in generic
literacy classes.
5.6 SELF-REFLECTION QUESTIONS
This section contains self-reflection questions that you can use to test your knowledge
of the learning unit.

Answer all the questions:

1. In what ways is learning science like learning a foreign language? How is it

different?
2. Do you think the language of science is the main barrier to learning science?
What other main barriers might there be?
3. Pick any school science textbook and critique the language it uses. Does it
caters for ESL learners?
4. Is there any opportunity for extended reading in science? What sources could
(or should) be used for extended reading?

32REFERENCE LIST

American Association for the Advancement of Science (1993). Benchmarks for

Science Literacy. New York: Oxford

Aulls, MW. 1975. Relating reading comprehension and writing competency.

Language Arts 52:808–812.

Australian Academy of Science (AAS). 2006. Primary connections: connecting

science with literacy. Canberra: AAS.

Australian Academy of Science (AAS). 2007a. Critical literacy handout. Linking

science with literacy module. Making Connections. 2007 TRIAL. Canberra: AAS.

Australian Academy of Science (AAS). 2007b. Literacies of science handout. Linking

science with literacy module. Making Connections. 2007 TRIAL. Canberra: AAS.

Bartlett, BJ. 2003. Valuing the situation: a referential outcome for top-level
structurers, in Reimagining practice: researching change (volume 1), edited by B
Bartlett, F Bryer & D Roebuck. Nathan: Griffith University Press:16–37.
http://search.informit.com.au/browsePublication;isbn=0909291853;res=IELHSS
[accessed on 7 March 2012].

Britton, J. 1989. The spectator as theorist: A reply. English Education 21:53–60

Brown, BA & Ryoo, K. 2008. Teaching science as a language: a ‘content-first’
approach to science teaching. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 45(5):529–
553.

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). 1996. Notes and definitions: literacy.

www.dlhoffman.com/publiclibrary/factbook96/wfb-note.htm [accessed on 7 February
2011].

Chinn, PWU, Hand, B & Yore, L. 2008. Culture, language, knowledge about nature
and naturally occurring events, and science literacy for all: she says, he says, they say.
L1- Educational Studies in Language and Literature 8(1):149–171.
Fang, Z. 2005. Scientific literacy: a systemic functional linguistics perspective.
Science Education 89(2):335–347.

Gregson, R & Botha, ML. 2016. Teaching Science: Foundation to Senior Phase. Cape
Town: Oxford University Press.

Gregson, R & Aubusson, PJ. 2005. Writing: is it important in science classrooms?

Journal of Science and Mathematics Education in Southeast Asia 28(1):25–42.

Hildebrand, G. 1998. Disrupting hegemonic writing practices in school science:

contesting the right way to write. Journal of Research in Science Teaching
35(4):345–362.

Kamil, ML & Bernhardt, EB. 2004. The science of reading and the reading of science:
successes, failures, and promises in the search for prerequisite reading skills for
science, in Crossing borders in literacy and science instruction: perspectives on
theory and practice, edited by EW Saul. Newark, DE: International Reading
Association:123–139.
Keys, CW. 1999. Revitalizing instruction in scientific genres: connecting knowledge
production with writing to learn in science. Science Education 83:115–130.

Osborne, J. 2002. Science without literacy: a ship without a sail? Cambridge Journal
of Education 32(2):203–218.

Palincsar, AS & Brown, AL. 1984. Reciprocal teaching of comprehension-fostering and

comprehension-monitoring activities. Cognition and Instruction 1(2):117–175.
https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532690xci0102_1 [accessed on 4 November 2022].
Stephen Ritchie, Donna Rigano & Ann Duane (2008) Writing an Ecological Mystery in
Class: Merging genres and learning science, International Journal of Science
Education, 30:2, 143-166, DOI: 10.1080/09500690601161783

Yore, LD, Bisanz, GL & Hand, BM. 2003. Examining the literacy component of
science literacy: 25 years of language arts and science research. International
Journal of Science Education 25(6):689–725.
LEARNING UNIT 6: ASPECTS OF ASSESSMENT

Table of contents

Learning objectives

6.1 Introduction

6.2 What is assessment?

6.3 Why assess?

6.4 Types of assessment

6.4.1 International and national testing

6.4.2 School-based assessment

6.5 Factors that affect assessment

6.6 How to assess

6.7 Conclusion

6.8 Self-reflection questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
On completion of this learning unit, you should be able to:

• Explain what assessment is and why we assess.

