Structural

Engineering
Formulas
Ilya Mikhelson, Ph.D.
Tyler G. Hicks, P.E.
Illustrations by Lia Mikhelson, M.S.

Second Edition

New York Chicago San Francisco

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00_Hicks_FM_pi-xviii.indd 1 5/16/13 9:35 AM

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 To my wife and son
        I. M.

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 About the Authors
Ilya Mikhelson, Ph.D., had more than 30 years of
experience in design, research, and teaching design of
bridges, tunnels, subway stations, and buildings. He
wrote numerous publications, including Precast Concrete
for Underground Construction, Tunnels, and Subways and
Building Structures.

Tyler G. Hicks, P.E., is a consulting engineer and a success-

ful engineering book author. He has worked in plant design
and operation in a variety of industries, taught at several
engineering schools, and lectured both in the United States
and abroad. Mr. Hicks holds a bachelor’s degree in Mechan-
ical Engineering from Cooper Union School of Engineering
in New York. He is the author of more than 20 books in
engineering and related fields, including Civil Engineering
Formulas, Handbook of Mechanical Engineering Calculations,
and Handbook of Energy Engineering Calculations.

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 Contents
Preface to Second Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Preface to First Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

Part I Basis of Structural Analysis

1 Stress and Strain: Methods of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . 3
Table 1.1 Stress and Strain: Tension
and Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Table 1.2 Stress and Strain: Bending . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Table 1.3 Stress and Strain: Bending . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Table 1.4 Stress and Strain: Combination of
Compression (Tension)
and Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Table 1.5 Stress and Strain: Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Table 1.6 Stress and Strain: Curved Beams . . . . . . 15
Table 1.7 Stress and Strain: Continuous
Deep Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Table 1.8 Stress and Strain: Dynamics, Transverse
Oscillations of the Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Table 1.9 Stress and Strain: Dynamics, Transverse
Oscillations of the Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Table 1.10 Stress and Strain: Dynamics, Transverse
Oscillations of the Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Table 1.11 Stress and Strain: Dynamics,
Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Table 1.12 Stress and Strain: Dynamics,
Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

2 Properties of Geometric Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Table 2.1 Properties of Geometric Sections:
Tension, Compression, and Bending
Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Table 2.2 Properties of Geometric Sections:
Tension, Compression,
and Bending Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

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 vi Contents

Table 2.3 Properties of Geometric Sections:

Tension, Compression, and Bending
Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Table 2.4 Properties of Geometric Sections:
Tension, Compression, and Bending
Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Table 2.5 Properties of Geometric Sections:
Tension, Compression, and Bending
Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Table 2.6 Properties of Geometric Sections:
Torsion Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Part II Statics
3 Beams: Diagrams and Formulas for Various
Loading Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Table 3.1 Simple Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Table 3.2 Simple Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Table 3.3 Simple Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Table 3.4 Simple Beams and
Beams Overhanging
One Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Table 3.5 Cantilever Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Table 3.6 Beams Fixed at One End,
Supported at Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Table 3.7 Beams Fixed at One End,
Supported at Other End . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Table 3.8 Beams Fixed at Both Ends . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Table 3.9 Beams Fixed at Both Ends . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Table 3.10 Continuous Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Table 3.11 Continuous Beams: Settlement
of Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Table 3.12 Simple Beams: Moving Concentrated
Loads (General Rules) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Table 3.13 Beams: Influence Lines
(Examples) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Table 3.14 Beams: Influence Lines
(Examples) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Table 3.15 Beams: Computation of Bending
Moment and Shear Using Influence
Lines (Examples) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Table 3.16 Beams: Computation of Bending
Moment and Shear Using Influence
Lines (Examples) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

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 Contents vii

4 Frames: Diagrams and Formulas

for Various Static Loading Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Table 4.1 Frames: Diagrams and Formulas
for Various Static
Loading Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Table 4.2 Frames: Diagrams and Formulas
for Various Static
Loading Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Table 4.3 Frames: Diagrams and Formulas
for Various Static
Loading Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Table 4.4 Frames: Diagrams and Formulas
for Various Static Loading
Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Table 4.5 Frames: Diagrams and
Formulas for Various Static
Loading Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

5 Arches: Diagrams and Formulas

for Various Loading Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Table 5.1 Three-Hinged Arches: Support
Reactions, Bending Moment,
and Axial Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Table 5.2 Symmetrical Three-Hinged Arches
of Any Shape: Formulas for Various
Static Loading Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Table 5.3 Symmetrical Three-Hinged Arches
of Any Shape: Formulas for Various
Static Loading Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Table 5.4 Two-Hinged Parabolic Arches:
Formulas for Various Static
Loading Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Table 5.5 Two-Hinged Parabolic Arches:
Formulas for Various Static
Loading Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Table 5.6 Fixed Parabolic Arches: Formulas for
Various Static Loading Conditions . . . . 105
Table 5.7 Fixed Parabolic Arches: Formulas for
Various Static Loading Conditions . . . . 107
Table 5.8 Three-Hinged Arches:
Influence Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Table 5.9 Fixed Parabolic Arches:
Influence Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Table 5.10 Steel Rope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

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 viii Contents

6 Trusses: Method of Joints and Method

of Section Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Table 6.1 Trusses: Method of Joints
and Method of Section Analysis . . . . . . 119
Table 6.2 Trusses: Method of Joints
and Method of Section Analysis . . . . . . 121
Table 6.3 Trusses: Influence Lines
(Examples) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Table 6.4 Trusses: Influence Lines
(Examples) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
7 Plates: Bending Moments for Various Support
and Loading Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Table 7.1 Rectangular Plates:
Bending Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Table 7.2 Rectangular Plates: Bending Moments
(Uniformly Distributed Load) . . . . . . . . 131
Table 7.3 Rectangular Plates: Bending Moments
(Uniformly Distributed Load) . . . . . . . . 133
Table 7.4 Rectangular Plates: Bending Moments
(Uniformly Distributed Load) . . . . . . . . 135
Table 7.5 Rectangular Plates Bending Moments
(Uniformly Distributed Load) . . . . . . . . 137
Table 7.6 Rectangular Plates:
Bending Moments and Deflections
(Uniformly Distributed Load) . . . . . . . . 139
Table 7.7 Rectangular Plates: Bending Moments
(Uniformly Varying Load) . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Table 7.8 Rectangular Plates: Bending Moments
(Uniformly Varying Load) . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Table 7.9 Circular Plates: Bending Moments,
Shear and Deflection
(Uniformly Distributed Load) . . . . . . . . 145

Part III Soils and Foundations

8 Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Table 8.1 Soils: Engineering Properties . . . . . . . . . 153
Table 8.2 Soils: Weight/Mass and Volume
Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Table 8.3 Soils: Stress Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Table 8.4 Soils: Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Table 8.5 Soils: Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Table 8.6 Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Table 8.7 Bearing Capacity Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . 165

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 Contents ix

9 Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Table 9.1 Foundations:
Direct Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Table 9.2 Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Table 9.3 Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Table 9.4 Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Table 9.5 Foundations: Rigid Continuous
Beam Elastically Supported . . . . . . . . . . 177
Table 9.6 Foundations: Rigid Continuous
Beam Elastically Supported . . . . . . . . . . 179
Table 9.7 Foundations: Rigid Continuous
Beam Elastically Supported . . . . . . . . . . 181

