Chapter 1:

Definition of Communication:
Schramm:
Communications is the mechanism through which human relations exist and develop.
Fred G. Meyer:
Communication is the intercourse by words, letters or message.
Type of Communication:
In communication process, a sender (encoder) encodes a message and then using a
medium/channel sends it to the receiver (decoder) who decodes the message and after
processing information, sends back appropriate feedback/reply using a medium/channel.
Types of communication based on the communication channels:
Verbal communication:
Verbal communication refers to the form of communication in which a message is
transmitted verbally; communication is done by word of mouth and writing. In verbal
communication always remember the acronym KISS - keep it short and simple.
Verbal Communication is further divided into, two oral /spoken and written communication.
1. Oral/Spoken Communication
Spoken words are used. It includes face-to-face conversations, speech, telephonic
conversation, video, radio, television, voice over internet.
Advantages:
i. Oral communication allows for immediate feedback such as the opportunity to ask
questions when the meaning is not entirely clear.
ii. The sender can check and see whether the instruction is clear or has created confusion.
iii. There is a high level of understanding and transparency in oral communication as it
is interpersonal.
iv. There is no element of rigidity in oral communication. There is flexibility for allowing
changes in the decisions previously taken.
v. Spoken instructions are flexible and easily adaptable to many diverse situations.
vi. Oral communication is essential for teamwork and group energy.
Disadvantages :
i. Poor presentation of the message or the instruction can result in misunderstanding
and wrong responses.
ii. Relying only on oral communication may not be sufficient as business
communication is formal and very organized.
iii. Oral communication is less authentic than written communication as they are
 informal and not as organized as written communication.
iv. Oral communications are not easy to maintain and thus they are unsteady.
v. It requires attentiveness and great receptivity on part of the receivers/audience.
vi. Spoken communication is influenced by both verbal and non-verbal
communication such as tone or body language which may twist the meaning
of your message in the mind of the receiver.

2. Written Communication:
A written message may be printed or handwritten. In written communication message can be
transmitted via, letter, report, memo, reports, bulletins, job descriptions, employee manuals,
and electronic mail are the types of written communication used for internal communication.
Advantages:
i. It assists in proper delegation of responsibilities.
ii. Written communication is more precise and explicit
iii. Effective written communication develops and enhances an organization's image.
iv. It provides ready records and references.
v. Legal defenses depend upon written communication as it provides valid records
vi. There is a lesser chance for the message to be misunderstood.

Disadvantages:
i. People may not always read them.
ii. Written communication takes time.
iii. It is impersonal or unfriendly.
iv. Written communication is expensive.
v. Too much paperwork
vi. It does not answer questions and there is no immediate feedback.

Non-verbal Communication:
According to McConnell, (2003):
Nonverbal communication is behavior, other than spoken or written communication, that
creates or represents meaning.
Nonverbal communication is all about the body language of speaker.
Nonverbal communication has the following three elements:-
1. Appearance
Speaker: clothing, hairstyle, neatness, use of cosmetics
Surrounding: room size, lighting, decorations, furnishings
2. Body Language
Facial expressions, gestures, postures and how one stands are important elements of
non-verbal communication. For example, leaning towards a speaker indicates intense
interest. Frequently looking away from the speaker indicates disinterest or impatience
3. Sounds
Voice Tone, Volume, Speech rate.
 Functions of nonverbal:
Argyle (1988) concluded that there are five primary functions of nonverbal bodily behavior in
human communication namely: -
i. Express emotions
ii. Express interpersonal attitudes
iii. To accompany speech in managing the cues of interaction between speakers and listeners
iv. Self-presentation of one's personality
v. Rituals (greetings)
Advantages:

i. You can communicate with someone who cannot hear.

ii. You can communicate in places where you have to avoid talking audibly.
iii. You can communicate without others around you hearing what is being communicated.
iv. You can communicate when a person is too far away from you to hear you.

