Namaste

Industrial Power Distribution

and Illumination
Asst. Prof. Shahabuddin Khan
Pulchowk Campus
sk@pcampus.edu.np
 Building Services
CLIENT Architect
Structure Engineer
Mechanical Engineer
Consultancy Electrical Engineer
Civil Engineer
Miscellaneous
Home Automation
Safety

Interior
Survey Civil
Building Designer
Department Department Wall Paints
Types of Soil Structure Analysis,
Concrete/Wall Design
Service [MEP] Wallpapers
Survey of Area False Ceiling
Area Measurement Window Placement Furniture Layout
Landscaping
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 Building Services[MEP]
Building Services
[MEP]

Electrical Plumbing
Mechanical v
v
Total Connected Load
Single Line Diagram
v Plumbing Calculation
v HVAC v Internal Layout
v Lighting Layout
v Heat Load Calculation v External Layout
v Raw Power Layout
v Refrigeration Concepts v Fire Fighting System
v A/C Layout
v Air Distribution System v Rain Harvesting
v Conduit Layout
v Duct Sizing System
v Control Wiring Layout
v HVAC Software’s v Sewerage Treatment
v CCTV
System
v Energy Auditing

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 Syllabus
1. Introduction(6 hours) 3. Power Carrying Devices(6 hours)
1. Electric Load Estimate 1. Cables
2. Load Centre i. Cable Construction
3. Supply System for Industrial Plant ii. Types of cables
4. Classification of Electrical Installation iii. Cable Ratings: voltage rating &
5. Reading and Interpretation of Building Drawing Conductor size
6. Electrical Rules related to Electrical Installation iv. Installation of cable
& Testing. v. Locating cable faults
2. Connectors and Terminations
2. Earthing(4 hours) i. Types of connectors and Applications
1. Introduction ii. Types of terminations and Methods
2. System & Equipment Earthing iii. Splicing Devices and Techniques :
i. Point to be Earthed 3. Bus-way
ii. Factors Influencing the earth resistance i. Bus-way Construction and Standards,
iii. Method of reducing earth resistance ii. Types of Bus-way
3. Methods of Earthing iii. Applications
4. Lightning Protection Earthing iv. Installation
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 Syllabus
5. Electrification of Industrial Building( 5 hours)
4. Distribution Substation of Industrial Plant(6 hours) 1. Concept of Industrial Installation
1. Introduction 2. General rules guidelines for wiring of Industry
2. Classification 3. Installation and positioning of equipment's.
3. Indoor Substations 4. Principles of circuit design in power circuits.
4. Out-door Substations 5. Energy and power requirement for Lift,
5. Selection and Location of site Conveyor-belt and HVAC
6. Schematic Diagram of Distribution Substation 6. Procedures for designing the circuits and
7. Equipment and Measuring Accessories for deciding the number of circuits.
Substations and Switch gear Installation 7. Method of drawing single line diagram.
8. Selection of type of wiring and rating of wires
& cables.
9. Load calculations and selection of size of
conductor.
10. Selection of rating of main Panel Board and
distributions board,
11. Protective switchgear Fuse, MCCB , MCB
and accessories.
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 Syllabus
6. System Components for Industrial Illumination(6 7. Illuminating Design Principle(8 hours)
hours) 1. Basic Consideration for Illuminating Design
1. Light Sources i. Space Function
i. Incandescent Filament Lamps ii. Provision of Quality and Quantity of
ii. Fluorescent Lamps illumination
iii. High Intensity Discharge Lamps iii. Selection of Lighting Systems, Sources,
iv. LED Lamps Luminaries, and Controls
v. Types Luminaries iv. Definitions of Terminology
2. Types of Industrial Lighting Systems 2. Lumen Method of Lighting Computations
i. Factory Lighting for Visual Tasks 3. Point-to-point Lighting Computation
ii. Security Lighting 4. Design Procedures
iii. Emergency Lighting

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 Syllabus
8. Out-door Lighting Design(6 hours) 10. Electrical Energy Audit in Industry(6 hours)
1. Introduction 1. Introduction
2. Selection of Street Light Sources 2. Energy Audit Technique
3. Selection of Luminaries 3. Electricity Conservation Program
4. Design Procedure of Street Lighting Scheme 4. Distribution system
5. Basic Floodlighting Effects 5. Load Management
6. Selection of Floodlight Sources 6. Energy efficient motors
7. Selection of Luminaries 7. Energy efficient lighting system
8. Design Procedures 8. Energy Saving Opportunity
9. Application Guide: Buildings, color, Examples of
flood lighting Installation.
9. Emergency and Back-up Supply System for
Industrial Plant(6 hours)
1. Battery Supply System
i. Battery Installation
ii. Charging and Maintenance
2. Emergency Supply System
3. Uninterrupted Supply for Critical Load
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 Practical
v Introduction to wiring accessories such as – switches, socket, distribution board etc , protective
devices such as – fuse, MCB, MCCB etc their construction, function and application.
v Preparing Electrical Lay-out and details for commercial Complex or Industrial Building
v Conducting Market Study and Collecting, informative brochures and Specification on various
product available about electrical lamp, appliances and equipment's
v Design electrical Installation scheme for commercial complex or Industry. Draw detail wiring
diagrams. Prepare report and Drawing sheets (Light circuit Design, Power circuit Design and
Detail Design of Distribution System)
v Study of different types of sources of light and make connections, and to measure intensity of
light with lux-meter:
Ø Fluorescent lamp
Ø HP mercury vapour lamp
Ø HP sodium vapour lamp
Ø Compact Fluorescent lamp (CFL)
v Using Power Analyzer measure electric parameters for energy auditing propose
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 References
1. J.B. Gupta “ Electrical Installation Estimating and Costing” S.K. Kataria &
Sons, New Delhi
2. G.L. Wadhwa, “Generation, Distribution and Utilization of
Electrical Energy”, New Age International (P) Limited, India
3. H.Pratab “ Art & Science of Utilisation of Electrical Energy” Dhanpat Rai
& Sons, New Delhi

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 Chapter - 1
Introduction(6 hours)

Shahabuddin Khan
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
Paschimanchal Campus, IOE
sk@wrc.edu.np
 Syllabus
1. Electric Load Estimate
2. Load Centre
3. Supply System for Industrial Plant
4. Classification of Electrical Installation
5. Reading and Interpretation of Building Drawing
6. Electrical Rules related to Electrical Installation & Testing.

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 Syllabus
1. Electric Load Estimate
2. Load Centre
3. Supply System for Industrial Plant
4. Classification of Electrical Installation
5. Reading and Interpretation of Building Drawing
6. Electrical Rules related to Electrical Installation & Testing.

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 Introduction

Fig: A simple power distribution system

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 How We receive Electricity?
Substation Real Power

Power Transformer Power Reactive Power

Distribution Transformer
Apparent Power
Transformer
Instrument Transformer
Protection Component Circuit Breakers

Measuring Units Energy Meters

CT PT
Main Distribution
Sub-Distribution Board
Board
Sub-Distribution Board
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Steps Involved in Designing of Electrical Services
1. Survey of Area and Type of Building or Structure
2. Total connected load (TCL)
3. Single line diagram (SLD) or One line diagram (OLD)
4. Number of lighting fixture required
5. Number of sockets required
6. Circuit breaker sizing
7. Transformer sizing
8. Diesel Generator sizing
9. UPS Sizing
10. Battery Sizing
11. Cable Sizing
12. Voltage drop
13. Short circuit
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Steps Involved in Designing of Electrical Services
14. Tripping time of CB
15. Load Balancing Sheet / DB schedule for Lighting Load and Raw
Power Load
16. Capacitor Bank Sizing
17. Earthing Calculation
18. Lightning arrestor
19. Bus bar sizing
20. Cable tray

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 Introduction

Fig: A simple power distribution system

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 Introduction

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 Variation of Consumer Load: Load Curve

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 Electrical Load
An electrical load is an electrical component or portion of a circuit that consumes (active)
electric power, such as electrical appliances and lights inside the home.

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 Light Load Vs Power Load
v Lighting loads are the energy used to power electric lights.
v Lighting loads in a building are often referred to in terms of a “Lighting Power
Density” that is measured in watts per square foot or square meter.
v When deciding which lighting products to use, look at the efficiency (or luminous
efficacy) of the products. More efficient light sources and fixtures reduce lighting loads.
P
v Plug loads are the electricity used for other equipment, like computers and appliances. o
v Plug loads are sometimes included in “Equipment Power Density” (EPD) and w
sometimes they are separated. e
r
v Equipment, like HVAC systems and water heaters, is the other main internal load called
equipment load. L
o
v This is typically separated from plug loads and is given in terms of an “Equipment a
Power Density,” which is measured in watts per square foot or square meter. d

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 Light Load Vs Power Load: Datasheet

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Reference: Autodesk Knowledge
Some Parameters Defining Load: Connected Load
v It is the Sum of all the loads connected to the electrical system, usually expressed in
watts.
v It is the total electric power-consuming rating of all devices (as lamps or motors)
connected to a distribution system
v Connected Load = Number of Lights x kW + Number of fan x kW + Number of
water heater x kW +…

Details No Watts kW Total Load (kW)

Lamp 5 40 0.04 0.2
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
Total 0.2

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 Exercise
Details No Watts kW Total Load (kW) Total Load (kVA)

FTL(40W) with Ballast

2 0 0
Choke(8W) at pf=0.8
0
Induction Machine
(10kW) with !=80% at
pf=0.8 0 0 0
Electrical Heater [2kW] 0 0 0
0 0
0 0
Total 0 0

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Some Parameters Defining Load: Demand Load/Interval
Demand Load
v It is defined as the electric load at the receiving terminals averaged
over a specified demand interval of time, usually 15 min., 30 min., or 1
hour based upon the particular utility’s demand interval.
Demand Interval Time Vs Load
v It is the period over which 25
the load is averaged, usually 20
15 min., 30 min., or 1 hour. 15
v In Nepal, it is 30 min. 10
5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
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Some Parameters Defining Load: Maximum Demand Load
vThe entire connected load will never be used at the same time.
vMaximum Demand of the system is the greatest of all demands
that have occurred during the specified period of time (Daily,
Monthly, Yearly).
vFor ToD Meters, Maximum Demand is taken among maxima in
three months.
vIt is always less than connected load

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Understanding Importance of Maximum Demand

Reference: https://www.energyly.com/blog/electricity-maximum-demand/
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Some Parameters Defining Load: Demand factor
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑

Generally, Demand factor Lies between 0.5 to 0.8

In IEC, it is also known as Factor of Utilization(Ku)

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Some Parameters Defining Load: Factor of Utilization
vIn normal operating conditions the power consumption of a load is
sometimes less than that indicated as its nominal power rating, a fairly
common occurrence that justifies the application of an utilization factor
(ku) in the estimation of realistic values.
vThe utilization factor gives an indication of how well the capacity of an
electrical device is being utilized.
vThis factor must be applied to each individual load, with particular
attention to electric motors, which are very rarely operated at full load.
vIn an industrial installation this factor may be estimated on an average at
0.75 for motors.
vFor incandescent-lighting loads, the factor always equals 1.
vFor socket-outlet circuits, the factors depend entirely on the type of
appliances being supplied from the sockets concerned.
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 Some Parameters Defining Load: Data

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Reference: https://electricalnotes.wordpress.com/2011/10/31/demand-factor-diversity-factor-utilization-factor-load-factor/
 Some Parameters Defining Load: Data

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Reference: https://electricalnotes.wordpress.com/2011/10/31/demand-factor-diversity-factor-utilization-factor-load-factor/
 Some Parameters Defining Load: Data

NEC Demand Factor Data Sheet

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 Some Parameters Defining Load: Example
Rated Maximum
No of
Blocks Capacity Demand
machinaries
(kW) (kW)
70
90
20
Block A 6 200
50
10
20
Total Connected Load
Demand Factor
60
40
Block B 5 40 160
70
30
Total Connected Load
Demand Factor
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 Some Parameters Defining Load: Example
Apparent Utilization Apparent Power
Machine Quantity Power (kVA) Factor Max. Demand[kVA]
No. 1 10 0.8
No. 2 10 0.8
Lathe No. 3 10 0.8
Workshop A No. 4 10 0.8
No. 5 10 0.8
No. 1 3 0.8
Drill Machine
No. 2 3 0.8
Power Socket(16A) 10 Pcs 15 1
CFL 30 Pcs 2 1

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Some Parameters Defining Load: Diversified Load

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Some Parameters Defining Load: Diversified Load

Customer - 1 Customer - 2

Customer - 3 Customer - 4
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Some Parameters Defining Load: Diversified Load

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Some Parameters Defining Load: Diversity Factor
∑$!"# 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑!
𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = $
∑!"# 𝑀𝑎𝑥(𝐴𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑! )

Generally, Diversity factor >1

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 Some Parameters Defining Load: Example

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 Some Parameters Defining Load: Example

Generally, Diversity factor Lies between 1 to 6

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Some Parameters Defining Load: Diversified Load

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 Diversity Factor Vs No. of Consumer

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Some Parameters Defining Load: Coincidence Factor
v The coincidence factor is the reciprocal of the diversity factor.

∑$!"# 𝑀𝑎𝑥(𝐴𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑! )

𝐶𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
∑$!"# 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑!

Generally, Diversity factor <1

In IEC, it is also called Factor of Simultaneity (Ks)

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Some Parameters Defining Load: Simultaneity Factor
v The simultaneity factor is an estimated value that takes into consideration the fact all
the devices are never switched on simultaneously at full power in a plant.
v It is the ratio, expressed as a numerical value or as a percentage, of the simultaneous
maximum demand of a group of electrical appliances or consumers within a specified
period, to the sum of their individual maximum demands within the same period.
v As per this definition, the value is always ≤ 1 and can be expressed as a percentage.

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Some Parameters Defining Load: Data Sheet
As per French standard NFC14-100

Diversity factor according to circuit function (see UTE C 15-105 table AC)

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Reference: Electrical Installation Guide, Schneider Electric
Some Parameters Defining Load: Data Sheet
Rated diversity factor for distribution boards (cf IEC61439-2 table 101)

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Reference: Electrical Installation Guide, Schneider Electric
Example: Find Current through mains and third floor line?

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Reference: Electrical Installation Guide, Schneider Electric
 Some Parameters Defining Load: Load Factor

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑑

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑×𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
=
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑×𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

=
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑×𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
Generally, Load factor Lies between 0 to 1.
Load factor is typically calculated on a daily, monthly, seasonal, or an annual basis.
Load Factor calculated for the transformers, for the plant.
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 Some Parameters Defining Load: Example

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 Significance of Load Factor

Higher load factor is good.