Part IV Retaining Structures, Pipes, and Tunnels

10 Retaining Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Table 10.1 Retaining Structures: Lateral
Earth Pressure on Retaining Walls . . . . . 187
Table 10.2 Retaining Structures: Lateral
Earth Pressure on Retaining Walls . . . . . 189
Table 10.3 Retaining Structures: Lateral
Earth Pressure on Retaining Walls . . . . . 191
Table 10.4 Retaining Structures: Lateral
Earth Pressure on Retaining Walls . . . . . 193
Table 10.5 Retaining Structures: Lateral
Earth Pressure on Retaining Walls . . . . . 195
Table 10.6 Retaining Structures: Lateral Earth
Pressure on Braced Sheetings . . . . . . . . . 197
Table 10.7 Retaining Structures: Cantilever
Retaining Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Table 10.8 Retaining Structures:
Cantilever Sheet Pilings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Table 10.9 Retaining Structures:
Anchored Sheet Pile Walls . . . . . . . . . . . 203
11 Pipes and Tunnels: Bending Moments
for Various Static Loading Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Table 11.1 Pipes and Tunnels: Rectangular
Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Table 11.2 Pipes and Tunnels:
Rectangular Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Table 11.3 Pipes and Tunnels:
Rectangular Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Table 11.4 Pipes and Tunnels:
Rectangular Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . 213

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 x Contents

Table 11.5 Pipes and Tunnels:

Rectangular Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Table 11.6 Pipes and Tunnels: Circular
Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Table 11.7 Pipes and Tunnels:
Circular Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Table 11.8 Pipes and Tunnels:
Circular Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
A Quick-Use Conversion Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
B Mathematical Formulas: Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
C Mathematical Formulas: Geometry,
Solid Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
D Mathematical Formulas: Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . 243
E Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

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 Preface to
Second Edition

W
hen Larry Hager, Senior Editor, McGraw-Hill Professional,
asked me to revise Ilya Mikhelson’s Structural Engineering
Formulas book, I was awed by the request. I had used this
excellent book in my own engineering practice, and I knew the book
to be a superb, and highly useful, treatise.
Thinking about the revision, I decided that the best way to update
the book was to use the blank left-hand “Notes” pages for new,
related content. Doing this would update the book without unduly
increasing the page count or the price of the book. Further, I would,
where possible, leave room for Notes. This would preserve, to some
extent, Dr. Mikhelson’s unique idea of leaving room for important
comments by the reader. Given engineer’s proclivity for making
notes about their work, it made sense to leave as much room as pos-
sible for note making.
The new content nearly doubles the technical coverage of the book.
Some 300+ new formulas have been added, along with 40+ new illus-
trations. Specific new topics in the Second Edition include the following:
strain energy principles; strain energy in structural members; stress-
strain relations; stress and strain failure analysis; analysis and design of
flat and curved springs; properties of geometric sections of columns;
torsion of shafts of various cross sections; shaft twist and torque formu-
las; beam loading formulas; position of flexural center for different sec-
tions; torsion in solid and hollow shafts; safe loads for beams of various
types; torsion in structural members; eccentric loading of beams; com-
bined axial and bending loads; computation of fixed-end moments in
prismatic beams; continuous beam analyses; curved beam analyses;
influence lines; natural circular frequencies and natural periods of
vibration of prismatic beams; columns and frames; short columns;
elastic flexural buckling of columns; formulas for circular rings and
arches; eccentrically curved beams; curved beam position stress factors;
reactions of a three-hinged arch; length of cable carrying known loads;

xi

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 xii Preface to Second Edition

truss design and application; column baseplates; local buckling of

plates; bearing plate design; determination of flange plate thickness;
determination of stresses in plates; formulas for flat plates; relationship
of weight and volume in soils; lateral pressures in soils; forces on
retaining walls; lateral pressure of cohesionless soils; allowable soil
bearing pressures; allowable loads on piles; toe capacity load on piles;
determination of foundation settlement from soil test borings; estima-
tion of structure settlement; Housel’s method for determining the
foundation footing size; cantilever retaining walls; geosynthetics in
retaining wall construction; concrete gravity retaining walls; six types
of retaining walls and their soil-pressure variation; stability of a retain-
ing wall; pressure on submerged curved surfaces; flexible and rigid
ditch conduit loads; pipe stresses for various load conditions; forces
due to pipe bends; and pipe on supports at intervals. Appendix A
includes a much-expanded group of conversion factors for USCS and
SI unit conversions that will be helpful to every engineer and designer
using this book.
In closing, I thank Larry Hager for his excellent guidance during
the revision of this book. During preparation of this revision I con-
sulted a number of engineering handbooks that I use in my profes-
sional engineering work. These sources are cited throughout this
book. It is my sincere hope that if Dr. Mikhelson were to see this revi-
sion, he would approve of the added content.

Tyler G. Hicks, P.E.

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 Preface to
First Edition

T
his reference book is intended for those engaged in an occupa-
tion as important as it is interesting—design and analysis of
engineering structures. Engineering problems are diverse, and
so are the analyses they require. Some are performed with sophisti-
cated computer programs; others call for only a thoughtful application
of ready-to-use formulas. In any situation, the information in this com-
pilation should be helpful. It will also aid engineering and architectural
students and those studying for licensing examinations.

Ilya Mikhelson, Ph.D.

xiii

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 Acknowledgments
Deep appreciation to Mikhail Bromblin for his unwavering help in
preparing the book’s illustrations for publication.
The author would also like to express his gratitude to colleagues
Nick Ayoub, Tom Sweeney, and Davidas Neghandi for sharing their
extensive engineering experience.
Special thanks are given to Larry Hager for his valuable editorial
advice.

I. M.

Acknowledgments for Second Edition

The following books have been especially helpful in providing much
essential data, and many illustrations, that appear throughout the
Second Edition of this book.

Brockenbrough, Roger L., and Frederick S. Merritt, Structural Steel

Designer's Handbook, 3d ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1999.
Hicks, Tyler G., Civil Engineering Formulas, 2d ed., McGraw-Hill
Professional, New York, 2009.
Merritt, Frederick S., M. Kent Loftin, and Tonathan T. Ricketts,
Standard Handbook for Civil Engineers, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1996.
Roark, R. J., Formulas for Stress and Strain, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill,
Book Company, New York, 1965.

T. G. H.

xv

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 Introduction
Analysis of structures, regardless of its purpose or complexity, is gen-
erally performed in the following order:

• Loads, both permanent (dead loads) and temporary (live loads),

acting upon the structure are computed.
• Forces (axis forces, bending moments, shears, torsion moments,
etc.) resulting in the structure are determined.
• Stresses in the cross sections of structure elements are found.
• Depending on the analysis method used, the obtained results
are compared with allowable or ultimate forces and stresses
allowed by norms.