Disadvantages:
i. Long conversations using non-verbal communication are usually not possible.
ii. Non-verbal communication varies from culture to culture.
iii. Particular messages using non-verbal communication cannot be discussed in detail.
iv. It is not useful as a public tool for communication

Types of Communication Based on Purpose and Style:

1.Formal (standardized)
2. Informal (casual)

Factors to consider when choosing a communication media

1. Reliability
2. Receiver
3. Relationship with the receiver
4. Confidential
5. Cost
6. Speed
7. Availability

Stages:
1.Sender
2.Message
3.Encoding
4.Channel
5.Receiver
6. Decoding
7. Feedback
Communication cycle:
Social scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver (1949) structured model based on
the following elements:

i. An information source, which produces a message.

ii. A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
iii. A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission.
iv. A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal.
v. A destination, where the message arrives.

Basic principles of communication:

7C’s
1. Clarity:
Saleemi (Author):
The speaker should use simple language, concrete expressions, avoid excessive use of
the infinitives, avoid jargon, avoid ambiguity, and use short sentences.
2. Completeness
According to Saleemi, Completeness of facts is necessary. Incomplete communication
irritates the reader, for it leaves him baffled.
3. Conciseness:
Saleemi:
Brevity in expression effectively wins the attention of the reader but it should not be
effected at the cost of appropriateness, clarity, correctness, completeness or courtesy.

4. Consideration
Consider the receiver - consideration means preparing every message with the receiver
in mind, try to put yourself in their place. For instance, adopt the you-attitude and not
“we”, emphasize positive, pleasant facts and impart integrity to your messages (Saleemi,
1997).
5. Courtesy:
6. Correctness:
7. Concreteness:

Effective Communication:

Importance of communication:
Below are other major reasons as to why we communicate: -
i. We communicate to educate and give instruction to the people we are communicating with
ii. To provide knowledge for instance in school, church, political rallies etc.
iii. To give expertise and skills for smooth functioning by people in society.
iv. To create awareness and give opportunity to people to actively participate in public life.
v. We communicate for Information – in case you want to know something you have to ask
and be told
vi. We listen for entertainment
vii. We listen for discussion and to persuasion.
viii. We listen for understanding and insight - we depend on communication for self
awareness. Communication helps us to understand ourselves and others.
ix. To develop meaningful relationships - it is through communication contacts that human
beings basic and social needs are met. Psychology has it that people need each other
x. influence and persuasion - human beings spend most of their time trying to influence each
other to think as they do, act as they do and like what they like.
 Barriers to communication:
A barrier to communication is something that keeps meanings from meeting. Meaning barriers
exist between all people, making communication much more difficult than most people seemto
realize. (Reuel Howe)
1. Physical (Environment)
2. System (System Fault)
3. Semantic (Language)