Lower load factor not only requires high capital investments but also higher system losses and voltage drops.
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 Electric Load Estimate
v Determination of the load is the design engineer's first problem and
is difficult to solve.
v The size and number of primary and secondary substations; the
size, number, and arrangement of primary feeders; and the type of
secondary distribution are largely dependent on the amount and
nature of the load.

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 Electric Load Estimate: Method
1. Preliminary load calculation:
i. Space by space (functional area method),
ii. Building Area method.
iii. Area method.
2. NEC load calculations.
3. Final load calculations.

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 Preliminary Load Calculation
v It is the initial load survey without having much information on electrical
equipment's to be used.
v At this stage design engineers often have only a few scanty building
layout drawings.
v Starting with the scanty information on hand, engineers must depend on
their knowledge and experience to enable them to arrive at estimates that
will stand up at a later date.

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Preliminary Load Calculation: Functional Area Method
Approach A
v The building will be separated into different spaces based on its use, such as offices,
conference rooms, corridors and lobbies, stores, parking places, workshops, and so on.
v The Load density in (W/ft2) or/and (VA/ft2) is prescribed for these different spaces.
v These load densities in addition to spaces area will be used to estimate the preliminary
electrical load of the building.

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Preliminary Load Calculation: Functional Area Method

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Preliminary Load Calculation: Functional Area Method

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 Example: Functional Area Method

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Preliminary Load Calculation: Functional Area Method
Approach B
v The building will be separated into different spaces based on its use, such as offices,
conference rooms, corridors and lobbies, stores, parking places, workshops, and so on.
v The Load density in (W/ft2) or/and (VA/ft2) is prescribed for these different spaces for
different loads like lighting, power etc.
v These load densities in addition to spaces area will be used to estimate the preliminary
electrical load of the building.

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Preliminary Load Calculation: Functional Area Method

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 EXAMPLE: Functional Area Method

Space Area
Parking Garage/Utility Areas 4260 m2
(Inc. Roof Area)
Shopping Centre/Bank 1350 m2
Offices 13500 m2
Building Power Load 14850 m2

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Reference: http://www.electrical-knowhow.com/2012/11/electrical-load-estimation-part-two.html/
 Datasheet: Functional Area Method

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Reference: http://www.electrical-knowhow.com/2012/11/electrical-load-estimation-part-two.html/
Example Calculation: Functional Area Method

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Reference: http://www.electrical-knowhow.com/2012/11/electrical-load-estimation-part-two.html/
Preliminary Load Calculation: Building Area Method
v The Building Area method is used for buildings that are larger than those that can be
handled by the Space by space method,
v It is easier than the Space by space method because the electrical load is estimated based
on the activity of the entire building, as opposed to the Space by space method, which
requires dividing the building into multiple areas with different activities.

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 Example: Building Area Method[Approach A]
Calculate the total preliminary electrical load for transformer(s) feeding an academic
building which has (4) floors with a floor area 3250 m2, and calculations to be done for the
following cases:

Building with air conditioning,

Building without air conditioning.

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 Datasheet: Approach B

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 Datasheet: Approach B

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 Example: Building Area Method[Approach B]
A (4) floors office building with a floor area 2000 SF, calculate the total preliminary
electrical load for the transformer(s) feeding this building.

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 Preliminary Load Calculation: Area Method
v Area method is used for Area loads which consist of groups of individual building loads
that be constructed on a large area and will be served by a same subdivision of the
electric distribution system.
v Examples for cases where area loads method will be applied are industrial, residential,
commercial and military areas.
v The area method will be used for the design of substations serving these areas.

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 Preliminary Load Calculation: Area Method
Step #1: list the buildings names included in the area and determine the numbers of identical buildings.
Step#2: calculate the total connected load for each building by using the one or both of the previous methods;
Space by Space and building area.
Step#3: determine the classification of each building from table #1.
Step#4: determine the demand factor for each building from table #1.
Step# 5: determine the load factor for each building from table #1.
Step# 6: find the coincidence factor for each building from table #1.
Step# 7: calculate the building demand load, where:
Building Demand load = building connected load (step# 2) x demand factor (step# 4) x coincidence factor
(step# 6)
Step# 8: calculate the total building demand for the identical buildings, where
Total building demand (for identical buildings) = building demand (step# 7) X number of identical buildings
Step# 9: calculate the general loads for this area which include roadway lighting, area lighting, obstruction
lighting, and other loads not included in individual building loads.
Step# 10: calculate the total Area demand, where:
Total Area demand = ∑ (All total buildings demands from step# 8)+ general load (step# 9)
Step# 11: apply a load growth factor of 25% and calculate the final total Area demand, where:
Final total Area demand= total area demand (step# 9) X 1.25
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Preliminary Load Calculation: Area Method

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 NEC Load Estimation
The National Electric Code is applicable as follows.
(A) NEC Table 220-2(b) shows three watts/VA per
square foot for Dwelling.
Ø To determine the load on a watts per square foot
basis, use the outside dimensions of the dwelling.
Ø The computed floor area shall not include open
porches, garages, or unused or unfinished spaces
unless adaptable for future use.
Ø Watts per square foot load shall be apportioned
evenly among branch circuits, according to their
capacities.
(B) NEC Section 220-16(a) rates the two small
appliance circuits at 3,000 watts (1500 watts each
circuit).
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 NEC Load Estimation
(C) It is reasonable to believe that not all lights and outlets for the appliance circuits will be in
use at the same time, so a demand factor is used to calculate the feeder demand load. NEC
Table 220-11 shows the first 3,000 watts of lighting and appliance circuits shall be computed
at 100%. The remainder of the 3,000 watts are to be computed at 35%.

v If the load is continuous, the computed load is multiplied by 1.25 to determine the circuit
requirements.
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 NEC Load Estimation
(D) NEC Table 220-19, Column C, shows the load for two cooking units to be 65% of the
sum of the nameplate rating of the two units.
(E) NEC Section 220-16(b) rates the laundry circuit at 1500 watts.
(F) There is no VA load for 15A and 20A, 125V general-use receptacle outlets because the
loads for those devices are part of the 3VA per sq foot[3 kW/sf] for general lighting contained
in Table Sec. 220.14(J) for dwelling units.
v Although there is no limit on the number of receptacles on dwelling unit general-
purpose branch circuits, the Code does require a minimum number of circuits for
general-purpose receptacle and lighting outlets [Sec. 210.11(A)].
vChoose maximum load of,
i. The receptacle outlet load at 180VA per receptacle yoke [Sec. 220.14(I)] after
all demand factors have been applied.[100% for first 10kVA and remaining at
50%]
ii. The receptacle outlet load at 1VA per sq ft.
1/20/22 7:52 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 74
 NEC Load Estimation
(G) Section 220.43(A) and 220.14(G)
of the NEC requires that 200 VA per
linear foot of the show window or the
maximum volt-ampere rating of the
equipment, whichever is greater, be used
to estimate this type of lighting load.
The NEC also requires, in addition to the
show-window lighting load, at least one
receptacle of 180 VA for every 12 feet of
show-window space measured
horizontally.

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 NEC Load Estimation
v Sign and outline lighting loads, discussed in
NEC Article 600, which requires that a
structure have a least one circuit exclusively
used to supply such lighting, are considered
continuous loads.
v This circuit must be designed for a minimum
load of 1200 VA.
v Track lighting, often used in commercial
buildings for accent lighting, is discussed in
NEC Article 410 (part XV).
v The minimum track lighting load requirement
is to assign 150 VA for every 2 feet of track
length.

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 NEC Load Estimation: Example
Determine the lighting load for an office area of 6300 square feet using actual lights and the
information in Table 4.1 (NEC Table 220.3[A]). The office contains 30 fluorescent lights
having a ballast of 280 V and 0.8 A.

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Reference:
 NEC Load Estimation: Example
With the National Electric Code sections and tables, find the minimum service load for a
dwelling 40 feet by 25 feet, or 1,000 square feet?

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Reference: https://codelibrary.amlegal.com/codes/centervillein/latest/centerville_in/0-0-0-4154
 NEC Load Estimation: Example
Calculate the receptacle load for a
200ʹ × 150ʹ department store, and
number of 15 A circuits needed to
supply the load at 120 V power
supply. The number of receptacles
is unknown.

1/20/22 7:52 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 79

Reference: https://www.ecmweb.com/national-electrical-code/code-basics/article/21127208/load-calculations-part-1
 NEC Load Estimation: Example
Compute the lighting load for two show windows of a store, 36 feet and 48 feet long,
respectively.

SOLUTION
Total show-window length is: 36ʹ + 48ʹ = 84ʹ.
The show-window lighting load is: Show-window Load = 84′ × 200 = 16800 VA
This lighting is a continuous load and the circuit load requirement is: 16,800 × 1.25 = 21,000
VA.
In addition, receptacles are required at every 12 ft. of window and a total of 7 (3 and 4,
respectively) receptacles are required, and the receptacle load is:
7 × 180 = 1260 VA.
The total load is then:
Total Load = 16800 + 1260 = 18060 VA

1/20/22 7:52 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 80

Reference:
 NEC Load Estimation: Example
A furniture store has a total area of 120ʹ × 250ʹ. The store uses 100ʹ × 60ʹ for storage, uses 10ʹ ×
20ʹ as a small office, and uses the remainder of the building as showroom. There are also a total
of 48ʹ show windows, a 40ʹ track, and two outdoor signs. What is the total lighting load?
SOLUTION
The storage, office, and the showroom areas, and the corresponding lighting loads are:
Storage area: 100 × 60 = 6000 sq. ft
The storage lighting load: 6000 × 0.25 = 1500 VA
Office area: 10 × 20 = 200 sq. ft
The office lighting load: 200 × 3.5 = 700 VA
Store total area: 250 × 120 = 30000 sq. ft
Showroom area: 30000 − 6000 − 200 = 23,800 sq. ft
The showroom lighting load: 23800 × 3 = 71,400 VA
General lighting load: 1500 + 700 + 71400 = 73,600 VA
Show window lighting load: 200 × 48 = 9,600 VA Sign lighting load: 1200 × 2 = 2400 VA
Track lighting load: 0.5 × 40 × 150 = 3000 VA
The sign lighting load is estimated at a minimum 1200 VA, so a total of 2400 VA.
Total lighting load: 73600 + 9600 + 2400 + 3000 = 88,600 VA Circuit requirement (continuous load): 98600 × 1.25 = 110,750 VA

1/20/22 7:52 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 81

Reference:
 Final Load Estimation
v This method is widely used and is more accurate.
v This method is based on calculating the total demand based on the nameplate ratings of
the devices to be installed and then using the factor of utilization and factor of
simultaneity, we ger final load.
v For assessing the total load of a building, the following guidelines may be adopted after
deciding the number and type of outlets.

Incandescent Light Point 60 Watts

Fluorescent Tubes 60 Watts
Ceiling Fans 100 Watts
Light Sockets (5 A Sockets) 100 Watts
Power Sockets (15 A socket) 1000 Watts

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 Example

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Reference: Electrical Installation Guide, Schneider Electric
 Example: Find Size of the transformer?

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Reference: https://electricalnotes.wordpress.com/2011/10/31/demand-factor-diversity-factor-utilization-factor-load-factor/
 Example

Maximum Demand on Main Feeder =24 KW

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Reference: https://electricalnotes.wordpress.com/2011/10/31/demand-factor-diversity-factor-utilization-factor-load-factor/
 Load Centre
A load center is a junction with control and overcurrent protection circuits, where
incoming power from utility is supplied to it and it distributes the electricity to different
branch circuits for lighting, appliances and electrical outlets.

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 Load Centre
An electric load center consist of
a) Incoming section: It provides the connection of one or more incoming high
voltage circuits. Each of circuit may or may not be provided with power circuit breaker.
b) Transformer: This section may have one or more transformer. For Smaller
load, transformer may not be required.
c) Outgoing section: It provides the connection of one or more outgoing feeder.
They may or may not be provided with a low voltage circuit breaker.

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 Load Centre: EXAMPLE

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Reference: Siemens-Basics-of-load-centers/
 Importance of Load Centre
v A load center helps to provide safety to the homeowner, and maintenance personnel
by housing all the branch circuits in one enclosure, helping to prevent coming in
contact with energized electrical parts. Safety by Isolation.
v The load center can provide safety from ground and arc faults by using specialty, or
electronic circuit breakers. Safety by Protective Device.
v Load centers use plug-on circuit breakers to reliably distribute the electricity to
circuits throughout a home or small building. Easy Replacement/Maintenance
v It is easy to control different load incase of emergency.
v Easy Monitoring.

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 Working Space and Location for Load Center
v The width of the working space in front
of the equipment must be at least 30” or
the width of the equipment, whichever is
greater.
v The working space also extends
vertically from the floor or grade to a
height of at least 6-1/2’ or the height of
the equipment, whichever is greater.
v These requirements are found in article
110.26 and table 110.26(A)(1) of the
National Electrical Code.

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Reference: https://wginc.com/where-can-panelboards-and-load-centers-be-located-in-my-building/
 Working Space and Location for Load Center
v In residential installations, it is not typical for a space to be dedicated for the
installation of a load center.
v Article 240.24 lists the places where overcurrent devices, and thus by extension,
panelboards/load center may not be located.
v The code specifies that panelboards may not be located near easily ignitable material (such
as clothes closets), bathrooms, over steps, in plumbing walls, or in close proximity to sinks
or plumbing fixtures.
v The code is also careful to specify panelboards shall be located in a readily accessible
location, meaning the top of the highest circuit breaker can’t be above 6’ 7” AFF or from
working platform.

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 Importance of Load Centre
v A load center helps to provide safety to the homeowner, and maintenance personnel
by housing all the branch circuits in one enclosure, helping to prevent coming in
contact with energized electrical parts. Safety by Isolation.
v The load center can provide safety from ground and arc faults by using specialty, or
electronic circuit breakers. Safety by Protective Device.
v Load centers use plug-on circuit breakers to reliably distribute the electricity to
circuits throughout a home or small building. Easy Replacement/Maintenance
v It is easy to control different load incase of emergency.
v Easy Monitoring.

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 Power System Layout

1/20/22 7:52 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 93

Reference: Pansini, Anthony J., ed. Guide to electrical power distribution systems. CRC Press, 2005 and Sallam, Abdelhay A., and Om P. Malik. "Electric distribution systems." (2018).
 Supply System for Industrial Plant

Availability Cost
[Always] [Optimal]

Key
Features

Reliability Flexibility
[High] [Yes]
Safety
[Required]

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 Supply System for Industrial Plant: Sources
Generated Power
v Although is not reliable operation mode, but due to economic, technical or very strict
governmental regulation reasons, electrical energy requirement of the industrial plant is
produced totally from one or generally more than one Generators without connection
to a public utility system.
v Generators, depends on process needs can be driven by steam or gas turbines or both.
v The main contingency in this configuration is the system capability to start the highest
rated motor while all remaining loads are in operation.
v Not Used in Nepal.

