WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
MODULE III
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Digital Modulation and Detection
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Digital transceivers much cheaper, faster, and more power
efficient than analog transceivers.
Digital modulation offers a number of other advantages
over analog modulation:
Higher spectral efficiency
Powerful error correction techniques
Resistance to channel impairments
Efficient multiple access strategies
Better security and privacy
Low power/cost implementation
Digital Modulation and Detection…
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Digital modulation and detection consist of transferring
information in the form of bits over a communication
channel.
The bits are binary digits taking on the values of either 1 or
0.
The bits are derived from an information source which is
digital or analog and passed through an A/D converter.
Digital modulation consists of mapping the information bits
into an analog signal for transmission over the channel.
Detection consists of estimating the original bit sequence
based on the signal received over the channel.
Digital Modulation and Detection…
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There are two main categories of digital modulation:
Amplitude/Phase modulation
Frequency modulation
Amplitude and phase modulation embeds the information
bits into the amplitude or phase of the transmitted signal,
which is more susceptible to variations from fading and
interference.
Once the modulation technique is determined, the
constellation size must be chosen.
Modulations with large constellations have higher data rates
for a given signal bandwidth, but they are more susceptible
to noise, fading, and hardware imperfections.
Geometric Representation of
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Signals
The modulator constructs a distinct signal ( ) of duration T
seconds if the message source that emits one symbol every T
seconds denoted by 1, 2, … .
The essence of geometric representation of signals is to
represent any set of M energy signals si( ) as linear
combinations of N orthonormal basis functions, where N ≤ M.
Using a Gram–Schmidt orthogonalization procedure it can be
shown that any set of M signals S = {s1(t), s2(t),…,sM(t)} can be
represented as a linear combination of N ≤ M real
orthonormal basis functions {φ1(t), . . . , φN(t)}.
Geometric Representation of
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Signals…
Each si(t) S can be represented in terms of its basis function
representation as
sij is a real coefficient representing the projection of si(t) onto
the basis function φj (t) .
Geometric Representation of
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Signals…
Let si = (si1, . . . , siN ) be the vector of coefficients {sij} in the
basis representation of si(t).
si the signal constellation point corresponding to the signal
si(t). The signal constellation consists of all constellation points
{s1, . . . , sM}.
The representation of si(t) in terms of its constellation point si
called its signal space representation, and the vector space
containing the constellation is called the signal space.
Geometric Representation of
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Signals…
A two-dimensional signal space is
illustrated with the ith axis
corresponding to the basis
function φi(t), i = 1, 2.
Geometric Representation of
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Signals…
In Binary Phase Shift Keying(BPSK) two symbols are
transmitted, 1 and 0 and phase angles of carriers are 0 and
180
In case of binary PSK, we require only one basis function of
unit energy
The pair of signals s1(t) and s2(t) used to represent binary
symbols 0 and 1 are
Geometric Representation of
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Signals…
Geometric Representation of
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Signals…
The transmitted signals 1( ) and 2( ) can be expressed in
terms of basis function as
The coordinates of message points are
Geometric Representation of
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Signals…
Error Probability of Binary PSK
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In order to make a decision in favor of symbol 1 or 0, the
signal space is partitioned into decision regions .
Can be partitioned into two regions :
The set of points closest of message point 1 at √ b
The set of points closest of message point 0 at -√ b
Obtained by constructing the midpoint of the line joining the
two message points.
Error Probability of Binary PSK…
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Decision rule:
If the received signal point falls in region 1, a decision is taken
that signal 1( ) was transmitted Binary symbol 1.
If the received signal point falls in region 2, a decision is taken
that signal 2( ) was transmitted Binary symbol 0
Two kinds of erroneous decisions can be made:
If signal 1( ) is transmitted, but due to noise received signal falls
in region 2 Receiver decides in favor of 2( )
If signal 2( ) is transmitted, but due to noise received signal falls
in region 1 Receiver decides in favor of 1( )
Digital Signalling for Flat fading
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Channels
The performance of the digital modulation techniques when
used over channels with flat fading.
There are two performance criteria of interest:
Probability of error, defined relative to either symbol or bit errors
Outage probability, defined as the probability that the
instantaneous signal-to-noise ratio falls below a given threshold.
Flat fading can cause a dramatic increase in either the
average bit error probability or the signal outage
probability.
In a fading environment the received signal power varies
randomly over distance or time as a result of shadowing
and/or multipath fading.
Digital Signalling for Flat fading
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Channels…
In fading, s, the SNR per symbol, is a random variable with
distribution ps() and so Ps(s) is also random.
The performance metric when s is random depends on the
rate of change of the fading.
There are three different performance criteria that can be
used to characterize the random variable Ps :
The outage probability, Pout, defined as the probability that γs falls
below a given value corresponding to the maximum allowable Ps.
The average error probability,Ps , averaged over the distribution
of γs.
Combined average error probability and outage, defined as the
average error probability that can be achieved some percentage
of time or some percentage of spatial locations.