The norms of structural design do not remain constant, but change

with the evolving methods of analysis and increasing strength of mate-
rials. Furthermore, the norms for design of various structures, such as
bridges and buildings, are different. Therefore, the analysis methods
provided in this book are limited to the determination of forces and
stresses. Likewise, the included properties of materials and soils are
approximations and may differ from those accepted in the norms.
All the formulas provided in the book for analysis of structures
are based on the elastic theory.

xvii

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 PART I
Basis of Structural
Analysis
Chapter 1 Chapter 2
Stress and Strain: Methods Properties of Geometric
of Analysis Sections

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 Chapter 1
Stress and Strain:
Methods of Analysis

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 4 Basis of Structural Analysis

N O T E S

Tables 1.1 through 1.12 provide formulas for the determination of stresses in
structural elements for various loading conditions. To evaluate the results, it is
necessary to compare the computed stresses with existing norm requirements.

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 Stress and Strain: Methods of Analysis 5

Table 1.1 Stress and Strain: Tension and Compression

Weight Axial force: N x = γ A(L − x),
σ ∆
γ = unit volume weight,
A = cross-secttional area.
X
Nx
σx ∆x Stresses: σ x = = γ (L − x), σ x = 0 = γ L, σ x = L = 0.
A
L

Nx Deformation:
γx γ L2 W 2 L
Diagrams ∆x = (2 L − x), ∆ x = 0 = 0, ∆x = L = =
2E 2E 2EA
W = γ AL = weight of beam,
E = modulus of elasticity.

Axial force: tension, compression Pt Pc

Stresses: σ t = , σc = .
L1
A A
Deformation:
Pt Pt ∆ L = L − L1 (along), ∆ b = b − b1 (cross),
b1

±∆L
b

∆ b
εL = , εC = .
L b
L ε 
Poisson ’s ratio: µ =  c  .
 ε L 
Pc Pc
σ
b1
b

Hooke’s law σ = Eε , ε= :
E
L1 σ P µσ µP
∆L = ε LL = L= L, ∆ c = ε cb = b= b.
E EA E EA
Temperature Case a:
α ⋅ ∆ t 0 EA A L
A1 Reaction: R = , n= 2 , k = 1 .
A2 = nA1 1− k A1 L
k+
R R
n
Axial force: N = − R (compression ).

L1 = kL L2 = (1–k)L
R α ⋅ ∆ t0E
Stresses: σ 1 = − =− ,
A1 1− k
L k+
n
(a) R α ⋅ ∆t 0 E
σ2 = − =− .
nA1 k(n − 1) + 1
+∆t°
For A1 = A2 : σ = σ 1 = σ 2 = −α ⋅ ∆ t 0 E, ∆ t 0 = To0 − Tc0
Where To0 and Tc0 are original and considered
L ∆L
temperatures.
(b) α = coefficient of linear expansion
∆ t 0 > 0 tension stress, ∆ t 0 < 0 compression stress.

Case b:
Deformation: ∆ tL = α ⋅ ∆t 0 L.

01_Hicks_c01_p001-028.indd 5 5/16/13 10:04 AM

 6 Basis of Structural Analysis

N O T E S

Example for Tables 1.2 and 1.3a. Bending

Given. Shape W 14 × 30, L=6m
Area A = 8.85 in 2 = 8.85 × 2.542 = 57.097 cm 2
Depth h = 13.84 in = 13.84 × 2.54 = 35.154 cm
Web thickness d = 0.270 in = 0.270 × 2.54 = 0.686 cm
Flange width b = 6.730 in = 6.730 × 2.54 = 17.094 cm
Flange thickness t = 0.385 in = 0.385 × 2.54 = 0.978 cm
Moment of inertia I z = 291 in 4 = 291 × 2.54 4 = 12 , 112.3 cm 4
Section modulus S = 42.0 in 3 = 42.0 × 2.543 = 688.26 cm 3
Weight of the beam ω = 30 lb/ft = 30 × 4.448/0.3048 = 437.8 N/m
= 0.4378 kN/m
Load P = 80 kN
Allowable stress (assumed) [σ ] = 196.2 MPa, [τ] = 58.9 MPa

Required. Compute σ max and τ max .

ωL2 PL 0.4378 × 62 80 × 6
Solution. M= + = + = 121.97 kN ⋅ m
8 4 8 4
ωL P 0.4378 × 6 80
V= + = + = 41.31 kN
2 2 2 2
M 121.97 × 100 kN ⋅ cm
σ max = = /cm 2 = 177 , 215.0 kN/m 2
= 17.72 kN/
S 688.26 cm 3
= 177.215 MPa < 196.2 MPa

 h 
2

 d  − t 
V  h t 2   = 1.890 kN/cm 2 = 18, 900 kN/m 2
τ max = bt  − +
I z d   2 2 2 
= 18.9 MPa < 58.9 MPa

01_Hicks_c01_p001-028.indd 6 5/16/13 10:04 AM

 Stress and Strain: Methods of Analysis 7

Table 1.2 Stress and Strain: Bending

P y M
a1 Bending stress: σ = ⋅ y.
Iz
a2 X z h
2 3
a3 VS
1 4 Shear stress: τ = .
L b
I zb

Stresses in xy plane:
σ y = 0, σ x = σ , τ xz = τ yz = τ .
Mmax = PL
4
Principal stresses:
Moment diagram σ 1
σ max = ± σ 2 + 4τ 2 .
min
2 2

V= P Maximum shear (min) stresses:

2
Shear diagram
1
σy τxz τ max = ± σ 2 + 4τ 2 .
min
2
2 3
Stresses σx σx The principal stress and maximum (min)
in two dimensions
τyz
shear stresses lie at 45° to each other.
τyz
1 4
σy τxz Stress diagrams

M M
−σ −σ σ diagram: σ a = + , σ a = 0, σ a = − .
a1 1
S 2
S 3

3V VS 3V
45° 2A τ diagram: τ a = 0, τ a = = , τ a = 0.
X a2 X 1 2
Izb 2 A 3

3V
2A σ max diagram:
a3 M 3V
+σ +σ σa = + , σ a = +τ = + , σ a = 0.
1
S 2A
2 3

σ τ σmax σmin τmax τmin

σ min diagram:
– M M 3V M
– + M
Sz Sz
2Sz σ a = 0, σ a = − τ = − , σa = − .
3V
1 2
2A S 3

3V 3V 3V
+ 2A 2A 2A 2A
τ max diagram:
σ M 3V
V
M M M τa = τa = + =+ , τa = +τ = + .
Sz
+
Sz + 2Sz –
1 3
2 2S 2
2A

Stress diagrams
τ min diagram:
σ M 3V
τa = τa = − =− , τa = −τ = − .
1 3
2 2S 2A 2

Note:
+ — Tension
− — Compression

01_Hicks_c01_p001-028.indd 7 5/16/13 10:05 AM

 8 Basis of Structural Analysis

N O T E S

Strain Energy
Stressing a bar stores energy in it. For an axial load P and a deformation e, the
energy stored is
1
U= Pe (1.1a)
2

assuming the load is applied gradually and the bar is not stressed beyond the
proportional limit. The equation represents the area under the load-deformation
curve up to the load P.
Another useful equation for energy, in·lb, is
f2
U= AL (1.1b)
2E

where f = unit stress, psi

E = modulus of elasticity of material, psi
A = cross-sectional area, in2
L = length of bar, in