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 Supply System for Industrial Plant: Sources
Import Power
v In this configuration, all electrical energy requirement of plant is provided from totally
utility sources through incoming lines with a sufficient capacity.
v The reliability, line voltage and number of the feeder connection of the utility to the
industrial plant are the main subject to be considered for electrical system design.
v In most industry in Nepal, we import power from NEA, directly through a city feeder or
through Dedicated Feeder.
v For Industrial Zone, NEA has a separate feeder connected to their main distribution
transformer. From there, they supply as per each individual industry requirements.

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 Supply System for Industrial Plant: Sources
Combination of Generated and Import Power
v In order to increase energy flow reliability of
electrical loads, plant owned generators are operated
in parallel with outside utility sources.
v Any general or partial failure in one of power
sources, generators or utility continue to supply
electrical energy demand of industrial plant without
any shut down.
v In this operation, depending energy trade agreement,
electrical power can be export to or import from
utility sources.
v In Nepal, Industries generate some energy as
byproduct in Sugar Industries and hence they re-use
this energy for operating their machines or sell to
NEA.
1/20/22 7:52 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 97
Reference: https://thehimalayantimes.com/business/sugar-mills-to-generate-8-mw-electricity-this-fiscal-year
 Supply System for Industrial Plant: Sources
Emergency Power Supply:
v In order to provide necessary energy demand of the critical equipment during partial or
general electrical failures, two types of power sources are inserted into main electrical
system.
Uninterruptable power sources:
Emergency Generators

1/20/22 7:52 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 98

 Supply System for Industrial Plant: Sources
Uninterruptable power sources:
v They can be AC or DC or both.
v But they are generally battery backup.
v In normal operation, critical loads are supplied
over inverter which takes power from the AC
lines through a battery charger and batteries.
v If the ac power fails, the batteries continue the
feed the inverter to supply critical loads.
v AC critical loads are ; Distributed control
systems, Emergency shutdown systems,
Instruments, Gas detection systems, Fire alarm
systems, Computer loads, SCADA
v DC critical loads are; control, protection, metering and measuring circuits , CB spring
charge motors , Very critical lube oil pumps

1/20/22 7:52 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 99

 Supply System for Industrial Plant: Sources

Can We Use PV System in

Industry???

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Reference: https://www.exponentialpower.com/products-services/by-application/stationary-standby-power.html
 Supply System for Industrial Plant: Sources
Emergency generators:
v These additional power sources are started
automatically when the normal power supply
fails and to be operated for a limited duration
and selected critical loads.
v These loads can be some motors for safety
operation or safety shut down, partial lighting
system and ac, dc uninterruptable power
sources.
v They are mainly used as they supply both
active as well as reactive powers.

1/20/22 7:52 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 101

Reference: http://www.gizilenerji.com.tr/files/publication/file-steps-for-industrial-plant-electrical-system-design-2737-tr.pdf
Supply System for Industrial Plant: Distribution

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 Supply System for Industrial Plant: Distribution
Primary Distribution System :
vIt is that part of a.c distribution system which operates at voltages somewhat higher than general utilization
and handles large blocks of electrical energy than the average low voltage consumer uses.
vThe voltage of primary distribution depends upon the amount of power to be conveyed and the distance of
substation required to be fed.
vThe commonly used primary distribution voltages are 33 KV, 11 KV , 6.6 KV and 3.3 KV.
vDue to economic considerations, primary distribution is carried out by 3-phase, 3 wire system.
Secondary Distribution System :
vIt is that part of A.C distribution system which includes the range of voltages at which the ultimate consumer
utilizes the electrical energy delivered to them.
vThe secondary distribution employs 400/230 V, 3 phase 4 wire system.

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 Supply System for Industrial Plant: Arrangement
v The arrangement the primary or the secondary distribution system are governed by a
number of factors such as service continuity, flexibility, regulation, efficiency, operating
costs, and investment cost.
v The reliability of the industrial plant will also have bearing on the system arrangement
selected.
v The maintainability of equipment should be carefully considered because it affects all of
these factors.
v There are two basic arrangement based on the connection of main circuits to the power
sources, which are radial and loop systems.

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 Radial System
v The radial-type system is the simplest and the one
most commonly used.
v It comprises separate circuits “radiating” out of
the substation or source, each circuit usually
serving a given area.
v The distributor may be considered consisting of a
main portion from which there radiate laterals to
which distribution transformers or consumers are
connected.
v The transformers or lumped loads are usually
connected to the primary main through, depends
on supply voltage, fuses, MCCB, moulded case
circuit breaker, MV CB etc., so that a fault on
lateral will not cause an interruption to the entire
feeder.
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 Radial System
The main disadvantage of this system is that;
v In case of protection device failure or a fault
develop on the feeder main, the CB at the substation
or power source will open and the entire feeder will
be de-energized.[Poor Reliability]
v The end of the distributor nearest to the feeding
point will be heavily loaded.
v The consumers at the distant end of a distributor
would be subjected to serious voltage fluctuations
when the load on the distributor chances.

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 Expanded Radial System

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 Secondary Selective System

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 Secondary Selective System
vThe next widely used system in industrial power installation is the secondary selective
system.
vThe system is somewhat similar to the radial system.
vIf pairs of unit substations are connected through a normally open secondary tie circuit
breaker, the result is a secondary Selective System system.
vUse of this system reliability increases by reducing the time that a load is without
power due to a fault in a unit sub- station transformer or its primary feeder.
vIt provides flexibility in operation, particularly when equipment is being maintained or
serviced. Any part of a primary feeder, or transformer and associated equipment, can be
deenergized for inspection or maintenance without loss of power to the loads.
vUnder normal conditions the system is operated with the tie breaker open and each
transformer supplies its own load.
vUnder Fault or maintenance on primary feeder, the transformer secondary switching
device or breaker is to be opened and the tie breaker is to be closed.
vThe load connected to both buses is supplied by the energized transformer.
1/20/22 7:52 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 109
 Secondary Selective System: Requirements
v Each transformer and its primary feeder must have sufficient capacity to carry the total
load.
v The tie breaker should be interlocked with the transformer secondary breakers to
prevent the transformers from being operated in parallel. Parallel operation of the
transformers would increase the available secondary short-circuit current and would risk
the loss of power to both secondary buses in the case of a transformer fault or primary
cable fault.

1/20/22 7:52 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 110

 Primary Selective System
vThis system is another means of reducing the
time required to restore voltage to a load in the
event of loss of a primary feeder as compared
with a radial system.
vIn this system two or more primary feeders are
provided.
vTwo primary feeders are extended to each
transformer, and selector switches are provided
so that any transformer may be connected to
either of the two primary feeders.
vEach primary feeder must have sufficient
capacity to carry the maximum load that may be
connected at one time.

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 Primary Selective System
v Under normal conditions, the system is operated with the load divided approximately
equally on each primary feeder.
vWhen a fault occurs on one primary feeder, there will be an interruption of power to the
load connected to that feeder.
vThe interrupter switch connected to the faulted feeder will be opened and the respective
transformer will be reconnected to the energized feeder.
vThe two switches associated with one transformer should be mounted in separate individual
metal enclosures in order that a deenergized feeder may be safely maintained while the
other feeder is energized.
vThe primary selective system has a higher first cost than a radial system arranged to supply
the same load. However, its first cost is usually lower than that of a comparable secondary
selective system.
vThe service reliability of this system lies between that of a radial system and that of a
secondary selective system.

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 Loop System
v In loop systems, there are two paths between the sources (substations, service
transformer) and customer.
v A loop must be able to meet all power and voltage drop requirements when fed from
only one end, not both.
v Equipment is sized and each loop is designed so that service can be maintained
regardless of where an open point is on the loop.

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 Primary Loop System
v With this arrangement, the only time that any
part of the load is without service for an
extended period is when a fault takes place in a
transformer or its secondary bus.
v The disadvantage of this arrangement lies in a
complex and time-consuming operation in
locating a fault on the primary loop or on any
transformer, because the entire system must be
deenergized for a time, and the time required to
restore service may also be lengthy.
v When the load centers are located relatively far
apart, the looped primary system will cost little
more than a comparable radial system.

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 Secondary Loop System
v The secondary network system can
provide a very high degree of
service reliability to all the loads.
v The arrangement of equipment in this
system is similar to that of the
secondary selective system.
v The difference is in the way the
systems are operated.
v In the secondary selective system, the
tie circuits between secondary buses
are normally open and each
transformer supplies its own load.
v In the secondary network system, the secondary buses are tied together and the transformers
operate in parallel to supply the entire load.
1/20/22 7:52 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 115
 Secondary Loop System
v Under normal conditions, the total load is shared by all of the transformers operating in
parallel.
v Should a fault occur in a primary feeder or in a transformer or if voltage should fail on a
primary feeder for any reason, the power flow from the secondary bus to
the transformer will cause the network protector to open, thus dis- connecting the
transformer from the secondary bus.
v The remaining energized transformers will continue to supply power to the bus, and there
will be no interruption of power to the loads.
v For an ideal operating condition, if total number of transformers is n, each transformer
should normally be loaded only to (n —l)/n percent, so that in an emergency, if one
transformer is taken out of service, the remaining transformers can still carry full load of
the plant.

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 Classification of Electrical Installation
Electrical installation means installation of electrical wires and electrical
equipment's like motors, sockets etc. from a common electrical supply point
to meet a particular purpose.
They are Classified as:
i. Residential Installation
ii. Commercial Installation
iii. Industrial Installation
iv. Vehicular Installation
v. Power Line Installation
Sometimes, they are also classified as:
i. Indoor Installation
ii. Outdoor Installation
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Reading and Interpretation of Building Drawing

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Reading and Interpretation of Building Drawing

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Reading and Interpretation of Building Drawing

1/20/22 7:52 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 120

Reading and Interpretation of Building Drawing

1/20/22 7:52 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 121

Reading and Interpretation of Building Drawing

1/20/22 7:52 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 122

Reading and Interpretation of Building Drawing

1/20/22 7:52 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 123

Electrical Rules related to Electrical Installation & Testing
All the electrical installations must conform to the provisions made in the Nepal
National Building Code NBC 207 : 2003.
For details refer IS.
Testing and Inspection is also carried as per NBC 207:2003.

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 Student Work
v Presentation on NEC 207.
v Presentation on Electrical Testing and Inspection.

1/20/22 7:52 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 125

 Thank You
???
References
1. JB Gupta, “A course in Electrical Installation, Estimating & Costing”
2. Chen, Kao. Industrial Power Distribution and Illuminating Systems. Vol. 65. CRC Press,
1990.
3. Raina, K. B. Electrical Design Estimating and Costing. New Age International, 2007.
4. Belu, Radian. Building Electrical Systems and Distribution Networks: An Introduction. CRC
Press, 2020.
5. https://www.dudbc.gov.np/uploads/default/files/555f2944e317eebb87a19d7da2af4910.pdf
Namaste
Industrial Power Distribution
and Illumination
Asst. Prof. Shahabuddin Khan
Pulchowk Campus
sk@pcampus.edu.np
 Chapter - 2
Earthing (4 hours)

Shahabuddin Khan
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
Pulchowk Campus, IOE
sk@pcampus.edu.np
 Syllabus
1. Introduction
2. System & Equipment Earthing
i. Point to be Earthed
ii. Factors Influencing the earth resistance
iii. Method of reducing earth resistance
3. Methods of Earthing
4. Lightning Protection Earthing

12/26/21 5:16 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 4

 Syllabus
1. Introduction
2. System & Equipment Earthing
i. Point to be Earthed
ii. Factors Influencing the earth resistance
iii. Method of reducing earth resistance
3. Methods of Earthing
4. Lightning Protection Earthing

12/26/21 5:16 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 5

 Electrical Safety

12/26/21 5:16 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 6

References: RALPH E. FEHR, “INDUSTRIAL POWER DISTRIBUTION “, IEEE Wiley Publisher
 How we get Electric Shock???
Power Socket
Substation Consumers DB

L
N

Neutral
Equipment

General Mass of The Earth

Metallic Body

12/26/21 5:16 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 7

How much current will flow through the body???
Power Socket R𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 1000Ω [Wet]
Substation Consumers DB
or
L 100kΩ in dry condition
N

Neutral
Equipment

General Mass of The Earth

Metallic Body

12/26/21 5:16 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 8

 Role of third point in Socket?
Power Socket
Substation Consumers DB

L
N

Neutral Main
Building Equipment
Earthing

General Mass of The Earth

Metallic Body

12/26/21 5:16 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 9

 Will the Fuse Blow?
Power Socket
Substation Consumers DB

L
N

Neutral Main
Building Equipment
Earthing

General Mass of The Earth

Metallic Body

12/26/21 5:16 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 10

 What will happen if we touch?
Power Socket
Substation Consumers DB

L
N

Neutral Main
Building Equipment
Earthing

General Mass of The Earth

Metallic Body

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 Earthing
v Earthing system is an electrical circuit which connects a part of electrical
system[non-current carrying metallic part of the electrical installation/equipment or
the neutral point of supply system] to the earth for safety and functional purposes.

Why Earthing???
v The main aim of earthing is to maintain a zero potential or zero voltage of all non-
current carrying parts of electrical system which has the probability of electrified by
some fault.
v To provides the simple path to the leakage current.
v to avoid electric shock to the human being,
v to avoid risk of fire due to earth leakage through unwanted path.

12/26/21 5:16 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 12

 Earthing Vs Neutral

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References: https://electricalbaba.com/difference-between-earthing-grounding-and-neutral/
 Earthing Vs Neutral

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References: https://byjus.com/physics/difference-between-earth-and-neutral/
 Earthing Vs Grounding
v Earthing and grounding are similar terms. [In UK Earthing and in USA Gounding]
v The main difference between earthing and grounding is that the earthing refers that
the circuit is physically connected to the ground with Zero Volt Potential. But,
grounding refers that the circuit is not physically connected to ground, but still has
zero potential.
v One other important difference between earthing and grounding is that in grounding,
the current-carrying part is connected to the ground. But, in earthing the non-current
carrying parts are connected to the ground.

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Parameter Earthing
Earthing Vs Grounding Grounding
It protects human life from It protects the entire power system from
Definition
electrocuted. malfunctioning.

Potential It contains zero potential. It does not possess any zero potential.

It is placed between the equipment

It is placed between the neutral of the
Location body and earth and kept under the
equipment and ground.
earth’s surface.