Outage Probability
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The outage probability relative to γ0 is defined as,
where γ0 specifies the minimum SNR required for acceptable
performance.
In Rayleigh fading the outage probability becomes
For a given outage probability, the required average SNR γs
is
Outage Probability…
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In decibels this means that 10 log γs must exceed the target 10
log γ0 by
The quantity Fd is called the dB fade margin.
Average Probability of Error
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The average probability of error is used as a performance
metric when Ts ≈ Tc.
It is assumed that γs is roughly constant over a symbol time.
The average probability of error is computed by integrating
the error probability in AWGN over the fading distribution:
where Ps(γ ) is the probability of symbol error in AWGN with SNR γ.
For a given distribution of the fading amplitude r, pγs(γ ) is
computed as
EQN(1)
Average Probability of Error…
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In Rayleigh fading the received signal amplitude r has the
Rayleigh distribution
EQN(2)
The SNR per symbol for a given amplitude r is
EQN(3)
where σ2n = N0/2 is the PSD of the noise in the in-phase and
quadrature branches.
Differentiating both sides of this expression yields
EQN(4)
Average Probability of Error…
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Substituting EQN(3) and EQN(4) in EQN(1) and EQN(2) we get,
σ2Ts/σ2n is taken as the average SNR per symbol γs . Therefore
which is the exponential distribution. For binary signaling this
reduces to
The bit error probability of BPSK is given as,
Average Probability of Error…
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Integrating the equation for BER of BPSK over pγb(γ ) we get
the average probability of error for BPSK in Rayleigh fading:
It is observed that the performance of BPSK converge at high
SNRs.
If more than one bit is transmitted, we call it as probability of
symbol error ( ). In QPSK, two bits are transmitted therefore
Comparison of error probabilities
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of BPSK in AWGN and fading
For binary PSK the bit error probability in AWGN decreases
exponentially with increasing γb.
In fading the bit error probability for all the modulation
types decreases just linearly with increasing γb.
Problems
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Q) Determine the average SNR per bit of BPSK modulation in
Rayleigh slow-fading channel such that 95% of the times,
average probability of bit error is less than 10-4 .
Multicarrier Modulation
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In multicarrier modulation the transmitted bitstream is divided
into many different sub-streams and send these over many
different subchannels.
Inder ideal conditions, these sub-channels are orthogonal.
The data rate on each of the subchannels is much less than
the total data rate, and the corresponding subchannel
bandwidth is much less than the total system bandwidth.
Each subchannel has a bandwidth less than the coherence
bandwidth of the channel, so the subchannels experience
relatively flat fading and less ISI.
The subchannels in multicarrier modulation need not be
contiguous, so a large continuous block of spectrum is not
needed for high-rate multicarrier communications.
Multicarrier Modulation…
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Multicarrier modulation can be implemented in
several ways:
Vector Coding
Digital implementation (OFDM) un which ISI can be
completely eliminated
Data Transmission Using Multiple
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Carriers
The simplest form of multicarrier modulation divides the data
stream into multiple sub-streams to be transmitted over
different orthogonal subchannels centered at different
subcarrier frequencies.
In order to ensure that the sub-streams experience negligible
ISI,
The symbol time on each sub-stream much greater than the delay
spread of the channel OR
The sub-stream bandwidth less than the channel coherence
bandwidth.
Data Transmission Using Multiple
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Carriers…
Consider a system with data rate R and bandwidth B.
Assume that the coherence bandwidth Bc < B, so the signal
experiences frequency selective fading.
In multicarrier modulation this wideband system is broken into N
subsystems in parallel, each with subchannel bandwidth BN =
B/N and data rate RN ≈ R/N.
For sufficiently large N, the subchannel bandwidth BN = B/N
<< Bc, which ensures relatively flat fading on each subchannel.
In time domain, the symbol time TN of the modulated signal in
each subchannel is proportional to the subchannel bandwidth
1/BN.
Data Transmission Using Multiple
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Carriers…
So BN << Bc implies that TN ≈ 1/BN >> 1/Bc ≈ Tm, where
Tm denotes the delay spread of the channel.
i.e. if N is sufficiently large, the symbol time is much
greater than the delay spread, so each subchannel
experiences little ISI degradation.
Multicarrier Modulation with Non -
overlapping Subchannels
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Multicarrier Modulation with Non -
overlapping Subchannels…
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In the multicarrier transmitter in the figure, the bit stream is
divided into N sub-streams via a serial-to-parallel converter.
The nth sub-stream is linearly modulated (typically via QAM or
PSK) relative to the subcarrier frequency fn and occupies
bandwidth BN.
Assuming raised cosine pulses for g(t) we get a symbol time TN
= (1+β)/BN for each sub-stream, where β is the roll-off factor
of the pulse shape.
The modulated signals associated with all the subchannels are
summed together to form the transmitted signal, given as
Multicarrier Modulation with Non -
overlapping Subchannels…
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For nonoverlapping subchannels we set fi = f0+i(BN), i = 0, . . .