Since AL is the volume of the bar, the term f 2/2E gives the energy stored per unit
of volume. It represents the area under the stress-strain curve up to the stress f.
Modulus of resilience is the energy stored per unit of volume in a bar
stressed by a gradually applied axial load up to the proportional limit. This
modulus is a measure of the capacity of the material to absorb energy without
danger of being permanently deformed. It is important in designing mem-
bers to resist energy loads.
Equation (1.1a) is a general equation that holds true when the principle of
superposition applies (the total deformation produced at a point by a system
of forces is equal to the sum of the deformations produced by each force). In
the general sense, P in Eq. (1.2a) represents any group of statically interdepen-
dent forces that can be completely defined by one symbol, and e is the corre-
sponding deformation.
The strain-energy equation can be written as a function of either the load
or the deformation. For axial tension or compression, strain energy, in inch-
pounds, is given by
P2 L AEe 2
U= U= (1.2a)
2 AE 2L

where P = axial load, lb

e = total elongation or shortening, in
L = length of member, in
A = cross-sectional area, in2
E = modulus of elasticity, psi

For pure shear:

V 2L AGe 2
U= U= (1.2b)
2 AG 2L

Continued on page 10

01_Hicks_c01_p001-028.indd 8 5/16/13 10:05 AM

 Stress and Strain: Methods of Analysis 9

Table 1.3 Stress and Strain: Bending

y

1 ( h + y)
VS
Shear stress: τ =
V

2 2
Izb

τ = 3V b h  h  b  h2 
z 2A Case a: Sy =  − y  + y =  − y 2  ,
2 2 2 2 4
y
h

b  h2 
V ⋅  − y 2
2 4  6V  h2 
τ= = 3  − y 2  .
b bh3 bh 4
⋅b
(a) 12
V
τ3 h 3V
1 For y = ± : τ = 0, for y = 0: τ = .
2 2A
t

2 τ2
4
3 τ4 Case b: τ 1 = 0,
d
h

V h t V h t
τ2 = bt  −  , τ3 = bt  −  ,
I zb  2 2  Izd  2 2
t

b
 h 
2

(b)  d  − t 
V  h t 2  .
τ4 = bt  − +
I z d   2 2 2 

Bending in two directions Bending moments.

y Moment due to force P: M = Mz2 + My2 ,

z Mz = M cos α , My = M sin α ,

P P  My 
α  M  = [tan α].
y  z
For case shown: Mz = Py L cos α , My = Pz L sin α ,
β M = PL.
z
Pz  y cos α z sin α 
σ=±M + .
 I z I y 
Py +
Stress:
Neutral
axis M S 
– σ max = ± cos α + z sin α .
σ Sz  Sy 
Iz
Neutral axis: tanβ = tan α.
Iy

Deflection in direction of force P: ∆ = ∆ 2z + ∆ 2y .

Pz L3 Py L3
For case shown: ∆ z = , ∆y = .
3EI y 3EI z

01_Hicks_c01_p001-028.indd 9 5/16/13 10:05 AM

 10 Basis of Structural Analysis

N O T E S

where V = shearing load, lb

e = shearing deformation, in
L = length over which deformation takes place, in
A = shearing area, in2
G = shearing modulus, psi

For torsion:

T 2L JGφ 2
U= U= (1.2c)
2 JG 2L

where T = torque, in·lb

f = angle of twist, rad
L = length of shaft, in
J = polar moment of inertia of cross section, in4
G = shearing modulus, psi

For pure bending (constant moment):

M2L EIθ2
U= U= (1.2d )
2EI 2L

where M = bending moment, in·lb

q = angle of rotation of one end of beam with respect to other, rad
L = length of beam, in
I = moment of inertia of cross section, in4
E = modulus of elasticity, psi

For beams carrying transverse loads, the total strain energy is the sum of the
energy for bending and that for shear.

Strain Energy in Structural Members*

Strain energy is generated in structural members when they are acted on by
forces, moments, or deformations. Formulas for strain energy U, for shear, tor-
sion, and bending in beams, columns, and other structural members are as
follows:

Strain Energy in Shear

For a member subjected to pure shear, strain energy is given by

V 2L
U= (1.3)
2 AG
AG∆ 2
U= (1.4)
2L

*Brockenbrough and Merritt, Structural Steel Designer’s Handbook, McGraw-Hill.

Continued on page 12

01_Hicks_c01_p001-028.indd 10 5/16/13 10:05 AM

 Stress and Strain: Methods of Analysis 11

Table 1.4 Stress and Strain: Combination of Compression (Tension) and Bending
Compression (tension) and bending P My M
P y σ= ± z ± z y,
Stresses: A Iy Iz

P My Mz
σ max = ± ± ,
h

z
ez
min
A Sy Sz
ey
My = P ⋅ e z , Mz = P ⋅ e y ,

h ⋅ b3 b ⋅ h3
b
σm y
Iy = , Iz = ,
ax 12 12
ez
h ⋅ b2 b ⋅ h2
Sy = , Sz = .
Ne
utr P 6 6
axi al
s
zh
Neutral axis:
ey
90° yh z iz2 iy2
yn = , zn = .
σm
ey ez
in
iz = I z /A , iy = I y /A , A = b ⋅ h .

Buckling Euler’s formula:

π 2 EI E
Pe = for λ min ≥ π ,
( kL)2 Re

where Re is the elastic buckling strength.

L

kL π2E
λ min = , stress: σ max ≤ 2 .
imin λ min

k= 0.5 0.7 1.0 2.0

Axial compression (tension) and bending Stresses:

Compression:
N N x
∆o ∆ N M0 N ∆0
σ max = + + ⋅ ,
x A Sz Sz N
1−
Pe
N N x Tension:
N M0 N ∆0
x ∆o ∆ σ max = + − ⋅ ,
A Sz Sz N
1+
Pe

where M0 = max. moment and ∆0 = max.

deflection due to transverse loading.

01_Hicks_c01_p001-028.indd 11 5/16/13 10:05 AM

 12 Basis of Structural Analysis

N O T E S

where V = shear load

∆ = shear deformation
L = length over which deformation takes place
A = shear area
G = shear modulus of elasticity

Strain Energy in Torsion

For a member subjected to torsion

T 2L
U= (1.5)
2 JG
JGθ2
U= (1.6)
2L
where T = torque
∆ = angle of twist
L = length over which the deformation takes place
J = polar moment of inertia
G = shear modulus of elasticity

Strain Energy in Bending

For a member subjected to pure bending (constant moment)
M2L
U= (1.7)
2EI
EIθ2
U= (1.8)
2L

where M = bending moment

θ = angle through which one end of beam rotates with respect to the
other end
L = length over which the deformation takes place
I = moment of inertia
E = modulus of elasticity

For beams carrying transverse loads, the total strain energy is the the sum
of the energy for bending and that for shear.

Example for Table 1.5. Torsion

Given. Cantilever beam, L = 1.5 m, for profile see Table 1.5c
     h = 70 cm, h1 = 30 cm, h2 = 60 cm, h3 = 40 cm, b1 = 4.5 cm, b2 = 2.5 cm, b3 = 5.5 cm
Material: Steel, G = 800 kN/cm 2 = 8000 (MPa)
Torsion moment Mt = 40 kN ⋅ m
Required. Compute τ max and φ 0 .