• Discuss the difference between assessment and grading.
• List the different types of assessment and what they should include.
• Discuss factors that affect assessment.

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Assessment has changed. We no longer just look for what learners have learned and
give it a mark. The data collected must be used to direct the actions of teachers when
they plan activities, and to inform learners of their progress. It has been found that
while academic performance is important for assessment, teachers give more weight
to student effort, academic behaviours such as participation, and extra work. National
testing has made both positive and negative contributions to education. As national
testing will continue for the foreseeable future, we must use its strengths and limit the
effects of its weaknesses on the learning outcomes of learners.

6.2 WHAT IS ASSESSMENT?

Before you read the rest of this section, please watch the following short video about
assessment:

https://youtu.be/xb609JC3_QU

Historically, assessment has been about establishing learners’ knowledge and

understanding of what they have been taught in classrooms, and about the learners
themselves. It was about separating successful learners from unsuccessful learners.
Early assessment practices were based on rote learning and were mostly informal
practical or oral examinations. Written testing, which is now a feature of educational
policy, dates back to the 1860s.Traditionally the giving of grades and marks for these
written tests was used to demonstrate and report on learner achievement.

Assessment now encompasses complex processes of evaluation of student learning

and teaching practices to inform future teaching strategies. Assessment is a
professional process of collation, comparison and judgment of learning outcomes.
Consideration is given to learner perceptions of the impact of assessment on them,
the different perceptions that learners, teachers and parents have of the role of
assessment and, most importantly, how the information gained from an assessment
task will be reported and used. It has become important to balance summative and
formative assessment practices, and to juggle national assessment processes with
classroom learning and assessment.

In most contexts the term “assessment” means the process of forming a judgment
about the quality and extent of learner performance across a wide range of specified
tasks and processes. It uses tools such as projects, reports and essays. “Grading”
refers to the identification of the level of learner performance, either in a particular task
or across a range of tasks that encompass an entire unit, education level or degree.
The grade allocated to a learner depends on scoring or marks obtained for providing
correct responses to questions. Grades are usually represented by rating codes and
percentages (see the CAPS documents).

Read more about the differences between assessment and grading at:
https://www.turnitin.com/blog/what-is-the-difference-between-assessment-and-
grading-why-does-it-
matter#:~:text=Assessments%20are%20not%20just%20tests,that%20may%20requir
e%20teacher%20intervention.

33Activity 6.1

1. Explain what assessment is.

2. Discuss the difference between assessment and grading.

6.3 WHY ASSESS?

As the story at the beginning of this learning unit suggests, assessment of a learner’s
progress is one of a teacher’s key responsibilities. When learning is viewed as the
collection of knowledge and skills, assessment strategies are more likely aimed at
verifying whether the student has attained the required knowledge and skills. If learning
is viewed as the ongoing development of understanding and knowledge that is based
on prior knowledge, assessment strategies shift from marks and grading to
accumulating information and feedback that support learning.

Assessment is undertaken for the following reasons:

❖ The government and/or education institutions require assessment. Political

agendas are driven by national results in international tests that supply data about
the status of education in South Africa and drive funding patterns.
❖ Learning must be analysed in terms of learner outcomes at particular levels or
standards. Assessment can also be used to determine teacher effectiveness.
❖ Feedback must be given to teachers and learners. Feedback aimed at teachers
states whether lesson outcomes have been achieved and what modifications are
needed. Feedback aimed at learners identifies gaps in their knowledge and
understanding, and suggests how such gaps could be closed.
❖ Learners are graded for selection purposes. For example, learners may win a place
at a particular school or may be placed in particular class based on their grades.
Grades are also used to determine which learners should participate in special
programmes (e.g. programmes for gifted learners and for learners who experience
barriers to learning).
❖ Assessments could motivate learners to try harder to reach their full potential.
However, this strategy might backfire and become demotivating when learners do
not succeed.