Barriers:
1. Physiological barriers (Individual’s discomfort)
2. Socio-psychological (Certain Attitude e.g opinion,emotion,closed mind)
3. Presentation of Information (help in understanding speech)
4. Environmental (crowded places, loudspeaker)
5. Physiological-Impairment barrier (Deafness,Blindness)
6. Syntactical (Grammer Mistakes)
7. Organizational ( Poorly Structured Communication)
8. Cultural ( Streotype assumptions )
Possible Remedies:
I. Malhotra, J. (2009) said that communication face barriers due to delay, distortion and dilution.
When the information gets distorted due to the faulty system, jealousy, faulty listening,
inadequate vocabulary, baldly chosen words, the information loses its meaning.
II. The psychological barriers caused by prejudice, preconceived notion, distrust of the
communicator, misinterpretation of his intention etc can be solved by counteracting those
prejudice.
III. This is the process of transferring the information you want to communicate into a form that
can be sent and correctly decoded at the other end. Your success in encoding depends partly on
your ability to convey information clearly and simply, but also on your ability to anticipate and
eliminate sources of confusion (for example, cultural issues, mistaken assumptions, and missing
information.) A key part of this, know your audience: Failure to understand who you are
communicating with will result in delivering messages that are misunderstood.
IV.Avoid cultural confusion - Be clear with the message and avoid using slang or unnecessary
metaphors that may challenge or confuse a recipient from a different culture. Create a culture
of communication that uses simple language where people of all backgrounds can participate.
Celebrate the diversity of a global society by researching how the source culture best receives
communication.
V. Communication through proper channels works out effectively. But the flow of
communication in the orderly form should not be insisted upon every time. At times it can be
ignored and not strictly followed in order to keep the functioning of the organization smooth
and effective.
 Chapter 4:
Listening:
“Listening in dialogue is listening more to meaning than to words . . .In true listening, we reach
behind the words; see through them, to find the person who is being revealed. Listening is a
search to find the treasure of the true person as revealed verbally and nonverbally. There is the
semantic problem, of course. The words bear a different connotation for you than they do for me.
Consequently, I can never tell you what you said, but only what I heard. I will have to rephrase
what you have said, and check it out with you to make sure that what left your mind and heart
arrived in my mind and heart intact and without distortion”.- John Powell, theologian
Listening is a complex process with three main phases:
Receive – gather all the signals being sent to you, both verbal and non-verbal
Comprehend – try to understand what you've sensed and consider what it means
Respond – ask questions and reflect back your understanding.
Things that we listen to actively
i. Music
ii. Lecturer
iii. News
iv. Sermons
v. Discussions
vi. Advice
vii. Gossips
Why You Need Good Listening Skills
Good listening skills increase productivity amongst workers. The ability to listen carefully will
allow you to:
i. Understand better the assignments and what is expected of you by you teachers and
lecturers
ii. It builds rapport among colleagues, your bosses, and the customers
iii. It boasts team-work
iv. Many problems, between workers and bosses are resolved through listening
v. Through listening you can be able to answer many questions and correctly
Reason why we listen:
According to a research done by Kathleen Galvin (1995), we listen so as:-
i. To be able to engage to social rituals (socialize)
ii. To exert control – to take a step after advice
iii. To share feelings
iv. We listen to obtain information/exchange information and learn more.
v. We listen to understand.
vi. We listen for enjoyment/to entertain ourselves.
vii. We listen to learn

According to Salemi (1997) we usually listen to:-

i. Obtain information
ii. To solve problems
iii. To share experiences
v. To persuade

Saleemi (1997) said that if people are bad listeners:-

i. Only inaccurate and incomplete information would be exchanged

ii. Problems would not be clearly understood and would remain unsolved
iii. They would not be able to share one another's experience
iv. On account of being unable to understand each other through their own or others'
inattentiveness, they would not be able to persuade or dissuade others

Difficulties encountered while listening:

1) Audibility
2) Accent
3) Speed of delivery
4) Boring Speaker
5) Language Barrier
6) Noise
7) Semantic destruction
8) Physical Abilities
9) Code Switching

Barriers to effective listening:

a. Physiological Barriers
b. Environmental Barriers
c. Attitudinal Barriers
d. Faulty Assumptions
e. Cultural
f. Gender differences

Possible remedies
i. To overcome the habit of selective listening, paraphrase or mirror back what you hear to
ensure you understand other points of view.
ii. If the parties feel overwhelmed or tired which affects listening, a better strategy is to
take a break from the conversation.
iii. Be an active listener. To be an active listener, you have to be a good observer too.
 iv. Provide clues that you are actively involved through asking questions, nodding etc

v. Refrain from formulating an immediate response

vi. Prepare beforehand

vii. Ensure the environment is conducive for listening.

Review Questions:
1. Features of Quality Listening:

Active Engagement:
Quality listening involves actively engaging with the speaker, demonstrating genuine
interest, and providing feedback to show understanding.

Empathy:
Effective listeners strive to understand the speaker's perspective, emotions, and experiences,
demonstrating empathy in their responses.

Open-Mindedness:
Quality listening requires an open mind, allowing the listener to consider different
viewpoints without judgment or preconceived notions.

Non-Verbal Cues:
Good listeners use non-verbal cues such as nodding, eye contact, and appropriate facial
expressions to convey attentiveness and encouragement.