Continued on page 14

01_Hicks_c01_p001-028.indd 12 5/16/13 10:05 AM

 Stress and Strain: Methods of Analysis 13

Table 1.5 Stress and Strain: Torsion

Bar of circular cross section
Mt
Mt Mt d Mt
Stress: τ max = ⋅ = ,
I p 2 Sp
L
πd 4 πd 3
Ip = ≈ 0.1d 4 , Sp =
≈ 0.2 d 3 .
τmax 32 16
(a) 1800 Mt L
Angle of twist: φ0 = ⋅
π GI p

where G = shear modulus of elasticity.

τ2
2 Bar of rectangular cross section
τmax Mt
τ1 τ1 Stress: τ max .
1 1 St
h

180 Mt L
2 Angle of twist: φ 0 = ⋅ .
h ≥1 π GIt
b τ2 b
h hb 3 I hb 2
(b) If > 10 : It = , St = t = .
b 3 b 3
h
If ≤ 10 : It = c1 ⋅ b 4 , St = c2 ⋅ b 3 .
b
In point 1: τ 1 = τ max , in point 2: τ 2 = c3 ⋅ τ max .

h 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 For

=
b h
c1 0.140 0.294 0.457 0.790 1.123 1.789 2.456 3.123 > 10
b
c2 0.208 0.346 0.493 0.801 1.150 1.789 2.456 3.123
c3 1.000 0.859 0.795 0.753 0.745 0.743 0.742 0.742 0.740
h1 Profile consisting of rectangular cross sections
i= n
It
Geometric properties: It = ∑ It , St = ,
b1

i=1
i bmaax
b2 n = 3.
h2
h

h1 h2 h3
Assumed: < 10, > 10, < 10,
b1 b2 b3
b3

h3 b3 > b1 , b3 > b2 (i.e., b3 = bmax )

h2 b23
1 It = c1b14 , It = , It = c1b34 ,
1 2
3 3

It
It = It + It + It , St = .
1 2 3
b3
2
Mt
3 Stress: τ max = (in point 1).
St
180 Mt L
1 Angle of twist: φ 0 = ⋅ .
π GIt
τmax
(c)

01_Hicks_c01_p001-028.indd 13 5/16/13 10:05 AM

 14 Basis of Structural Analysis

N O T E S

h1 30
Solution. = = 6.67 < 10, c1 = 2.012 ,
b1 4.5

h2 60 h3 40
= = 24 > 10, = = 7.27 < 10, c1 = 2.212
b2 2.5 b3 5.5

It = c1b14 = 2.012 × 4.5 4 = 825.04 cm 4 , It = c1b34 = 2.212 × 5.5 4 = 2024.12 cm 4

1 3

hb 3
60 × 2.53
It =
2
2 2

3
=
3
= 312.5 cm 4 , ∑I t
= It + It + It = 3161.66 cm 4
1 2 3

It 3161.66
St = = = 574.85 cm 3 ,
bmax 5.5
40 × 100
τ max = = 6.958 kN/cm 2 = 69, 580 kN/m 2 = 69.58 MPa
574.85

180 Mt L 180 40 × 100 × 1.5 × 100

φ0 = ⋅ = ⋅ = 13.6
π GIt 3.14 800 × 3161.66

Stress-Strain Relations
When a material is subjected to external forces, it develops one or more of the fol-
lowing types of strain: linear elastic, nonlinear elastic, viscoelastic, plastic, and
anelastic. Many structural materials exhibit linear elastic strains under design
loads. For these materials, unit strain is proportional to unit stress until a certain
stress, the proportional limit, is exceeded (point A in Fig. 1.1a to c). This relation-
ship is known as Hooke’s law.
For axial tensile or compressive loading, this relationship may be written
f
f = Eε or ε= (1.9)
E
where f = unit stress
e = unit strain
E = Young’s modulus of elasticity
H
D H
A A C C
Unit stress

Unit stress

Unit stress

Unit stress

H A F
Ultimate
B
strength
(fracture) Fracture

0 0 0G 0
Unit strain Unit strain Unit strain Unit strain
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 1.1 Relationship of unit stress and unit strain for various materials.
(a) Brittle. (b) Linear elastic with a distinct proportional limit. (c) Linear elastic with
an indistinct proportional limit. (d) Nonlinear.

Continued on page 16

01_Hicks_c01_p001-028.indd 14 5/16/13 10:05 AM

 Stress and Strain: Methods of Analysis 15
Table 1.6 Stress and Strain: Curved Beams

Curved beam (transverse bending) Stresses:

σy =
M y − R0
⋅ , R0 =
∑A i
.
Center of gravity A⋅c y Ai
M
1 y ∑R
M i
c = R − R0
z

h
R

h I
1- 1 If ≤ 0.5, c = z for all cross section types.
R > 0.25 h R A⋅R
0 y For case shown:
a σa A1 + A2
+
A = A1 + A2 , R0 = ,
A1 A1 A2
+
R1 R2
A2 z
c

M Ra − R0 M Rb − R0
σa = ⋅ , σb = ⋅ .
R1

A⋅c A⋅c
Ra

− Ra Rb
R
Ro

b σb
R2

+ σ — Tension
Rb

− σ — Compression

Curved beam (axial force and bending) N M ρ − R0

Stresses: σ ρ = ± ⋅ .
y A A ⋅ c R0

1 For case shown: c = R − R0 ,

z h  1  h 
2

1 R0 = or R0 ≈ R 1 −    .
Rb R
Ra  12 R 
ln
Rb
Ra N = P, M = 2 PR ,

P 2 PR Ra − R0
P P σa = − ⋅ ,
bh bhc Ra

y
P 2 PR R0 − Rb
σb = + ⋅ .
a σa bh bhc Rb
–
Note. For beams with circular cross section:
c

z
h

1 d2   1  d 
2
+
R0 =  R + R −  or R0 ≈ R 1 −    ,
2
b σb
2 R  16 R 
Ro
R

1–1
d = diameter of cross section.

01_Hicks_c01_p001-028.indd 15 5/16/13 10:05 AM

 16 Basis of Structural Analysis

N O T E S

Within the elastic limit, there is no permanent residual deformation when

the load is removed. Structural steels have this property.
In nonlinear elastic behavior, stress is not proportional to strain, but there
is no permanent residual deformation when the load is removed. The relation
between stress and strain may take the form
n
 f
ε=  (1.10)
 K

where K = pseudoelastic modulus determined by test

n = constant determined by test

Viscoelastic behavior resembles linear elasticity. The major difference is

that in linear elastic behavior, the strain stops increasing if the load does; but
in viscoelastic behavior, the strain continues to increase although the load
becomes constant and a residual strain remains when the load is removed.
This is characteristic of many plastics.
Anelastic deformation is time-dependent and completely recoverable.
Strain at any time is proportional to the change in stress. Behavior at any given
instant depends on all prior stress changes. The combined effect of several
stress changes is the sum of the effects of the several stress changes taken indi-
vidually.