Assessment of learning requires that teachers provide a number or letter to indicate

learner achievement in a task. The focus is on collecting data about what learners
know about the content covered in class and how well they can use that knowledge to
respond to teacher-directed questions. A rank for the task can be determined so that
learners can see where they are placed within their cohort. Assessment of learning
tasks may or may not be returned to the learner. Comments on the task may or may
not be necessary. Assessment of learning usually occurs at strategic times during and
at the end of a teaching unit. Teachers can use preprepared or previously used testing
instruments to save time.

Assessment activities include multiple-choice tests, examinations, quizzes,

worksheets and presentations.
Assessment for learning refers to the assessment practices that teachers use to
gather information about each learner’s progress. The tasks are created to identify
what the learner has learned and to provide feedback that will promote further learning.
The tasks assess a variety of skills and knowledge in more than one way. Feedback
to the learner is a pivotal part of this assessment process. Feedback does not
necessarily include marks or grades, but records are kept on how well the learner has
acquired a skill and understands the content. Teachers use these tasks to evaluate
their teaching activities so that they can modify their pedagogy if required. The
assessment tasks help them to assess which activities work well and which do not
work.

Over the last two decades, the concepts “learning” and “assessment to learn” have
become more prominent. The idea of assessment to learn (also known as “assessment
as learning”) is that learners not only need to learn, but also need to understand how
they learn and how to communicate what they have learned during assessment tasks.
As such learning becomes a life-long endeavour, not just something done at school.
Assessment to learn promotes self-awareness both as individuals and as part of
communities of learning.

Read more about assessment of learning, assessment for learning and assessment
as learning at:
https://www.harapnuik.org/?p=8475

3 4Activity 6.2
Discuss why we assess.

6.4 TYPES OF ASSESSMENT

6.4.1 International and national testing

National and international testing has been introduced by governing bodies so that
comparisons can be made in learning outcomes across states and countries. Three
such tests are the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), Trends in
International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), and Progress in International
Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS). Each conducts tests at various times and levels, and
acts as an indicator of system performance and evidence for comparison of
international education systems. PISA tests reading literacy in real-life settings,
whereas TIMSS focuses on proficiency benchmarks based on mathematics and
science curricula. TIMSS and PIRLS are grade-based, while PISA is age-based.

Each assessment strategy asks questions about the comparisons that are made.
There are those that argue that national performances are not comparable because
different age ranges, sampling procedures and reporting formats lead to discrepancies
in the evaluation of the data collected. There is also doubt about the value of the data
collected. In South Africa, concern has been raised about the poor performance of
South African learners in both TIMMS and PIRLS. South Africa was outperformed by
poorer countries in Africa that have considerably fewer facilities than South Africa.

ANA (Annual National Assessment – Literacy and Numeracy) is a South African

assessment that was introduced in 2011 for Grades 2 to 7 in all public schools. In 2013
and 2014, ANA was written by Grade 1 to 6 and Grade 9 learners in all public schools
and state-subsidised independent schools (DBE, 2014). This test was intended to
provide valuable information about basic skills, what learners know and do not know,
and what teachers need to focus on in their classrooms The data from this national test
were to be used for quality control that would support educational planning for
individuals, classes and schools, and would inform districts, provinces and the national
government.

6.4.2 School-based assessment

One of the issues about school-based assessment is that the assessment strategies
should be used more often are more time-intensive in both the production and
assessment of the task. For example, for learner portfolios of work produced over a
unit or topic, each learner needs to complete a series of worksheets or activities that
require learner input. In order to make this an effective assessment task that not only
gives feedback on learning but aids in the learning process, the teacher needs to
assess each element of every learner’s work. This time-consuming process needs to
be performed throughout the unit, not just at the end.

Testing learners can help them to focus on the topics that they need to learn and, when
combined with other assessment strategies, can provide an indication of the learning
outcomes that the learner has been able to achieve. While well-developed tests can
give you an idea of where a learner is in their learning, there are factors that can affect
how each learner responds in a testing environment, for example:

• What the learner writes in response to the question is the answer given at that time
in that particular context. If given an alternative assessment strategy, the learner
may have been able to demonstrate deeper understanding.
• Not all learners prepare well for tests, and in many cases their fear and stress inhibit
their concentration during the test and their interpretation of questions.
• The use of scientific terminology can inhibit a learner’s ability to respond to a
question or to express their understanding.
• Openness is required about what is being assessed. While teachers often identify
the outcomes and topics that will be tested, the detail is not always apparent in the
actual tests. When comparing learning outcomes and testing questions, it is often
found that there is a mismatch between what has been taught and what is tested.
• Not all learners are aware of “secret teachers’ business”. Not all learners are good
at guessing what teachers will put in the test and what answers they are looking
for. Nor will learners answer in exactly the way that teachers have written their
sample answers, so there is a matter of interpretation when teachers mark learners’
answers.
• It is difficult to standardise marking. Not all teachers make the same judgments
about what is important and which answers are acceptable.