It is of five types such as Pipe,

It is of three types such as Solid,
Types Plate, Rod earthing, tap earthing,
Resistance, and Reactance grounding.
and strip earthing.

Color of
The earth wire is of green color. The grounded wire is black in color.
wire
12/26/21 5:16 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 16
 Earthing Vs Grounding
Parameter Earthing Grounding

It is in use in transformer, It is in use as a neutral generator and

Example generator, and motor for power transformer and connected to the
connecting to the earth. ground.

Grounding provides the return path to

Earthing discharges the electrical
Applicatio the current. It is mainly in use for
energy to the earth. It is mainly in
n unbalancing when the electric system
use to avoid shocking the humans.
overloads.

12/26/21 5:16 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 17

 Syllabus
1. Introduction
2. System & Equipment Earthing
i. Point to be Earthed
ii. Factors Influencing the earth resistance
iii. Method of reducing earth resistance
3. Methods of Earthing
4. Lightning Protection Earthing

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 System Earthing

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 System Earthing
v Earthing of system is designed primarily to preserve the security of the system by ensuring
that the potential on each conductor is restricted to such a value as is consistent with the
level of insulation applied.
v The process of connecting neutral point of 3-phase system to earth (i.e. soil) either directly
or through some circuit element (e.g. resistance, reactance etc.) is called Neutral
Grounding/System Grounding.
v System earthing is primarily required to ensure that the potential of each conductor of the
system restricts to its desired value for which the insulation is provided.

12/26/21 5:16 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 20

 Why System Earthing???

12/26/21 5:16 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 21

References: https://www.electrical-engineering.academy/posts/neutral-point-treatment-the-isolated-network
 Why System Earthing???

12/26/21 5:16 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 22

References: https://www.electrical-engineering.academy/posts/neutral-point-treatment-the-isolated-network
 Why System Earthing???

Grounding Factor is, 3

Phase Voltage becomes equal to line voltage

12/26/21 5:16 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 23

References: https://www.electrical-engineering.academy/posts/neutral-point-treatment-the-isolated-network
 Why System Earthing???

𝐼! = 3 × 𝐼! @#$%&'(

12/26/21 5:16 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 24

References: https://www.electrical-engineering.academy/posts/neutral-point-treatment-the-isolated-network
 System Earthing/Neutral Earthing

12/26/21 5:16 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 25

References: BL threja
 Advantages System Earthing
vVoltages of the healthy phases do not exceed line to ground voltages i.e. they remain
nearly constant.
vThe high voltages due to arcing grounds are eliminated.
vThe protective relays can be used to provide protection against earth faults. In case earth
fault occurs on any line, the protective relay will operate to isolate the faulty line.
vIn case of earth fault on one line, the two healthy phases will continue to supply load for a
short period.

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 Equipment Earthing
This type of electrical earthing system deals with earthing of non-current carrying parts
of the equipment to ensure the safety of personal and protection due to leakage current.

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 Basic Objective of Equipment Earthing
v to ensure freedom from dangerous electric shock voltages exposure to persons in the
area;
v to provide current carrying capability, both in magnitude and duration, adequate to
accept the ground fault current permitted by the overcurrent protective system without
creating a fire or explosive hazard to building or contents; and
v to contribute to better performance of the electrical system

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 Explanation
Voltage Exposure:
When there is unintentional contact between an energized electric conductor and the metal frame or
structure that encloses it (or is adjacent), the frame or structure tends to become energized to the same voltage
level as exists on the energized conductor. To avoid this appearance of this dangerous, exposed shock hazard
voltage, the equipment grounding conductor must present a low impedance path from the stricken frame to the
zero potential ground junction. The impedance should also be sufficiently low enough to accept the full
magnitude of the line-to-ground fault current without creating an impedance voltage drop large enough to be
dangerous.
Avoidance of Thermal Distress:
The earthing conductor must also function to conduct the full ground fault current (both magnitude and
duration) without excessively raising the temperature of the earthing conductor or causing the expulsion of arcs
and sparks that could initiate a fire or explosion. The total impedance of the fault circuit including the grounding
conductor should also permit the required current amplitude to cause operation of the protective system.
Preservation of System Performance:
The earthing conductor must return the ground fault current on a circuit without introducing enough
additional impedance to an extent that would impair the operating performance of the overcurrent protective
device, that is, a higher than necessary ground-circuit impedance would be acceptable if there is no impairment
of the performance characteristics of the protective system.
12/26/21 5:16 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 29
 Syllabus
1. Introduction
2. System & Equipment Earthing
i. Point to be Earthed
ii. Factors Influencing the earth resistance
iii. Method of reducing earth resistance
3. Methods of Earthing
4. Lightning Protection Earthing

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 Point to Be Earthed
1. Earth pin of 3 pin lighting plug sockets and 3 and 5 pin power plug sockets should be
permanently and efficiently earthed.

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 Point to Be Earthed
2. The metallic covering of electrical appliance must be earthened.
3. The metal casing of portable apparatus such as heaters, refrigerators, hand lamps,
soldering irons, electric drills etc., should be connected to earth.
4. The frame of every generator, station motor, portable motor and the metallic parts (not
intended as conductors) of all transformers should be earthed.

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 Point to Be Earthed
5. The neutral conductor of a 3-phase, 4-wire should be earthed by not less than two
separate and distinct connections with earth at the generating station and at the
substation. It may also be earthed at one or more points along the distribution system or
service line in addition to any connection with earth, which may be at the consumer's
premises.

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 Point to Be Earthed
6. In the case of a system comprising electric supply lines having concentric cables, the
external conductors of such cables should be earthed by two separate and distinct
connections with earth.

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 Point to Be Earthed
7. Fabricated steel transmission line towers, tubular steel or rail poles carrying overhead
conductors should be earthed. For this purpose a continuous earth wire is provided and
connected with earth at four points in every one mile. (1 mile :1.61 km)

12/26/21 5:16 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 35

 Syllabus
1. Introduction
2. System & Equipment Earthing
i. Point to be Earthed
ii. Factors Influencing the earth resistance
iii. Method of reducing earth resistance
3. Methods of Earthing
4. Lightning Protection Earthing

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 Earthing Resistance
v The earthing resistance of an electrode is made up of:
a) resistance of the (metal) electrode,
b) contact resistance between the electrode and the soil, and
c) resistance of the soil from the electrode surface outward in the geometry set up for
the flow of current outward from the electrode to infinite earth.
v The first two factors are very small fractions of an ohm and can be neglected for all
practical purposes.

12/26/21 5:16 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 37

References: is-3043-2018-earthing
 Factor Affecting Earth Resistance
1. Soil Resistivity
v The resistance to earth of a given
electrode depends upon the
electrical resistivity of the soil in
which it is installed.
v The type of soil largely determines
its resistivity.

12/26/21 5:16 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 38

 Factor Affecting Earth Resistance

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 Factor Affecting Earth Resistance
v Earth conductivity is, however, essentially electrolytic in nature and is affected, by the
moisture content of the soil and by the chemical composition and concentration of salts
dissolved in the contained water.
v Grain size and distribution, and closeness of packing are also contributory factors since
they control the manner in which the moisture is held in the soil.
v Local values should be verified by actual measurement.

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 Factor Affecting Earth Resistance
2. Moisture
v Moisture content is one of the controlling factors in earth
resistivity.
v Figure shows the variation of resistivity of red clay soil
with percentage of moisture.
v It will be seen from Fig. that above about 20 percent
moisture, the resistivity is very little affected, while
below 20 percent the resistivity increases very abruptly
with the decrease in moisture content.
v A difference of a few percent moisture will therefore,
make a very marked difference in the effectiveness of
earth connection if the moisture content falls below 20
percent.

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 Factor Affecting Earth Resistance
v It should be recognized, however, that moisture alone is not the predominant factor in
the low resistivity of soils; for example, earth electrodes driven directly in the beds of
rivers or mountain streams may present very high resistance to earth.
v If the water is relatively pure, it will be high resistivity and unless the soil contains
sufficient natural elements to form a conducting electrolyte, the abundance of water will
not provide the soil with adequate conductivity.
v The value of high moisture content in soils is advantageous in increasing the solubility
of existing natural elements in the soil, and in providing for the solubility of ingredients
which may be artificially introduced to improve the soil conductivity.

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 Factor Affecting Earth Resistance
3. Temperature
v The temperature coefficient of resistivity for soil is negative, but is negligible for
temperatures above freezing point.
v At about 20°C, the resistivity change is about 9 percent per °C.
v Below 0°C the water in the soil begins to freeze and introduces a tremendous increase in
the temperature coefficient, so that as the temperature becomes lower the resistivity rises
enormously.
v It is, therefore, recommended that in areas where the temperature is expected to be quite
low, the earth electrodes should be installed well below the frost line. Where winter
seasons are severe, this may be about 2 m below the surface, whereas in mild climates
the frost may penetrate only a few centimetres or perhaps the ground may not freeze at
all.

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 Factor Affecting Earth Resistance
4. Salt Content
v With the presence of soluble salt content the
resistivity of the soil decrease.
v It will be noted that the curve flattens off at
about 5 percent salt content and a further
increase in salt gives but little decrease in the
soil resistivity.
v The effect of salt will be different for different
kinds of soil and for various moisture contents
but the curve will convey an idea of how the
soil conductivity can be improved.

12/26/21 5:16 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 44

 Syllabus
1. Introduction
2. System & Equipment Earthing
i. Point to be Earthed
ii. Factors Influencing the earth resistance
iii. Method of reducing earth resistance
3. Methods of Earthing
4. Lightning Protection Earthing

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 Method of Reducing Earth Resistance
1. Increase Length of Earthing Electrode:
v Driving a longer rod deeper into the earth, materially decreases its resistance.
v In general, doubling the rod length reduces resistance by about 40 percent.

12/26/21 5:16 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 46

References: https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/improve-earth-electrode-resistance
 Method of Reducing Earth Resistance
1. Increase Length of Earthing Electrode:

12/26/21 5:16 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 47

References: https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/improve-earth-electrode-resistance
 Method of Reducing Earth Resistance
2. Increase Diameter of Earthing Electrode:
v Increasing the electrode diameter would lower the resistance.
v It does, but only a little. For the same depth, doubling the rod’s diameter reduces
the resistance only about 10 percent.

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 Method of Reducing Earth Resistance
3. Multiple Earthing Electrode:
v Two well-spaced rods driven into the earth provide parallel
paths.
v They are, in effect, two resistances in parallel.
v The rule for two resistances in parallel does not apply
exactly. That is, the resultant resistance is not one-half the
individual rod resistances (assuming they are of the same size
and depth).

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 Method of Reducing Earth Resistance
v When you use multiple rods, they
must be spaced apart further than
the length of their immersion.

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 Method of Reducing Earth Resistance
4. Treatment of the soil:
v It is a good way to improve earth
electrode resistance when you cannot
drive deeper ground rods because of
hard underlying rock.
vMagnesium sulfate, copper sulfate, and
ordinary rock salt are suitable non-
corrosive materials. Magnesium sulfate
is the least corrosive, but rock salt is
cheaper and does the job if applied in a
trench dug around the electrode.

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 Method of Reducing Earth Resistance
v Another popular approach is to backfill around the electrode with a specialized conductive
concrete.
v A number of these products, like bentonite, are available on the market.

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 Syllabus
1. Introduction
2. System & Equipment Earthing
i. Point to be Earthed
ii. Factors Influencing the earth resistance
iii. Method of reducing earth resistance
3. Methods of Earthing
4. Lightning Protection Earthing

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 Methods of Earthing
1. Strip Earthing
2. Rod Earthing
3. Pipe Earthing
4. Plate Earthing

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 Methods of Earthing: Strip Earthing
v In this system of earthing, strip electrodes of cross-section not less than 25 mm x 1.6mm
of copper or 25 mm x 4 mm of galvanized iron or steel are buried horizontal trenches of
minimum depth 0.5 meter.
v If round conductors are used, their cross-sectional are shall not be smaller than 3.0 mm2
if of copper and 6.0 mm2 if of galvanized iron steel.
v The length of buried conductor shall be sufficient to give-the required earth resistance. It
shall, however, be not less than 15 meters.
v The electrodes shall be as widely distributed as possible, preferably in a single straight or
circular trench or in a number or trenches radiating from a point.
v If conditions-requires use of more than one strip, they shall be lain either in parallel
trenches or in radial trenches.
v This type of earthing is used at places which have rocky soil earth bed because at such
places excavation work for plate earthing is difficult.

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 Methods of Earthing: Strip Earthing

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 Methods of Earthing: Strip Earthing

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 Methods of Earthing: Rod Earthing
v In this system of earthing 12.5 mm diameter
solid rods of copper or 16 mm diameter solid
rods of galvanized iron or steel or hollow
section 25 mm G.I. pipes of length not less than
2.5 meters are driven vertically into the earth.
v In order to increase the embedded length of
electrodes under the ground, which is
sometimes necessary to reduce the earth
resistance to desired value, more than one rod
sections are hammered one above the other.
v This system of earthing is suitable for these
areas, which are sandy in character.
v This system of earthing is very cheap as no
excavation work is involved.

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 Methods of Earthing: Pipe Earthing

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 Methods of Earthing: Pipe Earthing
v Pipe earthing is the best form of earthing and is very cheap in cost.
v In this method of earthing, a galvanized and perforated pipe of approved length and
diameter placed up right in a permanently wet soil.
v The pipe is provided with a tapered casing at the lower end in order to facilitate the
driving. The pipe at the bottom is surrounded by broken pieces of coke or charcoal for a
distance of about 15cm. around the pipe.
v Generally, alternate layers of coke and salts are used to increase the effective area of the
earth and to decrease the earth resistance respectively.
v Another pipe of 19 mm diameter and minimum length 1.25 meters is connected at the top
to G.I. pipe through reducing socket.
v In summer season the moisture in the soil decreases which causes increase in earth
resistance. So a cement concrete work is done in order to keep the water arrangement
accessible.