Example for Table 1.7. Continuous deep beam

Given. Beam L = 3.0 m, h = 2.0 m, c = 0.3 m, thickness b = 0.3 m, w = 200 kN/m

Required. Compute Z, D, d, d0 , and σmax for center of span and support.

Solution. At center of span:

Z = D = α z × 0.5wL = 0.186 × 0.5 × 200 × 3.0 = 55.8 kN
d = α d × 0.5L = 0.888 × 0.5 × 3.0 = 1.33 m
d0 = α d × 0.5L = 0.124 × 0.5 × 3.0 = 0.19 m
0

σ max = α σ × w/b = 1.065 × 200/0.3 = 710 kN/m 2

= 0.71 MPa (tension)
    
At center of support:
Z = D = α z × 0.5wL = 0.428 × 0.5 × 200 × 3.0 = 128.4 kN
d = α d × 0.5L = 0.656 × 0.5 × 3.0 = 0.984 m
d0 = α d × 0.5L = 0.036 × 0.5 × 3.0 = 0.05 m
0

σ max = α σ × w/b = −9.065 × 200/0.3 = −6043.3 kN/m 2

= −6.04 MPa (compression)
     

Continued on page 18

01_Hicks_c01_p001-028.indd 16 5/16/13 10:05 AM

 Stress and Strain: Methods of Analysis 17

Table 1.7 Stress and Strain: Continuous Deep Beams

Formulas: Maximum tensile and compressive
stresses smax = as ⋅ w
Resultant tensile (Z) and compressive (D)
forces Z = D = az ⋅ 0.5wL
d = ad ⋅ 0.5L, d0 = ad(0) ⋅ 0.5L
Coefficients
h ≥ 0.5L
At center of At center of
span support
c/L c/L
h/L a 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.05 0.10 0.20
h

W
0.5 as 1.317 1.313 1.289 -19.320 -9.317 -4.302

az 0.240 0.239 0.235 0.515 0.485 0.375

ad 0.692 0.690 0.682 0.600 0.622 0.640

ad(0) 0.129 0.128 0.127 0.022 0.039 0.062

c c 0.67 as 1.066 1.065 1.062 -19.066 -9.065 -4.062

L
az 0.187 0.186 0.182 0.498 0.428 0.351

ad 0.890 0.888 0.880 0.620 0.656 0.686

ad(0) 0.125 0.124 0.122 0.021 0.036 0.059

1.0 as 1.002 1.002 1.002 -19.002 -9.002 -4.002

D az 0.178 0.177 0.172 0.497 0.424 0.324

Z
ad 0.934 0.932 0.924 0.612 0.682 0.740
d
d

D Z ad(0) 0.124 0.123 0.121 0.021 0.036 0.059

h = ∞ as 1.000 1.000 1.000 -19.000 -9.000 -4.000

do

do

σmax
az 0.177 0.176 0.171 0.495 0.422 0.322

ad 0.938 0.936 0.930 0.612 0.674 0.746

Stress diagrams
ad(0) 0.122 0.122 0.121 0.024 0.038 0.059

01_Hicks_c01_p001-028.indd 17 5/16/13 10:05 AM

 18 Basis of Structural Analysis

N O T E S

Note: Tables 1.8 to 1.12 consider computation methods for elastic systems only.

Stress and Strain Failure Analysis

Material properties are usually determined
from tests in which specimens are subjected to S2
simple stresses under static or fluctuating loads. S3
The attempt to apply these data to bi- or triaxial
stress fields has resulted in the proposal of vari-
ous theories of failure. Figure 1.2 shows the S1 S1
principal stresses on a triaxially stressed ele-
ment. It is assumed, for simplicity, that S1 > S2 >
S3 S2
S3. Compressive stresses are negative.

1. Maximum stress theory (Rankine) Figure 1.2 Principal stresses.

assumes failure occurs when the
largest principal stress reaches the yield stress in a tension (or com-
pression) specimen. That is S1 = ±Sy.
2. Maximum shear theory (Coulomb) assumes yielding (failure) occurs
when the maximum shearing stress equals that in a simple tension
(or compression) specimen at yield. Mathematically, S1 - S3 = ±Sy.
3. Maximum strain energy theory (Beltrami) assumes failure occurs
when the energy absorbed per unit volume equals the strain energy
per unit volume in a tension (or compression) specimen at yield.
Mathematically, S12 + S22 + S32 − 2 µ(S1S2 + S2 S3 + S3S1 ) = Sy2 .
4. Maximum distortion energy theory (von Mises and Hencky) assumes
yielding occurs when the distortion energy equals that in simple ten-
sion at yield. The distortion energy—that portion of the total energy
which causes distortion rather than volume change—is
1+ µ 2
Ud = (
S + S22 + S32 − S1S2 − S2 S3 − S3S1
3E 1
)
Thus failure is defined by
S12 + S22 + S32 − (S1S2 + S2 S3 + S3S1 ) = Sy2

5. Maximum strain theory (Saint-Venant) claims failure occurs when

the maximum strain equals the strain in simple tension at yield or
S1 - m(S2 + S3) = Sy.
6. Internal friction theory (Mohr). When the ultimate strengths in ten-
sion and compression are the same, this theory reduces to that of
maximum shear. For principal stresses of opposite sign, failure is
 Su 
defined by S1 −   S2 = −Suc ; if the signs are the same, S1 = Su or —
 Su 
Suc , where Suc is the ultimate strength in compression.

Continued on page 20

01_Hicks_c01_p001-028.indd 18 5/16/13 10:05 AM

 Stress and Strain: Methods of Analysis 19

Table 1.8 Stress and Strain: Dynamics, Transverse Oscillations of the Beams
Natural Oscillations of Systems with One Degree of Freedom
1 Simple beam with one point mass
y
Deflections

−∆i
x
P ∆st ∆st + ∆i

a b
L

Forces: Deflections:
P ∆st = static deflection due to load P
P = weight of the load, mass: m = ± ∆i = max., min. deflection due to
g
force Pi
 cm ∆st(1) = static deflection due to
g = gravitational acceleration  g = 981 2 
 s  force P = 1
c = amplitude, c = ± ∆i
Pi = force of inertia, Pi = ma
Maximum shear for a > b
a = acceleration
a
For shown beam: Vmax = ( P + Pi ) ⋅
L
Maximum bending moment:
Vmax ⋅ S
a ⋅b M Stress: τ =
Mmax = ( P + Pi ) ⋅ , Stress: σ = max ⋅ y Iz ⋅ t
L Iz

2 48cEI z
y Force of inertia: Pi =
Deflections L3
P
Maximum bending moment:
 48cEI z  L
x Mmax =  + P ⋅
 L3  4
1  48cEI z 
Maximum shear: Vmax =  + P
L L 2  L3 
2 2
L

3 3cEI z
y Force of inertia: Pi =
L3
Deflections Maximum bending moment:
P  3cEI 
Mmax =  3 z + P ⋅ L
 L 
x
3cEI z
Maximum shear: Vmax = +P
L3
L