35Activity 6.3
1. List the types of assessment.
2. Explain what assessment should include.

6.5 FACTORS THAT AFFECT ASSESSMENT

There are many factors that affect how and what we assess. Assessment practices
also dramatically affect teaching practices.

✓ Assessment is no longer limited to the classroom. National and international

pressures on educational outcomes have seen the introduction of ANA, IBT and
the National Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS), and as a result
 assessment practices in the classroom have changed. It has become apparent that
teachers are tailoring their teaching and assessment practices to match those of
the national tests. There is concern about keeping learners interested and engaged
while preparing them for the testing.
✓ Assessment is not just done to give the teachers information about learner
progress. It is meant to inform teachers about their pedagogies. However,
assessment strategies are matched to national testing information about learner
success. Teacher practices remain hidden behind the marks and grades that are
given to their learners after much of the teaching for the year has happened, yet
schools and individual teachers are being blamed for their learners’ lack of success.
✓ The availability of time affects teaching practices and assessment strategies.
✓ Science has been relegated, as ANA testing in the Foundation, Intermediate and
Senior Phases focuses on numeracy and literacy.
✓ With overloaded teaching programmes, teachers feel that they need to return to
traditional assessment practices as constructivist strategies do not allow teachers
to cover the curriculum or teach the skills learners need to perform well in the
national assessment.
✓ The development of assessment tasks is time-consuming, especially when criteria-
referenced tasks and performance bands are used.
✓ Researchers have found a high degree of variability among markers in the same
school and among markers from different schools. Consistency among markers
and schools varies dramatically regarding the weight given to different aspects of
assessment tasks, education philosophies and what is best for each learner.
✓ Teachers often view assessment as a requirement imposed on them by external
forces that put too much emphasis on assessing rote learning.
✓ Teachers are used to collaborate with their colleagues when planning programmes
and teaching strategies, so they feel disenfranchised by the national testing that
has been foisted on them.
✓ There is a need to balance autonomy and community, and to recognise the needs
of different stakeholders. Parents want marks and rankings, learners want
information (including marks), but those interested in improving want to know what
they must do to get the marks they want. The wider community does not want marks
 that are meaningless – it wants indicators of what learners are capable of doing
and at what level.
✓ Academic achievement and behaviours and attitudes that lead to success remain
important to teachers. Teachers and learners see marks and grades as a form of
payment for work and effort. Of greatest importance are learner effort and
improvement, while homework and comparisons with other learners and classes
remain a low priority.

36Activity 6.3
Discuss factors that affect assessment in the Senior Phase.

6.6 HOW TO ASSESS

The must be a balance between teaching activities that focus on national testing, and
maintaining learner interest in what is being taught. It must also be recognised that
strategies to assess learning need to follow what and how material is taught. The
weighting of testing activities is based on the teacher’s philosophy of learning and the
needs of learners, the school, parents and the system.

Choosing the right task

Research has shown that teachers’ assessment practices are linked to their values
and beliefs about teaching. Most important are their views on fairness and
accountability. Teachers strive to produce assessment tasks that allow all learners to
exhibit the full extent of their understanding. They are aware that they need to provide
a variety of tasks to cater for different learning styles, and that they must also give
weaker learners the opportunity to show their limited understanding and skills.

There are heated debates about the different ways that learners learn, but the
arguments for planning individualised or personalised learning programs seem to
vanish when we turn to assessment.