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 Methods of Earthing: Pipe Earthing
v And in summer to have an effective earth, 3 or 4 buckets of water are put through the
funnel connected to 19-mm diameter pipe, which is further connected to G.I. pipe.
v The earth wire (either G.I. wire or G.I. strip of sufficient cross-section to carry faulty
current safely) is carried in a G.I. pipe of diameter 12.7 mm. at a depth of about 60 cm.
from the ground

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 Methods of Earthing: Pipe Earthing

12/26/21 5:16 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 62

 Methods of Earthing: Plate Earthing
Cast Iron Cover
Cement
Chamber

3m
GI Pipe

Earthing
Cu Plate
60 cm x 60 cm
x 3.15 mm

90 Cm

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 Methods of Earthing: Plate Earthing
v An earthing plate either of copper of dimensions 60 cm x 60 cm x 3.15 mm or of
galvanised iron of dimensions 60 cm x 60 cm x 6.30 mm is buried into the ground with
its face vertical at a depth of not less than 3 meters from ground level.
vThe earth plate is embedded in alternate layers or coke and salt for a minimum
thickness of 15 cm.
vThe earth wire (G.I. wire for G.I. plate earthing and copper wire for copper plate
earthing) is securely bolted to an earth plate with the help of a bolt , nut and water.
vThese are made of same material that of earth plate.(Made of copper in case of copper
plate earthing and of galvanised iron in case of G.I. plate earthing.)
vA small masonry brick wall enclosure with a cast iron cover on top or an RCC pipe
round the earth plate is provided to facilitate its identification and for carrying out
periodical inspection and tests.

12/26/21 5:16 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 64

 Methods of Earthing: Plate Earthing

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 Example: Plate Earthing
Calculate the size of the earth electrodes for plate earthing, if the soil resistivity is 60
ohm-m and required earth resistance is 8 ohm.

12/26/21 5:16 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 66

 Equipment Earthing: Chemical Earthing
v Chemical earthing is an earthing in which we use
chemical powder instead of salt and coal.
v In any ordinary earthing, salt and coal are placed on
top of the electrode.
v When the chemical earthing, the chemical powder is
placed over the electrode.
v Two types of powders are used in chemical earthing.
v One is Carbon powder and the other is Bentonite
powder.
v Carbon powder is black in color while bentonite
powder is brown in color.
v Earthing with carbon powder is used in a normal
place while earthing with bentonite powder is used
in a dry place.
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 Equipment Earthing: Chemical Earthing
v Make a borehole of 250mm diameter and 10 ft. deep
into the earth.
v Lower the copper bonded rod of dia. 14.2mm,
17.2mm or 23.2mm and 3 meter length into the
depth of ground.
v Fill the annular space between the rod and the
borehole walls with earth enhancement compound.
v Cover the top of the borehole with a pit cover.

12/26/21 5:16 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 68

Conventional Earthing Vs Advance Earthing
Traditional Earthing Advance Earthing
Use of Salt & Coal Powder Use of Backfill compound
Salt gets washed away due to ground Does not get washed away as bonding
water or rains resins are added
Plate life is small Life of electrode is large
Liable to fast corrosion & decay of Scientifically designed to resist corrosion
earthing plate

Plate in direct contact with soil Back fill compound comes between soil &
contaminants electrode

12/26/21 5:16 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 69

 Syllabus
1. Introduction
2. System & Equipment Earthing
i. Point to be Earthed
ii. Factors Influencing the earth resistance
iii. Method of reducing earth resistance
3. Methods of Earthing
4. Lightning Protection Earthing

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 Lightning Protection Earthing

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 Lightning Protection Earthing
vTo dispersed the lightning current into the mass of the earth.
vTo reduce any potentially dangerous over voltages.
vIn general, an earthing resistance below 10 Ω, measured at low frequency, is
recommended.

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 Lightning Protection Earthing
vAs per IEC 62305,

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 Lightning Protection Earthing: Type A

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 Lightning Protection Earthing: Type A

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 Lightning Protection Earthing: Type B

vThe type B ring earth electrodes are laid

around the building.
vOutside the building, at least 80% of the
ring earther's (surface earther's) overall
length must be in contact with the
ground.
vIt must be installed as a closed ring at a
distance of 1.0 m and a depth of 0.5 m
(or 0.8 m according to DIN 18014)
around the external foundation of the
building.

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 Size of Electrodes

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 Size of Electrodes

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 Material and Corrosion

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 Measurement of Earth Resistance by Megger

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 Student Work
v Prepare a Bill of Quantity for any earthing system.

12/26/21 5:16 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 81

 Thank You
???
References
1. JB Gupta, “A course in Electrical Installation, Estimating & Costing”
2. Code of Practice for Earthing, IS:3043-2018
Namaste
Industrial Power Distribution
and Illumination
Asst. Prof. Shahabuddin Khan
Pulchowk Campus
sk@pcampus.edu.np
 Chapter - 3
Power Carrying Devices(6 hours)

Shahabuddin Khan
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
Pulchowk Campus, IOE
sk@pcampus.edu.np
 Syllabus
1. Cables
i. Cable Construction
ii. Types of cables
iii. Cable Ratings: voltage rating & Conductor size
iv. Installation of cable
v. Locating cable faults
2. Connectors and Terminations
i. Types of connectors and Applications
ii. Types of terminations and Methods
iii. Splicing Devices and Techniques :
3. Bus-way
i. Bus-way Construction and Standards,
ii. Types of Bus-way
iii. Applications
iv. Installation
1/25/22 11:59 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 4
 Syllabus
1. Cables
i. Cable Construction
ii. Types of cables
iii. Cable Ratings: voltage rating & Conductor size
iv. Installation of cable
v. Locating cable faults
2. Connectors and Terminations
i. Types of connectors and Applications
ii. Types of terminations and Methods
iii. Splicing Devices and Techniques :
3. Bus-way
i. Bus-way Construction and Standards,
ii. Types of Bus-way
iii. Applications
iv. Installation
1/25/22 11:59 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 5
 Definitions
Wire
A wire is a slender rod or filament of drawn metal.

Conductor
A conductor is a wire or combination of wires not insulated from one another, suitable
for carrying an electric current. It may be, however, bare or insulated.
Solid Conductor:
A conductor composed of a single wire.

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 Definition
Stranded Conductor
A stranded conductor is a conductor
composed of a group of wires, or of any
combination of groups of wires.
Strand
A strand is one of the wires, or
groups of wires, of any stranded conductor.

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 Definitions
Bunched Conductor:
A stranded conductor in which all wires are twisted together in the same direction and
with the same lay throughout.
Plain Conductor:
A conductor consisting of one metal only.
Shaped Conductor:
A conductor which has other than circular shapes as for example sector shape.

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 Cable
v A cable is basically an insulated conductor, externally protected against mechanical
injury, moisture entry and chemical reaction.
v The conductor is usually aluminium or annealed copper while the insulation is mostly
PVC (Polyvinyl chloride) or other chemical compound.
v A cable is either a stranded conductor (single-conductor cable), or a combination of
conductors insulated from one another (multipleconductor cable).

1/25/22 11:59 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 9

 Syllabus
1. Cables
i. Cable Construction
ii. Types of cables
iii. Cable Ratings: voltage rating & Conductor size
iv. Installation of cable
v. Locating cable faults
2. Connectors and Terminations
i. Types of connectors and Applications
ii. Types of terminations and Methods
iii. Splicing Devices and Techniques :
3. Bus-way
i. Bus-way Construction and Standards,
ii. Types of Bus-way
iii. Applications
iv. Installation
1/25/22 11:59 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 10
 Cable Construction

Core:
All cables have one central core or a number of cores of stranded copper or
aluminium conductors. Generally, there are one, two, three or four cores (three and half).

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 Cable Construction
Insulation:
The different insulation used to insulate the conductor is rubber, paper, varnished
cambric and impregnated paper.
Metallic Sheath:
A metallic sheath is provided over the insulation as so to prevent the entry of the
moisture into the insulating material. The metallic sheath is usually of lead or lead alloy.
Bedding:
Over the metallic sheath comes a layer of bedding which consists of paper tape
compounded with a fibrous material. Also sometimes jute strands of hessian tap (strong
coarse cloth of hemp or jute) is also used for bedding. The purpose of providing the
bedding is to protect the metallic sheath from mechanical injury from the armoring.

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 Cable Construction
Armoring:
Armouring is provided to protect from mechanical injury to the cable and it consists
of one or two layers of galvanized steel wires or two layers of steel tape.
Serving:
Over and above armouring, fibrous material is again provided which is similar to that
of bedding but is called serving.

1/25/22 11:59 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 13

 Syllabus
1. Cables
i. Cable Construction
ii. Types of cables
iii. Cable Ratings: voltage rating & Conductor size
iv. Installation of cable
v. Locating cable faults
2. Connectors and Terminations
i. Types of connectors and Applications
ii. Types of terminations and Methods
iii. Splicing Devices and Techniques :
3. Bus-way
i. Bus-way Construction and Standards,
ii. Types of Bus-way
iii. Applications
iv. Installation
SK, Pulchowk Campus 14
 Types of Cable
vThe wires employed for internal wiring of buildings may be divided into different groups
according to
ØConductor used
ØNo. of cores used
ØVoltage grading
ØType of insulation used

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 Types of Cable
vAccording to conductor material
ØCopper conductor cables
ØAluminium conductor cables

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 Types of Cable
vAccording to conductor material
ØCopper conductor cables
ØAluminum conductor cables

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 Types of Cable
vAccording to the no. of cores
ØSingle core, two core, Three core, Three and half core, two core with ECC (earth
continuity conductor)

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 Types of Cable
vAccording to the no. of cores
ØSingle core, two core, Three core, Three and half core, two core with ECC (earth
continuity conductor)

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 Types of Cable
vAccording to the no. of cores
ØSingle core, two core, Three core, Three and half core, two core with ECC (earth
continuity conductor)

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 Types of Cable
vAccording to voltage grading
i) 250/440 Volts ii) 650/1100 Volts
v According to voltage level:
a) Low Tension (L.T.) cables for operating voltage up to 1kV. Such cables are used in
the application below 1.1kv such as domestic and industrial applications. Mostly PVC or
XLPE insulation are used.
b) High Tension (H.T.) cables for operating voltage up to 11kV. They are used in the
input of any transformer/generator which is having 11kV as the input voltage. XLPE
insulation is used.
c) Super Tension (S.T.) cables for operating voltage up to 33kV. XLPE and glass
insulation are used. Dielectric stress will be 40kV/cm.
e) Extra Super Tension (EST) cables for operating voltage up to 132 kV. Low viscosity
mineral oil + XLPE + Glass combined insulation are used. The main advantage of oil
insulation cables is the oil will not ionize at the high voltage. The weight of the cable is
very high. They are preferred to lay underground.
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 Types of Cable
vAccording to insulating material
Ø Vulcanized Indian Rubber (VIR) insulated cables
Ø Tough Rubber sheathed (TRS) or cab tyre sheathed (CTS) cables.
Ø Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) cables
Ø XLPE cables

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Types of Cable: Vulcanized Indian Rubber (VIR)
vAbout 50 years ago VIR insulated wires were used for residential and industrial wiring
240V / 415 V as well as in 650 V / 1100 V.
vA small VIR coating of the tinned conductor is called VIR cables.
vThey are used for house wiring.
vThe main disadvantage of VIR is high Sulphur content corrode the copper.
vThey are not suitable for industrial applications.

Rubber Conductor
Cotton Insulator
Insulation

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 Types of Cable: Tough Rubber sheathed (TRS)
vTRS cable is nothing but a vulcanized rubber insulated conductor with an
outer protective covering of tough rubber., which provides additional
insulation and protection against wear and tear.
vThese cables are available in 240V / 415 V as well as in 650 V / 1100 V
vWater proof and can be used in wet conditions.
vCheaper in cost and lighter in weight than
lead alloy sheathed.
vAvailable in Single core, two core, Three
core, Three and half core, two core with ECC
(earth continuity conductor)

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 Types of Cable: Lead Sheathed Cable
v Lead sheathed cable is a vulcanized rubber insulated conductor covered with a
continuous sheath of lead.
v Lead sheathed provides a very good protection against the absorption of moisture and
sufficient protection against the absorption of moisture and sufficient protection against
mechanical injury, so can be used without casing or conduit system.
v Cables are available in 240 V / 415 V.

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Types of Cable: Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) cables
vPoly Vinyl Chloride material is used as insulation.
vAvailable in 240V / 415 V as well as in 650 V / 1100 V.
vThey are suitable for both domestic and industrial applications.
vThe cable withstands up to 75deg.
vBut they are not suitable for high voltage and high power applications.

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Types of Cable: Cross Linked Polyethylene (XLPE) cables
v They withstand up to 90deg and having a dielectric strength of 20kV/mm.
v These cables have been found very suitable for all voltages up to 33 kV.

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 Types of Cable: Paper Insulated cables
v Impregnated paper is used as insulation material and having good temperature proper
as well as dielectric strength of 30kV/mm.

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 Types of Cable: Oiled Filled cables
v It used in high voltage applications.
v Oil is used as an insulation medium.

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 Types of Cable: External Pressure cables/Gas Pressure
High-pressure gas+ insulating oil is used as insulation material.

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 Types of Cable
Based on the construction:
Flat cable: All the core in the cable will
be placed in the parallel line. They can be
laid on the open ground.
Flexible cable: The flexible does not
come with the protection armoured layer.
Armoured cable: The metal armoured is
used as the protection layer which protects
the cable from physical damage.

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 Why electrical cables are round?
v To increase flexibility and physical strength.
v Reduce the electrostatic stress.
v Consume less amount of insulation.

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 H, SL, HSL Cable

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 Stranded Cables
v The Multi-strand wires come with a bunch of small wires bunched together to form
one thick conductor.
v Multi-strand wiring is more flexible and less susceptible to cracking and metal
fatigue than single stranded conductors.

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 Be Careful with your Choice…

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 Be Careful with your Choice…

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 Fire Accident???

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 FR Cable
v Fire resistant cables are coated with a self developed fire retardant (fr) pvc compound
that halts the spread of fire even in extreme temperature cases.

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 FRLS Cable
v FRLS Cable means Flame Retardant
Low Smoke.
v These cables are fire resistant which are
used at the locations that are more prone
to fire.
v Flame Retardant Low Smoke PVC
compound which is present in the cable,
makes sure the release of low smoke
compared to other wires with PVC
coating.

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 FRZH Cable
v FRZH Cable means Flame Retardant Zero Halogen.
v They do not produce Halogen gas when burnt.

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 FRZH Cable

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 Why Halogen free cable is important for Fire Fighting?
Halogens can damage health. This is particularly the case when halogenated plastics,
particularly PVC, burn. If a fire breaks out, hydrogen halides are released from the plastic.
Halogens combine with water, such as the extinguishing water used by the fire brigade or
fluid from the mucous membranes, to form acids - chlorine becomes hydrochloric acid,
fluorine the highly corrosive hydrofluoric acid. In addition, a mixture of dioxins and other
highly toxic chemicals can be formed. If they get into the airways, they can cause damage
and cause suffocation. Even if someone survives the fire, their health can be permanently
damaged. This is much less the case for halogen-free cables.