01_Hicks_c01_p001-028.indd 19 5/16/13 10:05 AM

 20 Basis of Structural Analysis

N O T E S

A graphical representation of the Maximum stress

first four theories applied to a biaxial Maximum shear
stress field is presented in Fig. 1.3. S2
Stresses outside the bounding lines in
the case of each theory mean failure Sy
(yield or fracture). A comparison with
Syc Sy
experimental data proves the distor- S′yc
tion energy theory (4) best for ductile S1
materials of equal tension-compression
properties. When these properties are
unequal, the internal energy theory Syc
(6) appears best. In practice, judging
S′yc
by some accepted codes, the maximum
shear theory (2) is generally used for Maximum strain energy
ductile materials and the maximum
Maximum distortion energy
stress theory (1) for brittle materials.
Fatigue failures cannot be related, Figure 1.3 Biaxial stress field.
theoretically, to elastic strength and
thus to the theories described. How-
ever, experimental results justify this, at least to a limited extent. Therefore,
the theory evaluation given above holds for fluctuating stresses, provided
that principal stresses at the maximum load are used and the endurance
strength in simple bending is substituted for the yield strength.
For example, a steel shaft, with 4-in diameter, is subjected to a bending
moment of 120,000 in ⋅ lb, as well as a torque. If the yield strength in tension is
40,000 psi, what maximum torque can be applied under (a) the maximum shear
theory and (b) the distortion energy theory?

Mc 120, 000 × 2 TC T × 2
Sx = = = 19, 100 psi Sxy = = = 0.0798T
I 12.55 J 25.1

2
Sx S 
and SM ⋅ m = ±  x  + Sxy
2  2 2

2
 19, 100
SM − Sm = Sy or 2  + (0.0798T )2 = ( 40, 000)2
 2  (a)

or T = 221, 000 in ⋅lb

SM
2
+ Sm2 − SM Sm = Sy2 (b)

Substituting and simplifying,

2
 19, 100
(9550)2 + 3  + (0.0798T )2 = ( 40, 000)2
 2 

or T = 255, 000 in ⋅lb

01_Hicks_c01_p001-028.indd 20 5/16/13 10:05 AM

 Stress and Strain: Methods of Analysis 21

Table 1.9 Stress and Strain: Dynamics, Transverse Oscillations of the Beams
Diagram of continuous oscillations
y
Amplitude

y0 c
o t
c
φ0

π π
ω ω
T (Period)

Equation of free continuous oscillations: y = c sin (ωt + φ 0 )

y 
Where φ 0 = initial phase of oscillation, φ 0 = arrcsin  0 
 c
2π ∆ st
c0 = amplitude, t = time, T = period
d of free oscillation, T = = 2π
ω g
g
ω = frequency of natural oscillation, ω =
∆ st

Diagram of damped oscillations

y c1
c2
c3
c0 y0

o t

φ0 T
c0
2π
T
Period

Equation of free damped oscillations: y = c0 e − kt/2 m ⋅ sin(ωt + φ 0 )

2
 v + y0 k ⋅ 2 m
where c 0 = initial amplitude of oscillation, c0 = y 02 +  0 
ω
y 
φ0 = initial phase of osscillation, φ0 = arcsin  0 
 c0 
y 0 = initial deflection
v0 = beginner velocity of mass
e = logarithmic base, e = 2.71828
k = coefficient set according to material, mass, and rigidity
T = period of free oscillations, T = 2π/ω
48EI z
ω = frequency of free oscillation, ω = r/m − [ k/2 m]2 , For simple beam: r =
L3

01_Hicks_c01_p001-028.indd 21 5/16/13 10:05 AM

 22 Basis of Structural Analysis

N O T E S

Spring type Spring deflection Spring force and bending stresses

P When α = 0 to 90 When α = 90 to 180
u KPr 3
F1 = ( m + β )3
β f 3EI Sσ Sσ
r P= P=
u + sin β u+r
where α = β for finding K
Pr (m + sin β) Pr (m + I )
(a) σ= σ=
S S

u P
2 KPr 3  β
3
Sσ
F2 = P=
f/2  m +  L V1 U2
r 3EI  2
β
u P β r1 P r2
L where α = for finding
gK
(b) 2 U1 f
2
P β1 P β2
4KPr 3  β
3
PL
f/2 σ=
r F3 = 2 F2 =  m +  S System I System II
3EI  2
u β
Typical curved spring. (Product
P u β
(c) L where α = for fin
nding K Engineering.)
2
P
u P Sσ Pλ
f F4 = F5 = × P= =
r 3EI λ S
β  3

 β First Second
v 2 Kr 3 m +  + (v − u)3 
(d)   2   Condition Condition k
β u ≥ v — u+r
u P wheere α = for finding K
f
2 u < v (u - v) < (u + r) u + r
β r u < v (u - v) > (u + r) v - u
v u = 0 v≤r r
(e)
u = 0 v>r v

Figure 1.4 Deflection, force, and stress relations for curved springs. (Product Engineering.)
d = 30°
1.0
45°
0.9
60°
0.8
Correction factor K

0.77
0.7 75° 90°
0.6 105°
0.5 120°
0.4 135°
150° Example
0.3
165°
0.2 180°

0.1
0
0.1 0.15 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
1.73
Ratio u/r

Figure 1.5 Correction factors for curved springs. (Product Engineering.)

01_Hicks_c01_p001-028.indd 22 5/16/13 10:05 AM

 Stress and Strain: Methods of Analysis 23

Table 1.10 Stress and Strain: Dynamics, Transverse Oscillations of the Beams
Forced Oscillations of the Beams with One Degree of Freedom
Simple beam with one point mass
y

S(t) = Scosφt

x
P
∆ max
Deflections
L L
2 L 2

Forces: Deflections:
P = weight of the load, ∆ max = ∆ st ( p ) + ∆ st ( s) + ∆ i
P cm  ∆ st ( p ) = static deflection due to load P
mass: m =  g = 981 2 
g s 
∆ st ( s) = static deflection due to force S
S(t) = vibrating force, assumed: S(t) = S cos φt
∆ i = static deflection due to Pi
∆ − ∆ st
Pi = force of inertia, Pi = max − S cos φt ∆ i = Pi ⋅ ∆ st(1)
∆ st 1
φ = frequency of force S(t)
∆ st (1) = static deflection due to load P = 1

g ⋅ S(t)
Equation of forced oscillations: y = c ⋅ e − kt/2mm ⋅ sin (ωt + φ 0 ) + ⋅ cos φt
P(ω 2 − φ 2 )
g ⋅ S(t)
c ⋅ e − kt/2 m ⋅ sin (ωt + φ 0 ) = free oscillation, ⋅ cos φt = forced oscillation
P(ω 2 − φ 2 )
y 
φ 0 = beginner phase of oscillation, φ 0 = arcsin  0  , y 0 = beginner deflection
 c0 
c0 = amplitude of free oscillation, c0 = c ,
c = amplitude of forced oscillation, c = kD ⋅ ∆ st ( s)
k = coefficient set according to material, mass, and rigidity
ω = frequency of natural oscillation, T = period of oscillations, T = 2π/ω

1
kD = dynamic coefficient, kD =
2 2
 φ2   k ⋅ φ 
1 − ω 2  +  m ⋅ ω 2 
 
1
If k = 0 (damped oscillation iss not included): kD =
φ2
1− 2
ω
 cm
e = logarithmic base, e = 2.71828, g = gravitational acceleration  g = 981 2 
 s 

01_Hicks_c01_p001-028.indd 23 5/16/13 10:05 AM

 24 Basis of Structural Analysis

N O T E S

Example for Table 1.11. Bending

Given. Beam W 12 × 65, steel, L = 3.0 m
Moment of inertia I z = 533 in 4 × 2.54 4 = 22 , 185 cm 4
Section modulus S = 87.9 in 3 = 87.9 × 2.543 = 1440.4 cm 3
29, 000 × 4.48222
Modulus of elasticity E = 29, 000 kip/in 2 =
2.542
= 20, 147.6 kN/cm 2
Weight of beam (concentrated load):
W = 65 lb/ft × 3.0 = 195 × 4.448/0.3048 = 2845.7 N = 2.8457 kN
Load P = 20 kN, h = 5 cm

Required. Compute dynamic stress σ.