We need to consider the following when developing an assessment task:

• Match specific instructional goals and outcomes with the assessment focus and
marking criteria.
• Make sure that the level of content knowledge and skills learners that are expected to
attain is transparent.
• Enable learners to demonstrate their proficiencies across all content and skills.
• Allow assessment of multiple goals.
• Use authentic, real-world contexts.
• Allow an interdisciplinary approach.
• Ensure that the assessment task is accessible to learners in terms of context and
language used.
• Ensure that tasks are gender and race sensitive.

Factors that limit a learner’s ability to demonstrate understanding include the following:

❖ Reading ability. The readability of the assessment task must match the literacy
skills of the learners.
❖ ESL. The use of pictures and diagrams will aid ESLLs in unpacking what the
assessment task requires. Learners must be allowed to answer the questions in a
variety of ways (not only in writing) to give all learners the opportunity to
demonstrate their knowledge and understanding. Presentations might be the
preferred option for some learners.
❖ Learning difficulties. Provision must be made for learners who experience
barriers to learning. Firstly, they must understand what the assessment task is
about. Secondly, they must be able to present their answers to the questions. This
may require the use of technology and/or personnel to act as readers and scribes.
Extra time may also be required.
❖ Recall. Not all learners can recall everything that has been taught or everything
they have learned, especially not when they feel anxious during an assessment
task with a time limit. Provide stimulus material and use a variety of questioning
techniques that do not rely directly on recall.
❖ Concentration: Not all learners can concentrate for extended periods of time.
Where possible, provide multiple short periods of time when learners can take a
breather between parts of the assessment task.

The following factors inhibit successful assessment:

➢ Teachers’ tendency to assess quantity and presentation of work rather than quality
of learning.
➢ Greater attention given to marking and grading, much of it tending to lower learners’
self-esteem of learners rather than providing advice for improvement.
➢ A strong emphasis on comparing learners with one another, which demoralises the
less successful learners.
➢ There is too much educational testing. If too much time is spent on assessing
learners, the time we have to teach and the number of opportunities for learners to
learn and reflect decrease.

37Activity 6.4
Go to Discussion Forum 6.1 and discuss the following with your classmates:
What are the factors that limited your ability to demonstrate your understanding of
science when you were still in the Senior Phase?

6.7 CONCLUSION
Assessment of learning is not simply a matter of writing a test and marking it. Writing
and marking an assessment task are complex processes that require reflection. The
teacher needs to ask: How does this assessment task assess learners’ learning? How
will the marking of the task produce feedback to learners, parents and the teacher?
There is evidence that assessment strategies have changed as theories of learning
evolved. However, international testing has an inverse effect: it has resulted in a return
to teaching and assessment based on the needs of the testing programme rather than
the needs of learners and other education stakeholders. To develop appropriate
testing, each teacher needs to address the many issues presented in this learning unit.
Teachers need to develop assessment tasks that are appropriate for the learners and
content being tested.

6.8 SELF-REFLECTION QUESTIONS

This section contains self-reflection questions that you can use to test your knowledge
of the learning unit.

Formative assessment can be included in many class activities, as this class

investigation of push and pull demonstrates. Learners collect a range of objects (e.g.
a number of toys) and investigate what happens when these objects are pushed and
pulled, and whether pushing and pulling have an effect on the objects. They must
answer the following questions: How do the objects move when they are pushed and
pulled? Do they change their shape?

There are many opportunities for formative assessment during the investigation, but to
conduct this assessment successfully, you must consider how you would collect the
data and make notes about learners’ progress.

✓ Pre-investigation. By questioning the class in a brainstorm-style discussion, the

teacher determines learners’ prior knowledge about the physics of pushing and
pulling, and write down the learners’ comments next to their names on a class list.
✓ Mid-investigation. The teacher asks learners to explain and justify their choice of
toys for the investigation, and how they plan to collect their findings. The level of
explanation and understanding shown is recorded on a table against the learners’
names. Questions are used to determine what learners know.
✓ Towards the end of the investigation. Learners present their findings. These are
assessed against a rubric and feedback is provided to the learners.
✓ Post-investigation. Learners are asked to apply their knowledge to a number of
situations by completing a handout; the teacher collects the handouts and notes
learners’ skills.

38REFERENCE LIST

Gregson, R & Botha, ML. 2016. Teaching Science: Foundation to Senior Phase.
Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
Department of Basic Education. 2014. Education for all. 2014 Country progress
report ISBN: 978-1-43125-2042-8.