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 Syllabus
1. Cables
i. Cable Construction
ii. Types of cables
iii. Cable Ratings: voltage rating & Conductor size
iv. Installation of cable
v. Locating cable faults
2. Connectors and Terminations
i. Types of connectors and Applications
ii. Types of terminations and Methods
iii. Splicing Devices and Techniques :
3. Bus-way
i. Bus-way Construction and Standards,
ii. Types of Bus-way
iii. Applications
iv. Installation
SK, Pulchowk Campus 43
 Cable Ratings
v Cable ratings determine the parameters within which a cable can be safely used. The most
typical cable ratings are temperature, voltage and current.
v Temperature rating is usually defined as one of the following:
Ø Max conductor temperature rating
Ø Minimum installation temperature rating
Ø Minimum flexible temperature rating.
v Voltage is usually defined in terms of the following:[0.6/1 (1.2)kV]
Ø Uo = The R.M.S value between any insulated conductor and the earth or metal covering.
Ø U = The R.M.S value between any phase conductor and another phase conductor or
system of single insulated conductors.
Ø (Um) = Maximum system voltage
v The current rating is usually defined in terms of:
Ø Normal maximum continuous current rating
Ø Short circuit current rating
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 Cable Ratings

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 Cable Ratings

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 Cable Sizing
1. Cable derating amp should be higher than full load current of load plus 20% load.
2. Cable voltage drop should be less than defined voltage drop. According to IEEE
rule B-23, at any point between power supply terminal and installation, Voltage
drop should not increase above 2.5% of the provided (supply) voltage.
3. No. of cable runs > (Full load current / Cable derating current).
4. Cable short circuit capacity should be higher than system short circuit capacity at
that point.

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 Current Correction Factor

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 Current Correction Factor

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 Current Correction Factor

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 Current Correction Factor

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 Example
What type and size of cable suits for given situation
Load = 5.8kW
Volts = 230V
Length of Circuit = 35 meter
Temperature = 35°C (95°F)
Solution
Load = 5.8kW = 5800W
Voltage = 230V
Current = I = P/V = 5800 / 230 = 25.2A
20% additional load current = (20/100) x 5.2A = 5A
Total Load Current = 25.2A + 5A = 30.2A

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 Example
Derated Rated Current=0.94*31=29.14≯31
Derated Rated Current=0.94*42=39.48 ≥31[OK]

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 Example
Allowable Voltage Drop=2.5% ∗ 230 = 5.75
Voltage Drop=4.1mV*35*39.48=5.66 V [OK]

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 Example
v A three core Cable is directed buried in ground in trench at the depth of 1 meter.
Ground temperature is approximate 35 Deg. Number of cable per trench is 1. Number
of run of cable is 1 run. Total Derating factor is 0.93. Find size of cable.

Total Load current is = 1.2 ∗ 139 = 166.8 𝐴

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 Example

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 Example

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 Example
Calculate the cross-sectional area of aluminium cable required to supply a single phase
load current of 25kW at power factor of 0.7 lagging which is 40m away from the voltage
sources so that voltage drop in the cable does not exceed 3% of the standard supply
voltage of 220 V.

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 Cable Specification
1. Number of conductors in cable, and phase identification required.
2. Conductor size (AWG, kemil) and material
3. Insulation type (rubber, PVC, polyethylene, EPR, etc.)
4. Voltage rating
5. Shielding system
6. Outer finishes
7. Installation (cable tray, direct burial, wet location, exposure to sunlight or
oil, etc.
8. Applicable UL listing
9. Test voltage

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 Syllabus
1. Cables
i. Cable Construction
ii. Types of cables
iii. Cable Ratings: voltage rating & Conductor size
iv. Installation of cable
v. Locating cable faults
2. Connectors and Terminations
i. Types of connectors and Applications
ii. Types of terminations and Methods
iii. Splicing Devices and Techniques :
3. Bus-way
i. Bus-way Construction and Standards,
ii. Types of Bus-way
iii. Applications
iv. Installation
SK, Pulchowk Campus 60
 Installation of Cable
v There are many different ways to install power distribution cables in industrial plants.
v Design engineers must select the method most suitable for each application.
v Each method will transmit power with a unique degree of reliability, safety, economy,
and quality for any specific conditions.
v These conditions include the quantity and characteristics of the power being
transmitted, the distance of transmission, and the degree of exposure to adverse
mechanical and environmental conditions.

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 Installation of Cable: Open Wire
v The open wire method was used extensively in the past.
v It has been replaced in most applications, but it is still used for primary power
distribution over large areas when conditions are suitable.
v Open wire construction consists of uninsulated conductors on insulators mounted on
poles or structures.
v The attractive features of this method are its low initial cost and easy access for repair
work.
v On the other hand, the uninsulated conductors are a safe hazard and highly susceptible
to damage and lightning.

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 Installation of Cable: Aerial Cable/Service Main
v Aerial cable is usually limited to incoming service or to distribution between
buildings in commercial areas.
v The greatest usage is in replacing open wiring where it provides greater safety and
reliability and requires less space.
v Aerial cables may be either self-supporting or messenger supported.
v They may be attached to pole lines or structures.
v Self-supporting cable is suitable for only relatively short spans.
v Messenger-supported cable can span large distances.
v The supporting messenger provides high strength to withstand climatic rigors or
mechanical shock.

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 Installation of Cable: Aerial Cable

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 Installation of Cable: Cable Trays
v A continuous rigid cable support is a unit or assembly of units or sections and associated
fittings made of metal or other non-combustible material forming a continuous rigid
structure used to support cables.
v These are commonly called cable trays, including ladders, troughs,
and channels.
v They are becoming increasingly popular in commercial and industrial electrical systems
because of low installed cost, flexibility, accessibility for repair, or addition of cables, and
space saving.
v Continuous rigid cable supports are available in a number of types and materials.
v They are a support and not an enclosure or raceway, and therefore may only be used with
wiring methods that meet the approval of the NEC and local codes.

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Installation of Cable: Cable Trays

SK, Pulchowk Campus 66

 Installation of Cable: Raceway/Conduits
v Conduits are the most common and the most varied of all raceways.
v Metal conduits are available in galvanized and enameled steel, aluminium, wrought
iron, and silicone bronze, and in two wall thicknesses: heavy wall (rigid) and thin wall
(EMT).
v Flexible and liquid-tight metal conduits are also specified for limited applications.
v Non-metallic conduits, which may be of plastic, vitreous, fibre, or concrete
construction, are generally used underground either directly in the soil or encased in a
surrounding envelope of concrete.

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 Installation of Cable: Underground Ducts
v These are used when overhead conduits are undesirable for physical or aesthetic reasons,
or where the advantages of an underground system are obvious.
v Underground ducts use rigid steel, plastic, or fibre conduits either encased in concrete or
directly buried.

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Underground Cable Laying: Direct

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 Underground Cable Laying: Direct
v In this method of cable laying, a trench of about 1.5 meter
deep and 45 cm wide is dug.
v The trench is covered with layer of sand of about 10 cm
thickness and cable is laid over it.
v The sand prevents the entry of moisture from bottom side or
ground.
v Once cable is laid over the sand, another layer of sand about
10 cm thickness laid above the cable.
v The trench is covered with brick in order to protect cable
from mechanical injury.
v If more than one cable is laid in the trench, it is placed
horizontally or vertically.
v There is axial spacing of 30 cm is provided between cables in
order to reduce heating between them and fault on one cable
does not affect other cable.
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 Underground Cable Laying: Direct
Advantages
Ø Simple method
Ø Less costly
Ø Better condition for dissipation of heat generated in the cable
Ø Cable is free from adverse effect of external atmosphere conditions
Disadvantages
Ø Localization of fault is difficult
Ø Extension of load is only possible by costing of new excavation and cable laying
Ø High maintenance cost
Ø It cannot be used in the congested area where excavation is inconvenient and
expensive.
Ø Cable may be damaged due to frequent digging at the place of cable laying
Ø The lead sheath of cable may be damages due to chemical changes in the soil.

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 Underground Cable Laying: Drawn In
v This method is adopted in the congested area where direct laying of cable is expensive.
v In this method of cable laying, a line of conduits, duct or tube made of either iron or stone /
cement concrete are laid in the trenches side by side.
v The cable is pulled in the manholes.
v Figure shows four way underground duct line for cable.
v Out of four duct, three duct carries main power cable and fourth duct carries control cable
for protection and switchgear equipment.
v The diameter of duct pipe should always be larger than the diameter of cable in order to
pull cable safely.
v The duct always made straight but sometimes it is made curved if any obstacles.
v When duct is made curved, the diameter of pipe is made kept larger to facilitate drawing
cable through pipe.
v The vertical distance between two adjacent pipes should be 0.25 m – 0.75 m.
v The cable need not be provided armouring but provided with serving of jute / hessian tape
in order to protect them during draw in duct.
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Underground Cable Laying: Drawn In

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Underground Cable Laying: Drawn In

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 Underground Cable Laying: Drawn In
Advantages
v Repair / maintenance of cable is possible without excavation of ground
v Maintenance cost is considerably reduced as compared to direct laying of cable
method
v Less chances of fault occurrence between cable due to mechanical protection
provided by the duct pipe.
v Long life of cable due to less chances of fault on cable
Disadvantages
v High initial cost
v The current carrying capacity of cable is reduced due to less heat dissipation and
close grouping of cables.

SK, Pulchowk Campus 75

 Underground Cable Laying: Solid System
v In this system the cable is laid in open pipes or troughs dug out in earth along the cable
route.
v The troughing is of cast iron or treated wood
v Troughing is filled with a bituminous after cable is laid
v It provides good mechanical strength.

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 Underground Cable Laying: Solid System
v More expensive than direct laid system
v Requires skilled labour and favourable weather conditions
v Due to poor heat dissipation facilities, the current carrying capacity of the cable is
reduced.

v In view of these disadvantages, this method of lying underground cables is rarely used
nowadays.

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 By IEC

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 Syllabus
1. Cables
i. Cable Construction
ii. Types of cables
iii. Cable Ratings: voltage rating & Conductor size
iv. Installation of cable
v. Locating cable faults
2. Connectors and Terminations
i. Types of connectors and Applications
ii. Types of terminations and Methods
iii. Splicing Devices and Techniques :
3. Bus-way
i. Bus-way Construction and Standards,
ii. Types of Bus-way
iii. Applications
iv. Installation
SK, Pulchowk Campus 79
 Locating Cable Faults
v In an industrial plant, a wide variety of cable faults can occur.
v It may be in a communication circuit or in a power circuit, in either
the low-, medium-, or high-voltage class.
v Regardless of the class of equipment involved or the type of fault, one common problem
is to find the location of the fault as fast as possible so that repairs can
be made to avoid prolonged loss of production.
v A wide variety of commercially available equipment, and a number of different
approaches can be used to locate cable faults.
v The approach used depends on many factors:
Ø Nature of the fault
Ø Type and voltage rating of cable installation
Ø Value of rapid location of faults
Ø Frequency of faults
Ø Experience and capability of available personnel

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 Locating Cable Faults: Physical Evidence
v Observation of a flash, sound, or smoke accompanying the discharge of current
through the faulted insulation will help to locate a fault.
v This is more probable with an overhead circuit than with underground ducts.

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Locating Cable Faults: Conductor resistance measurement.
v This method consists of
measuring the resistance of
the conductor from the test
location to the point of fault
by using either the Varley
loop or the Murray loop test

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Locating Cable Faults: Conductor resistance measurement.
v Once the resistance of the conductor to the point of fault has been measured, it can be
translated into distance by using handbook values of resistance per unit length of the
size and type of conductor involved, with temperature correction if required.
v For distribution systems using cables insulated with organic materials, faults of
relatively low resistance are normally encountered.
v The conductor resistance measurement method is most applicable to such systems

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 Locating Cable Faults: Megohmmeter.
v When the fault resistance is sufficiently low that it
can reliably be detected with a megohmmeter, the
cable can be sectionalized and each section tested to
determine which contains the fault.
v But this method may involve considerable time and
expense and might result in additional splices.

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 Locating Cable Faults: Capacitor Discharge
v This method consists of applying a high-voltage high-current impulse to the faulted cable.
v A high- voltage capacitor is charged by a source of relatively low current capacity, such as
that used for high-potential testing.
v The capacitor is then discharged across an air gap into the cable.
v Repeated dis- charging of the capacitor provides periodic pulsing of the faulted cable.
v Where the cable is accessible, the fault may be located simply by sound.
v Where the cable is not accessible, such as in duct, the discharge at the fault may not be
audible. In such cases, detectors will be required.
v Detectors may be of the magnetic or the acoustic type.
v The impulse method appears to be most practical and most commonly used where faults
of relatively high resistance are anticipated.

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 Syllabus
1. Cables
i. Cable Construction
ii. Types of cables
iii. Cable Ratings: voltage rating & Conductor size
iv. Installation of cable
v. Locating cable faults
2. Connectors and Terminations
i. Types of connectors and Applications
ii. Types of terminations and Methods
iii. Splicing Devices and Techniques :
3. Bus-way
i. Bus-way Construction and Standards,
ii. Types of Bus-way
iii. Applications
iv. Installation
SK, Pulchowk Campus 86
 Connector
v An electrical connector is an electromechanical device used to join electrical
conductors and create an electrical circuits.
v Connectors are generally classified in two types: thermal and pressure.

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 Connector: Thermal
v Thermal connectors include those involving the application of heat to make soldered,
silver-soldered, brazed, welded, or cast-on terminals.
v Soldered connections have been used with copper conductors for many years.
However, soldered joints are not commonly used with aluminium.
v Shielded arc welding of aluminium terminals to aluminium cable makes a satisfactory
termination.
v Torch brazing and silver soldering of copper cable connections is used for
underground connections with bare conductors in grounding mats.
v Thermite welding is also used to connect bare cable for ground mats.

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 Soldered Connector

v Normally Lead Connector is used.

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 Soldered Connector

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 Soldered Connector

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 Soldered Connector

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 Soldered Connector

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 Connector: Pressure
v Pressure connectors are available in two different types.
v The mechanical type may be defined as one in which the pressure to
attach the connector to the conductor is by integral screw, cone, or other mechanical
parts. The bolt diameter and number of bolts are selected to produce the clamping and
contact pressures required for the most economical design.

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 Connector: Pressure
v The compression type is one in which the pressure to attach the connector to the
conductor is applied externally, changing the size and shape of the connector. It is
basically a tube with wall thickness designed to carry the current and to withstand
insulation stresses. A joint is made by compressing the conductor to the tube into another
shape by means of a specially de- signed die and tool. The final shape may be indented,
cup, hexagon, circular, or oval.