PL3 20 × (3 × 100)3
Solution. ∆ st = = = 0.025 cm
48EI z 48 × 20, 147.6 × 22 , 185

2h 2×5
kD = 1 + 1 + = 1+ 1+ = 1 + 19.4 = 20.4
 W  17 2.8457 
∆ st 1 + β  0.025 1 + ×
 P  35 20 

PL 20 × 3
Bending moment MD = ⋅ kD = × 20.4 = 306 kN ⋅ m
4 4
MD 306 × 100
Stress σ = = = 21.24 kN/cm 2 = 212 , 400 kN/m 2 = 212.4 MPa
S 1440.4

Example for Table 1.11. Crane cable

Given. Load P = 40 kN, velocity υ = 5 m/s
Cable: diameter d = 5.0 cm, A = 19.625 cm2, L = 30 m,

29, 000 × 4.48222

Modulus of elasticity E = 29, 000 kip/in 2 = = 20, 147.6 kN/cm 2
2.542

Required. Compute dynamic stress σ for sudden dead stop.

Solution.
PL 40 × 30 × (100)
∆ st = = = 0.303 cm,
EA 20, 147.6 × 19.625
υ 5 × (100)
kD = = = 2.9
g ⋅ ∆ st 981 × (100) × 0.303

Stress:

P 40
σ= (1 + kD ) = (1 + 2.9) = 7.949 kN/cm 2 = 79, 490 kN/m 2 = 79.45 MPa
A 19.625

01_Hicks_c01_p001-028.indd 24 5/16/13 10:05 AM

 Stress and Strain: Methods of Analysis 25

Table 1.11 Stress and Strain: Dynamics, Impact

Elastic Design
Axial compression Dynamic coefficient:

υ2
kD = 1 + 1 +
 W
P h
g∆ st 1 + β 
 P

y
2h
= 1+ 1+
 W
z ∆ st 1 + β 
 P
L

A
L where υ = striking velocity, υ = 2gh
g = earth ’s acceleration, g = 9.81 m/sec 2
∆ st = deflection resulting from static load P
W = weight of the structure
β = coefficient for uniform mass

PL 1
For shown column: ∆ st = , β= .
EA 3
P
Dynamic stress: σ = − ⋅k
A D
Bending PL3 17
For shown beam: ∆ st = , β= .
48EI z 35

PL
P Dynamic bending moment: MD = ⋅k
4 D
h

y
P
z
Dynamic shear: VD = ⋅k
2 D
For stresses see Table 1.3.
L L
2 2

Crane cable Sudden dead stop when the load P is going down.
Dynamic coefficient:
υ
kD =
g ⋅ ∆ st

where υ = descent ’s velocity

υ
L

PL
∆ st =
EA
Maximum stress in the cable:
P P
σ = (1 + kD )
A
A = area of cable cross section

01_Hicks_c01_p001-028.indd 25 5/16/13 10:05 AM

 26 Basis of Structural Analysis

N O T E S

Analysis and Design of Flat Metal Springs

Type of spring W1 safe load2 F1 deflection2

Sbt 2 4Wl 3 2 Sl 2
b =
6l Ebt 3 3 Et
I
F
t
Flat parallel spring W

Sbt 2 6Wl 3 Sl 2
Flat =
6l Ebt 3 Et
b triangular
spring

F
t
W

SNbt 2 6Wl 3 Sl 2
b =
6l ENbt 3
Et
I Where N = No. of leaves Where N = No. of leaves
t
F

Leaf spring W

Figure 1.6 Flat metal spring formulas.

W = save load or pull, lb (N)

F = deflection at point of application, in (cm)
S = safe tensile stress of material, lb/in2 (kPa)
E = modulus of elasticity, 30 × 106 for steel (kPa)

01_Hicks_c01_p001-028.indd 26 5/16/13 10:05 AM

 Stress and Strain: Methods of Analysis 27

Table 1.12 Stress and Strain: Dynamics, Impact

Elastic Design
Column with buffer spring Cylindrical helical spring:
D = average diameter
d = spring wire’s diameter
P
h

n = number of effective rings

P
G = shear modulus of elasticity for spring wire
lo

Dynamic coefficient:
2h
L

d kD = 1 + 1 +
D  8D 3 n L
P +
 Gd 4 EA

P
Dynamic stress: σ = − ⋅ k (compression)
A D
E = modulus of elasticity for column
A = area of column cross section

Motor mounted on the beam 1

Dynamic coefficient: kD = ,
φ2
L Motor 1− 2
2 ω
n πn  1
φ = frequency of force Fc , φ = ⋅ 2π =
60 30  s 
P ω = beam’s free vibration frequency,
g  1
ω=
L P∆  s 
∆ = beam’s deflection by force P = 1 at the point
y
of motor attachment

z
 L3 
 For shown case: ∆ = 48EI 
z

30φ
Resonance: φ = ω , n = .
π
Stresses:
P = motor’s weight,
PL
Fc = centrifugal force causing vertical Static stress: σ = ,
4Sz
vibration of the beam, Fc = mφ2 r Fc kD L
m = mass of rotative motor part dynamic stress: σ = ,
4Sz
r = radiu
us of rotation L
n = revolutions per minute ∑ σ = 4S (P + F k
z
c D ).

01_Hicks_c01_p001-028.indd 27 5/16/13 10:05 AM

 28 Basis of Structural Analysis

N O T E S

Wire size d, mm
0.25 0.51 0.76 1.02 1.27 1.52 2.03 2.54 5.08 7.62 10.2 12.7
200 1.38
RECOMMENDED BENDING STRESSES
Mu
Tensile stress S, in 1000’s of Ib/in2

sic for average service conditions-

180 wir
e
static or relatively slow varying loads 1.24

Tensile stress S, MPa

160 1.10

140 Pre-
tem
0.97
pere
Pre d all
oy s
-te te el w
mp ire
ere
120 dc
arb
0.83
on
ste
el w
ire
100 0.69
90 0.62
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50
Wire size d, in

Figure 1.7 Recommended bending stresses for torsion springs. (Product Engineering.)

01_Hicks_c01_p001-028.indd 28 5/16/13 10:05 AM