Clarification:
Seeking clarification when needed, by asking questions or paraphrasing, helps ensure
accurate understanding and prevents misunderstandings.
Chapter 5:
Reading:
The Process of constructing meaning from written texts.
(Anderson):
It is a complex skill requiring the coordination of a number of interrelated sources of
information.
Reading according to Wixson, Peters, Weber, and Roeber, (1987) is the process of
constructing meaning through the dynamic interaction among:-
 the reader's existing knowledge
 the information suggested by the text being read
 the context of the reading situation
Types of Reading :
 Scanning
Move your eye quickly over the page to find particular words, name or phrases that are
relevant to the task you are doing(MacLeod, 2012).
 Skimming
Looking over the text quickly to get a general idea of the content/ the gist of something
(MacLeod, 2012).
 Sub Vocalization
This is reading very slowly and methodically, either saying the words out loud or at
least with a ‘voice’ in your head.We tend to use it when trying out a recipe for the first
time, or carrying out instructions as to how to assemble something we’ve bought
(Fedeles, 2012).
 Extensive Reading
Brown (1989) explains that extensive reading is carried out to achieve a general
understanding of a text.
 Intensive Reading
Brown (1989) explains that intensive reading calls attention to grammatical forms,
discourse markers, and other surface structure details for the purpose of understanding
literal meaning, implications, rhetorical relationships, and so on.
. Long and Richards (1987) say it is a detailed in-class analysis.
 Speed Reading
a collection of methods for increasing reading speed without an unacceptable reduction in
comprehension or retention.
 Proof Reading
kind of reading for the purpose of detecting typographical errors.
 Independent Reading
Students read silently by themselves and at their own pace (Taylor, 1993).
 Guided Reading
Conducted with small groups of students who read at the same level.
 Shared Reading
Students follow along as the teacher reads a selection aloud (Fisher & Medvic, 2000).
Strategies For Reading Comprehension:
1. Visualization
2. Questioning
3. Inferring
4. Predicting
5. Guessing From Context
6. Evaluating
7. Synthesizing
8. Previewing
9. Skimming and Scanning
10. Paraphrasing
11. Read Actively

Reading Skills:
Reading skills enable readers to turn writing into meaning and achieve the goals of independence,
comprehension, and fluency (SIL International, 1999).
Reading Skills are specific Abilities which enable reader to :

Importance of reading:
Educational researchers emphasize a robust correlation between reading skills and
academic success. A proficient reader is more likely to excel in school, understanding not
only individual sentences but also the organizational structure of written pieces. Good
readers comprehend ideas, follow arguments, and discern implications, enhancing their
ability to learn and process large volumes of information efficiently. Additionally, a strong
link exists between reading and vocabulary knowledge—students with extensive
vocabularies are typically proficient readers. This connection highlights the reciprocal
relationship between reading extensively and developing advanced language skills.
Barriers:
Certainly! Barriers to effective reading can vary, and they may include:

1. Lack of Concentration:
- Distractions or an inability to focus can hinder effective reading. External noise, interruptions,
or internal thoughts may disrupt concentration.

2. Poor Reading Skills:

- Insufficient or underdeveloped reading skills, such as difficulty in decoding words, recognizing
vocabulary, or understanding sentence structures, can pose barriers.
3. Limited Vocabulary:
- A limited vocabulary can impede comprehension. Unfamiliar words may lead to
misunderstandings and difficulty grasping the intended meaning.

4. Lack of Prior Knowledge:

- Insufficient background knowledge on the topic being read can make it challenging to
understand complex or specialized content.

5. Reading Fatigue:
- Prolonged reading without breaks can lead to fatigue, reducing the ability to retain information
and diminishing overall comprehension.

6. Poor Text Structure:

- Complex or poorly structured texts may present challenges. Inadequate organization, lack of
headings, or unclear formatting can hinder effective reading.

7. Lack of Interest:
- Disinterest in the content can result in a lack of motivation to engage with the material,
affecting comprehension and retention.

8. Reading Anxiety:
- Anxiety about reading, such as fear of not understanding or pressure to read quickly, can create
mental blocks and impede effective reading.

9. Language Barriers:
- For individuals reading in a non-native language, language barriers can significantly impact
comprehension and overall reading effectiveness.

10. Health Issues:

- Visual or cognitive health issues, such as vision impairment or learning disabilities, can pose
significant barriers to effective reading.