,N −1.
The sub-streams then occupy orthogonal subchannels with
bandwidth BN, yielding a total bandwidth NBN = B and data
rate NRN ≈ R.
This form of multicarrier modulation does not change the
data rate or signal bandwidth relative to the original system,
but it almost completely eliminates ISI for BN << Bc.
Multicarrier Modulation with Non -
overlapping Subchannels…
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Each sub-stream is passed through a narrowband filter (to
remove the other sub-streams), demodulated, and combined via
a parallel-to-serial converter to form the original data stream.
Multicarrier Modulation with Non -
overlapping Subchannels…
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Shortcomings of non-overlapping subchannels:
In a realistic implementation, subchannels will occupy a larger
bandwidth than under ideal raised cosine pulse shaping.
If ε/TN is the additional bandwidth required, then the subchannels
must be separated by (1+β +ε)/TN.
Since the multicarrier system has N subchannels, the bandwidth
penalty for time limiting is εN/TN.
Thus, the total required bandwidth for nonoverlapping subchannels
is
Thus, this form of multicarrier modulation can be spectrally
inefficient.
Multicarrier Modulation with Non -
overlapping Subchannels…
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Shortcomings of non-overlapping subchannels:
Near ideal (and hence expensive) lowpass filters will be required
to maintain the orthogonality of the subcarriers at the receiver.
This scheme requires N independent modulators and demodulators,
which entails significant expense, size, and power consumption.
Problems
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Q) Consider a multicarrier system with a total passband bandwidth
of 1 MHz. Suppose the system operates in a city with channel delay
spread Tm = 20 μs. How many subchannels are needed to obtain
approximately flat fading in each subchannel?
SOLUTION:
Coherence bandwidth, Bc = 1/Tm = 1/ 20 μs = 50kHz
To ensure flat fading, BN = B/N << Bc
Assume B/N = 0.1Bc = 5kHz
Therefore, N = 1 MHz/5kHz = 200
Problems
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Q) Consider a multicarrier system with TN = .2 ms: TN >> Tm for Tm
the channel delay spread, so each subchannel experiences minimal
ISI. Assume the system has N = 128 subchannels. If time-limited
raised cosine pulses with β = 1 are used and if the additional
bandwidth required (because of time limiting) to ensure minimal
power outside the signal bandwidth is ε = .1, then what is the total
bandwidth of the system?
SOLUTION:
Total bandwidth of the system = N(1 + + ) / TN
= 128(1 + 1 + 0.1)/ 0.2 ms
= 1.344 MHz
Multicarrier Modulation with
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Overlapping Subchannels
The spectral efficiency of multicarrier modulation can be
improved by overlapping the subchannels.
The subcarriers must still be orthogonal so that they can be
separated out by the demodulator in the receiver.
The subcarriers {cos(2π(f0 + i/TN)t + φi), i = 0,1, 2, . . . } form a
set of (approximately) orthogonal basis functions on the interval
[0, TN] for any set of subcarrier phase offsets {φi}.
Since the carriers are orthogonal, the set of functions {g(t)
cos(2π(f0 +i/TN)t +φi), i = 0,1, . . . ,N −1} form a set of
orthonormal basis functions for appropriately chosen
baseband pulse shapes g(t): the family of raised cosine pulses
are a common choice for this pulse shape.
Multicarrier Modulation with
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Overlapping Subchannels…
Consider a multicarrier system where each subchannel is
modulated using raised cosine pulse shapes with roll-off factor β.
The bandwidth of each subchannel is then BN = (1+β)/TN.
The ith subcarrier frequency is set to (f0 +i/TN), i = 0,1, . . . ,N −1,
for some f0, so the subcarriers are separated by 1/TN.
The bandwidth of each subchannel is BN = (1+ β)/TN > 1/TN for
β > 0, so the subchannels overlap.
Excess bandwidth due to time windowing will increase the
subcarrier bandwidth by an additional ε/TN.
Multicarrier Modulation with
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Overlapping Subchannels…
Multicarrier Modulation with
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Overlapping Subchannels…
The total system bandwidth with overlapping subchannels is
given by
where the approximation holds for large N.
With N large, the impact of β and ε on the total system
bandwidth is negligible, in contrast to the required
bandwidth of B = N(1+ β + ε)/TN when the subchannels
do not overlap.
Problems
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Q) Consider a multicarrier system with TN = .2 ms: TN >> Tm for Tm the channel
delay spread, so each subchannel experiences minimal ISI. Assume the system has
N = 128 subchannels. If time-limited raised cosine pulses with β = 1 are used and
if the additional bandwidth required (because of time limiting) to ensure minimal
power outside the signal bandwidth is ε = .1.Compare the required bandwidth of
a multicarrier system with overlapping subchannels versus nonoverlapping
subchannels using the parameters
Solution:
For overlapping system,
For non-overlapping system,
Multicarrier Modulation with
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Overlapping Subchannels…