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 Why Aluminium Connection Needs Care?
v When raw aluminium is exposed to air, an oxide film forms on the conductor.
v This high-resistance surface film must be removed to ensure a high-quality, low-
resistance connection. It can be done in two ways: the best way to remove an aluminium
oxide film mechanically is to abrade the outer strands of the conductor with a wire
brush. Brushing should be done through a paste joint compound to prevent reoxidation.
It is imperative that only connectors compatible with aluminium conductor be used.
v The tendency for aluminium to flow or creep under high unit pressure, and the fact that
it expands at a greater rate than copper when heated, created some problems in the early
days.

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 Connector for Different Voltage Levels
v Standard mechanical or compression connectors are recommended for all primary
voltages provided that the bus is uninsulated.
v Welded connectors may also be used for conductors sized in circular mils.
v Up to 600 V, standard connector designs present no problem for insulated or uninsulated
conductors.
v Standard compression connectors are recommended for use on insulated conductors up
to 5 kV.
v Above 5 kV, stress considerations make it desirable to use taperedend compression
connectors or semiconducting tape construction to give the same effect .

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 Syllabus
1. Cables
i. Cable Construction
ii. Types of cables
iii. Cable Ratings: voltage rating & Conductor size
iv. Installation of cable
v. Locating cable faults
2. Connectors and Terminations
i. Types of connectors and Applications
ii. Types of terminations and Methods
iii. Splicing Devices and Techniques :
3. Bus-way
i. Bus-way Construction and Standards,
ii. Types of Bus-way
iii. Applications
iv. Installation
SK, Pulchowk Campus 98
 Splicing
v A splice is a method to connect two or more wires together with a minimum amount of
voltage or signal loss.
v A splice may be considered as two or more conductors joined with a suitable connector,
then reinsulated, reshielded and rejacketed with compatible materials and applied over a
properly prepared surface.

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 Why Splicing?
v Whenever possible, splicing is normally avoided.
v However, splicing is often an economic necessity. There can be many reasons for building
splices, such as:
Ø The supplied length of cable is not sufficient to perform the intended job, e.g., only so
much cable can be wound on a reel (the reel ends), or only so much cable can be
pulled through so much conduit, around so many bends, etc.
Ø Cable failures
Ø Cables damaged after installation
Ø A tap into an existing cable (tee or wye splices)
Ø In all the above cases, the option is to either splice the cable or replace the entire length.
The economy of modern splicing products, in many cases, makes splicing an optimal
choice.
Ø Whatever the reason to splice, good practice dictates that splices have the same rating as
the cable. In this way, the splice does not derate the cable and become the weak link in the
system.
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 Spicing Technique
The previous definition accurately identifies the need for splicing, which leads into the five
common steps for building a splice:
1. Prepare the surface
2. Join conductors with connector(s)
3. Reinsulate
4. Reshield
5. Rejacket

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 Prepare the surface
v High-quality products usually include detailed installation instructions. Follow that
installations.
vFirst Step is to collect all information's and tools for splicing.
vThen, Remove Outer Sheathing From Cable
vThen, Strip Insulation From Conductors.
vInspect the conductor to check for any damages. If its good, go to next step.

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 Join conductors with connector(s)
v After the cables are completely prepared, the rebuilding process begins.
v If a cold shrink or premolded splice is being installed, the appropriate splice components
must be slid onto the cable(s) before the connection is made.
v The first step is reconstructing the conductor with a suitable connector.
v A suitable connector for medium/high voltage cable splices is a compression or shearbolt
connector.

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 Join conductors with connector(s)
v Do not use mechanical type connectors (such as split-bolt connectors.).
v Connector selection is based on conductor material: aluminium or copper.

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 Reinsulate
v Perhaps the most commonly recognized method for reinsulating is the traditional tape
method.
v Tape has a history of dependable service and is generally available.
v Since tape does not depend on cable types and dimensions, it is the most versatile
approach.
v However, wrapping tape on a medium/ high voltage cable can be time consuming and
error prone since the careful build-up of tape requires accurate half-lapping and constant
tension in order to reduce built-in air voids.

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 Reinsulate
Another method for reinsulating utilizes molded rubber technology

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 Reinsulate
Linerless Rubber Splicing Tape is a highly conformable, linerless Ethylene Propylene
Rubber (EPR), high-voltage insulating tape that provides excellent thermal dissipation
of splice heat. The tape is designed for use in splicing and terminating wires and cables

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 Re-Shielding
v The cable’s two shielding systems (strand shield and insulation shield) must be rebuilt
when constructing a splice.
v The same two methods are used as outlined in the reinsulation process: tape and molded
rubber.
v For a tape splice, the cable strand shielding is replaced by a semi-conductive tape. This
tape is wrapped over the connector area to smooth the crimp indents and connector edges.
v The insulation shielding system is replaced by a combination of tapes.

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 Re-Shielding
The cable’s metallic shield is generally replaced with a flexible woven mesh of tin-plated
copper braid.

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 Rejacketing
v Rejacketing is accomplished in a tape splice by using a combination of the rubber splicing
tape overwrapped with a vinyl tape.
v In molded rubber splices, rejacketing is accomplished by proper design of the outer
semiconductive rubber, effectively resulting in a semi-conductive jacket

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1/25/22 12:00 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 111
1/25/22 12:00 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 112
 Syllabus
1. Cables
i. Cable Construction
ii. Types of cables
iii. Cable Ratings: voltage rating & Conductor size
iv. Installation of cable
v. Locating cable faults
2. Connectors and Terminations
i. Types of connectors and Applications
ii. Types of terminations and Methods
iii. Splicing Devices and Techniques :
3. Bus-way
i. Bus-way Construction and Standards,
ii. Types of Bus-way
iii. Applications
iv. Installation
SK, Pulchowk Campus 113
 Cable Termination
v A termination is a connector or other treatment at the end of a wire. This can be at a piece
or equipment a terminal block or a patch panel.

Function of Termination
v To connect the insulated cable conductor to
provide a current path
v To physically protect and support the end of the
cable conductor, insulation, shielding system, and
overall jacket, sheath, or armor of the cable
v To effectively control electrical gradients to
provide both internal and external dielectric
strength to meet the desired insulation level for the
cable system

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 Class I Termination
v “A Class I High-Voltage Cable Termination (or more
simply, a Class I Termination) provides:
i. some form of electric stress control for the cable
insulation shield terminus,
ii. complete external leakage insulation between the
high-voltage conductor(s) and ground, and
iii. a seal to prevent the entrance of the external
environment into the cable and to maintain the
pressure, if any, within the cable system.
v conventional potheads falls in this category.
v This class is divided into three types:
Ø Class 1A: For use on extruded dielectric cable
Ø Class 1B: For use on laminated dielectric cable
Ø Class 1C: Expressly for pressure-type cable
systems
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 Class II Termination
v A Class 2 Termination is one that provides only (i) and (ii): some form of electric stress
control for the cable insulation shield terminus and complete external leakage insulation,
but no seal against external elements. conventional potheads falls in this category.
v Terminations falling into this classification would be, for example stress cones with rain
shields or special outdoor insulation added to give complete leakage insulation, and slip-
on terminations for cables having extruded insulation when not providing a seal as in
Class 1.

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 Class III Termination
v A Class 3 Termination is one that provides only: (1) some form of electric stress control
for the cable insulation shield terminus.
v This class of terminations would be for use primarily indoors.
v Typically, this would include hand-wrapped stress cones (tapes or pennants), and the slip-
on stress cones.

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 Based on Applications
Indoor Termination–Dry
A termination intended for use where it is protected from solar radiation and
precipitation and not subject to periodic condensation, or other excessive humidity (90% RH
or more). May be installed in air conditioned or heated areas.
Indoor Termination–Wet
A termination intended for use where it is protected from direct exposure to both
solar radiation and precipitation, but is subjected to climatic conditions that can cause
condensation onto the termination surfaces.
Outdoor Termination
A termination intended for use where it is not protected from direct exposure to either solar
radiation or precipitation. These are Class 1A, 1B, or 1C terminations. Class 2 terminations
may also qualify

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 Some Examples

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 Three Phase Terminations

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 Syllabus
1. Cables
i. Cable Construction
ii. Types of cables
iii. Cable Ratings: voltage rating & Conductor size
iv. Installation of cable
v. Locating cable faults
2. Connectors and Terminations
i. Types of connectors and Applications
ii. Types of terminations and Methods
iii. Splicing Devices and Techniques :
3. Bus-way
i. Bus-way Construction and Standards,
ii. Types of Bus-way
iii. Applications
iv. Installation
SK, Pulchowk Campus 121
 Busbar
v A busbar is a conductor that serves as a common connection for two or more circuits.
v It is represented schematically by a straight line with a number of connections made to
it.
v Standard bus bars in busway are made of aluminium or copper.

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 Busway
v Busway as defined by the National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) is a
prefabricated electrical distribution system consisting of bus bars in a protective
enclosure, including straight lengths, fittings, devices and accessories.
v Busway transports electricity and connects to electrical gear such as switchgear, panel-
boards and transformers.
v Busway is an excellent alternative to cable and conduit in commercial and industrial
applications because it’s not as complex to configure, less expensive to install and
easier to replace, especially in applications where load locations are likely to change.
v Busways are particularly convenient to use when numerous current taps are to be
made.

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 Components of Busways
Busway components include:
v Bus bars, or conductors, conduct electricity; they are made from aluminium or copper and
vary in size
v Housing, an aluminium or steel enclosure to contain the busbars
v Insulating system made of a combination of air, epoxy and mylar; it separates the
conductors from each other to prevent electrical faults
v Fittings such as elbows, offsets and tees help to properly route busway from one electrical
connection or termination

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 Standards of Busways
v Busways are designed to conform to the following standards:
1. NEC Article 364
2. ANSI /UL 857-1981
3. NEMA BU1-1983
v Standards 2 and 3 are primarily manufacturing and testing standards.
v The NEMA standard is generally an extension of the UL standard to areas that UL does
not cover.
v The NEC is the most important standard for busway installation.
v State and local electrical codes may have specific requirements over and above
ANSI/UL 857-1981 and NEC.
v Appropriate code authorities and manufacturers should be contacted to ensure that
requirements are met.

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 Where Busway is Used???
Busway is used as an alternative to cable and conduit and is commonly found
throughout mission critical facilities, data centers, industrial facilities, large residential
complexes, petrochemical and electrical utilities.

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 Comparison Between Busways and Cable-Conduit
v Busway and cable and conduit both provide the same basic function: delivering power
between electrical equipment.
v However, busway uses less material since each piece is engineered to order for the job
and typically has a smaller cross-sectional area.
v Busway has a lower voltage drop than cable and conduit due to the solid phase bars
which results in lower impedance.
v Perhaps most importantly, installation of cable and conduit is typically more labour
intensive than installation of busway, and the higher the ampere rating of the system, the
greater the labour differential between the two approaches.
v In-term of Cost, Busways is expensive than Cable-Conduit Configurations.

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 Syllabus
1. Cables
i. Cable Construction
ii. Types of cables
iii. Cable Ratings: voltage rating & Conductor size
iv. Installation of cable
v. Locating cable faults
2. Connectors and Terminations
i. Types of connectors and Applications
ii. Types of terminations and Methods
iii. Splicing Devices and Techniques :
3. Bus-way
i. Bus-way Construction and Standards,
ii. Types of Bus-way
iii. Applications
iv. Installation
SK, Pulchowk Campus 128
 Types of Busways
Busways are available in the following general types:
(1) feeder busway for low-impedance distribution of power;
(2) plug-in busway for convenient connection or rearrangement of loads;
(3) lighting busway to provide power and mechanical support to fluorescent, high- intensity
discharge, and incandescent fixtures; and,
(4) trolley bus- way for mobile power tap-offs to electric hoists, cranes, portable tools, and
so on.

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 Feeder Busway
v A feeder busway is used advantageously to distribute a large amount of power by virtue
of its low impedance.
v Industrial plants use feeder busway from the service equipment to supply large loads
directly and to supply smaller current ratings of feeder and plug-in busway, which in turn
supply loads through plug-in units.
v Current ratings: 600 to 5000 A, 600 V ac; one-phase and three- phase service with 50 to
100% neutral conductor
v Short-circuit current ratings: 50,000 to 200,000 A, symmetrical rms
v Voltage drop: 1 to 3 V per 100 ft, line to line
v Construction: Indoor or weatherproof

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 Plug-in Busway
v A plug-in busway is used in industrial plants as an overhead system to supply power to
utilization equipment.
v Plug-in devices can be placed on the busway near the loads that they supply.
v Plug-in devices include fusible switches, circuit breakers, static voltage protectors,
ground indicators, combination starters, lighting contactors, and capacitor plugs.
v Current ratings: 100 to 4000 A; neutral bar 25 to 100% of the phase bar capacity
v Short-circuit current ratings: 15,000 to 150,000 A, symmetrical rms
v Voltage drop: 1 to 3 V per 100 ft, line to line, for evenly distributed loading

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 Lighting Busway
v A lighting busway provides power to lighting
fixtures and also serves as mechanical support
for the fixture.
v Auxiliary supporting means (strength beams)
are available at maximum intervals of 16 ft.
v Fluorescent fixtures may be suspended from
the busway.
v Lighting busway may be recessed in or
surface mounted to a dropped ceiling.
v Current rating: Maximum 60 A, 300 V to
ground, two, three, or four conductors,
208/120 V or 480/277 V,

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 Trolley Busway
v A trolley busway is constructed to receive stationary or movable take- off devices.
v It is used to supply power to a motor or a portable tool moving with a production line, or
where operators move back and forth over 10 to 20 ft to perform their specific
operations.

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 Syllabus
1. Cables
i. Cable Construction
ii. Types of cables
iii. Cable Ratings: voltage rating & Conductor size
iv. Installation of cable
v. Locating cable faults
2. Connectors and Terminations
i. Types of connectors and Applications
ii. Types of terminations and Methods
iii. Splicing Devices and Techniques :
3. Bus-way
i. Bus-way Construction and Standards,
ii. Types of Bus-way
iii. Applications
iv. Installation
SK, Pulchowk Campus 134
 Applications
v Busway is used in a wide variety of applications, including complex industrial plants,
data centers, offices, high-rise buildings and many other types of facilities.
v Generally, there are two major types of busway installations: horizontal
and vertical.
v Horizontal busway is often used in industrial locations to supply power to heavy
equipment, lighting, and air conditioning.
v Vertical busway, also referred to as busway risers, can be installed economically in high-
rise buildings where it is used to distribute lighting and air conditioning loads.

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 Applications

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 Syllabus
1. Cables
i. Cable Construction
ii. Types of cables
iii. Cable Ratings: voltage rating & Conductor size
iv. Installation of cable
v. Locating cable faults
2. Connectors and Terminations
i. Types of connectors and Applications
ii. Types of terminations and Methods
iii. Splicing Devices and Techniques :
3. Bus-way
i. Bus-way Construction and Standards,
ii. Types of Bus-way
iii. Applications
iv. Installation
SK, Pulchowk Campus 137
 Installations
To make the busway installation proceed as quickly and efficiently as possible, a few
preliminary steps should be taken.
1. Familiarize yourself with the busway routing. If record drawings were supplied by the
factory, have a copy accessible to the installers. It is found that to limit the busway
installations to a minimum number of current ratings and to maintain as many 10-ft
lengths as possible.
2. Inspect busway for damage when received. Store busway in a clean, dry location.
3. Have the following recommended tools available for the busway installation:
v 1/2-in. (13 mm) nut driver or socket and rachet
v Torque wrench or breaker bar with 5/8-inch (16 mm) head
v 3/4-in. (19 mm) socket for torque wrench or breaker bar
v Busway assembly tool (AT-2) for 800–5000 A
v Level
v Tape measure or 6 ft (488 cm) wooden ruler
v Busway insulation tester (“megger,” 1000 V recommended)
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 Installations
4. Carefully read the installation instructions for all devices and NEMA Publication BU
1.1 provided with the busway before installing any of the equipment. This will help
ensure proper installation and operation procedures are followed for the busway system
being installed. Note the instructions call for the busway to be “meggered” before and
after installation.
5. Install busway hangers and supports. The most common method of supporting the
busway hangers is threaded drop rods (or all thread), the installer must supply.
6. Anticipate the weight of the objects being installed so the necessary lifting devices and
manpower are available.
7. Once the installation of the busway is complete, the NEMA Publication BU 1.1 should
be delivered to the facility owner for his or her use in operating and maintaining the
busway system.

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 Thank You
???
References
1. JB Gupta, “A course in Electrical Installation, Estimating & Costing”
2. https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/siemens-busway-purpose-and-definition
3. https://automationforum.co/introduction-to-busway-and-its-applications/
4. https://stevenengineering.com/tech_support/PDFs/45CBUS.pdf
5. https://automationforum.co/introduction-to-busway-and-its-applications/
6. https://www.eaton.com/us/en-us/products/low-voltage-power-distribution-control-
systems/busway/busway--fundamentals-of-low-and-medium-voltage-busway.html
7. https://media.distributordatasolutions.com/schneider/2018q1/39fbd9d7b6c1fcf2ec6062be846
497e3d5ff24af.pdf
 Student Work
v Explain construction of 3.5C Armoured Cable.
v Compare FR,FRLS and FRZH Cable.
v Explain a method of Cable Fault Location.
v How can you perform termination of Cable?
v Explain installation of Busways.

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Namaste
Industrial Power Distribution
and Illumination
Asst. Prof. Shahabuddin Khan
Pulchowk Campus
sk@pcampus.edu.np
 Chapter - 4
Distribution Substation of Industrial Plant (6 hr)

Shahabuddin Khan
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
Pulchowk Campus, IOE
sk@pcampus.edu.np
 Syllabus
Introduction
Classification
Indoor Substations
Out-door Substations
Selection and Location of site
Schematic Diagram of Distribution Substation
Equipment and Measuring Accessories for Substations and Switch gear Installation

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 Syllabus
Introduction
Classification
Indoor Substations
Out-door Substations
Selection and Location of site
Schematic Diagram of Distribution Substation
Equipment and Measuring Accessories for Substations and Switch gear Installation

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 Introduction

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 Introduction
v An electrical substation is a subsidiary station of
an electricity generation, transmission and
distribution system where voltage is transformed
from high to low or the reverse using
transformers.
v Electric power may flow through several
substations between generating plant and
consumer, and may be changed in voltage in
several steps.
v A substation that has a step-up transformer
increases the voltage while decreasing the
current, while a step-down transformer decreases
the voltage while increasing the current for
domestic and commercial distribution.

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 Syllabus
Introduction
Classification
Indoor Substations
Out-door Substations
Selection and Location of site
Schematic Diagram of Distribution Substation
Equipment and Measuring Accessories for Substations and Switch gear Installation

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v Substation are of different types based on
i. its purpose
ii. Location and Mounting
iii. Types of Operation etc.

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 According to Service
v Voltage transformations are carried out at transformer substations, which consist of
mainly a transformer of the required voltage, and the necessary electrical equipment.
v Electrical equipment installed to convert normal supply frequency to some other
frequency, can be called as frequency changing sub-stations.
v Power factor correction substations consist of synchronous condensers installed for
improving power factor.
v In converting substations, equipment like converters or inverters are installed to
convert a.c. supply d.c. supply or d.c. supply to a.c. supply respectively.

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 Transmission Substation
v A transmission substation connects two or more transmission lines.
v In case where all transmission lines have the same voltage:
Ø the substation contains high-voltage switches that allow lines to be connected or
isolated for fault clearance or maintenance.
v A transmission station may have:
1. Transformers to convert between two transmission voltages,
2. Voltage control/power factor correction devices such as capacitors, reactors or static
VAR compensators
3. Phase shifting transformers to control power flow between two adjacent power
systems.
v Transmission substations can range from simple to complex.
v The large transmission substations can cover a large area (several acres/hectares) with
multiple voltage levels, many circuit breakers and a large amount of protection and
control equipment.

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 Distribution Substation
v A distribution substation transfers power from the transmission system to the
distribution system of an area.
v The input for a distribution substation is typically at least two transmission or sub-
transmission lines.
v Distribution voltages are typically medium voltage, between 2.4 and 33 kV depending
on the size of the area served and the practices of the local utility.
v Besides changing the voltage, the job of the distribution substation is to isolate faults in
either the transmission or distribution systems.
v Distribution substations may also be the points of voltage regulation, although on long
distribution circuits (several km/miles), voltage regulation equipment may also be
installed along the line.
v Complicated distribution substations can be found in the downtown areas of large cities,
with high-voltage switching, and switching and backup systems on the low-voltage side.

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 Distribution Substation

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 Collector Substation
v In distributed generation projects such as a wind farm, a collector substation may be
required, which is similar to a distribution substation although power flows in the
opposite direction, from many wind turbines up into the transmission grid.
v For economy of construction the collector system operates around 35 kV, and the
collector substation steps up voltage to a transmission voltage for the grid.
v The collector substation can also provide power factor correction if it is needed,
metering and control of the wind farm.
v Collector substations also exist where multiple thermal or hydroelectric power plants
of comparable output power are in proximity.

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 Switching Transformer
v A switching substation is a substation which does not contain transformers and operates
only at a single voltage level.
v Switching substations are sometimes used as collector and distribution stations.
v Sometimes they are used for switching the current to back-up lines or for parallelizing
circuits in case of failure.

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 Based on Location/Design
v Any substation can be located indoor or outdoor.
v When the transformer and associated equipment's are installed inside the building, it is an
indoor substation; whereas in an outdoor substation the transformers are pole mounted Or
floor-mounted.

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 Comparison

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Reference: K.R. Siddhapura & D.B. Raval, “Transmission and Distribution of Power (WBSCTE)”, Vikash Publishing House
 Syllabus
Introduction
Classification
Indoor Substations
Out-door Substations
Selection and Location of site
Schematic Diagram of Distribution Substation
Equipment and Measuring Accessories for Substations and Switch gear Installation

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 Indoor Substation
v A substation in which the apparatus is equipped inside the substation building is called
indoor substation.
v Such type of substation is mainly used for the voltage up to 11kV, but when the
surrounding air is contaminated by impurities such as metal corroding gases and fumes,
conductive dust, etc., their voltage can be raised up to 33kV-66kV.

1: HV Switchboard,
2: Transformer,
3: LV switchboard,
4: Electronic devices / Capacitors
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 Indoor Substation

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 General Requirement of Substation
1. Adequate Spacing in Building
v The substation building should be constructed providing the necessary
accommodation for the transformer, HT and LT switchgear and cable trenches for
incoming and outgoing cables.
v The building for housing the transformer should be spacious and should be sufficiently
high.
v Adequate clearance between the walls and equipment and between different
equipments should be provided to ensure safety of personnel.
v Sufficient passage and door must be provided for transformer placement.
2. Adequate Ventilation
v Adequate provision for ventilation must be ensured, so that there is free circulation of
air on all sides of the transformer and within the building.
v Entry of water and birds through the inlet and outlets for ventilation should be
prevented by appropriate protection.

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 General Requirement of Substation
3. Cable Trenches:
vCable trenches are provided for laying the cables, the cable trenches should be protected
against entry of water by filling with gravel or sand and covered with steel or RCC slabs.

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 Safety Considerations
1. Fencing and Gate for Transformer Enclosure:
v A metal fencing supported by channel iron supports is provided to enclose the transformer.
v A small gate is provided with locking arrangement for safety.
v The fencing should be earthed at two different points.
2. Adequate fire-fighting equipment should be provided in the sub-station.
v Portable CO2 dry chemical or form fire extinguishers shall be installed in the sub-station
at suitable places.
v Fire buckets shall be installed with a stand for storage of water and sand.
3. Saftey Chart and Saftey Aids must be placed.
v First aid charts (in English and Nepali) displaying methods of giving artificial respiration
to a recipient of electric shock shall be prominently provided at appropriate places.
v Standard first aid boxes containing materials should be provided in front of main switch
boards and other control equipment. Danger sign plates shall be provided on HV
equipment.

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 Safety Considerations
4. Precautions against dust and insects:
v Indoor sub-station should be made inaccessible to birds, reptiles, rats, insects and dust.
v All cable ducts and openings should be sealed as far as possible.
5. Earthing:
v Non-current carrying parts with conducting surface such as the switch-boards, tank of
the transformer, frame work of OCBs, CT and PT cases, lightning arrestors, cable
armouring and other steel structures should be effectively earthed for the protection of
equipment and operation personal.
v The earth conductor should have sufficient current carrying capacity.
v The lightning arrestors should be earthed separately. The resistance of earth system
should not exceed 2.
v Pipe and plate earthing should be provided for indoor sub-station.

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 Syllabus
Introduction
Classification
Indoor Substations
Out-door Substations
Selection and Location of site
Schematic Diagram of Distribution Substation
Equipment and Measuring Accessories for Substations and Switch gear Installation

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 Outdoor Substation
v Transformers of low rating say 25, 40, 63, 100 and 200
kVA are mounted on MS channels which are rigidly
fastened to a two pole structure.
v This type of substation is quite economical for rural
electrification, tube-well and agricultural load, domestic
and commercial load of small towns and medium
industry load.

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 Outdoor Substation
v But for transformers of capacities 250, 300 and 400 kVA, a platform is constructed on a 4-
pole structure for placing the transformer on it.

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 Outdoor Substation
v Transformers above 400 kVA are installed on a foundation Or plinth with a fence or wall
surrounding it. Such substations are often used for factories where there is enough ground
space.
v High voltage substations (220kV, 132, 60 or 33 kV) such as primary and secondary
substations in a power System, having more than one transformers of very high rating (5
to 15 MVA) can also be installed outdoor floor mounted.

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Test to be Performed on Outdoor Substation [IEC 62271-202]

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Reference: Electrical Installation Guide, Schneider
 Syllabus
Introduction
Classification
Indoor Substations
Out-door Substations
Selection and Location of site
Schematic Diagram of Distribution Substation
Equipment and Measuring Accessories for Substations and Switch gear Installation

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 Factors to be Considered for Site Selection
1. Type of Substation:
v The category of substation is important for its location.
v For example a step-up substation, which is generally a point where power from various
sources (generating machines or generating stations) is pooled and stepped up for long
distance transmission, should be located as close to the generating stations as possible to
minimize the transmission losses
v Similarly a step-down substation should be located nearer to the load centre to reduce
transmission losses, cost of distribution system and better reliability of supply.

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 Factors to be Considered for Site Selection
1. Type of Substation:
v Selecting the location to erect a substation is an important factor, because the distribution
substation should be erected near the consumers to reduce the distribution losses while the
step-up substation should be erected near the generating station to reduce the transmission
losses.
v Moreover, in thickly populated areas or cities, the outdoor substation is not permitted.

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 Factors to be Considered for Site Selection
2. Availability of Land and its cost:
v The land proposed for a substation should be normally level and open from all sides for the
easy access of the incoming and outgoing lines. .
v It should not be water logged particularly in rainy season.
v The site selected for a substation should be such that approach of transmission lines and
their take off can be easily possible without any obstruction.
v According to the latest practice the land required for various types of substations is
given below:
S.No. Types of Substation Area Required
1 400kV 50 Acres
2 220kV 25 Acres
3 132kV 10 Acres

v The places nearer to aerodrome, shooting practice grounds etc., should be avoided.
v In addition, the cost of the land should not be high from the economical point of view.

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 Factors to be Considered for Site Selection
3. Easy to Operate:
v Substation should be located in such a manner so that it is easy to operate.
v The operating and maintenance staff should be provided with facilities such as water,
medical, transportation, etc.

4. Pollution Free Atmosphere:

v Substation should be installed in a pollution-free atmosphere away from the factories
because factories produce gasses, dust, etc. which results in the corrosion of metal.
v Substation should be installed near to sea coasts, where air may be more humid and may be
salt laden, is harmful to the proper running of power system.

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 Factors to be Considered for Site Selection
5. Drainage Facility:
v The site selected for the proposed substation should have proper drainage arrangement or
possibility of making effective drainage arrangement to avoid pollution of air and growth of
micro-organisms detrimental to equipment and health.
6. Transportation Facility:
v Low cost and easy transportation facility should be available near the substation otherwise
the capital cost of the installation will be high.
7. Future Expansion:
v Site of the substation should be selected in such a way that sufficient land should be
available at low cost for the future expansion.

1/25/22 11:12 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 35

 Site Evaluation Criteria
As a rule of thumb, the following site evaluation criteria could be used:
v Economical evaluation
v Technical evaluation
v Community acceptance

Ø Economical evaluation should address the level of affordability, return on

investment, initial capital cost, and life cycle cost.

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 Site Evaluation Criteria
Ø Technical aspects that can influence the site selection process could include the following:
v Land: choose areas that minimize the need for earth movement and soil disposal.
v Water: avoid interference with the natural drainage network.
v Vegetation: choose low-productivity farming areas or uncultivated land.
v Protected areas: avoid any areas or spots listed as protected areas.
v Community planning: avoid urban areas, development land, or land held in reserve for
future development.
v Community involvement: engage community in the approval process.
v Topography: flat but not prone to flood or water stagnation.
v Soil: suitable for construction of roads and foundations; low soil resistivity is desirable.
v Access: easy access to and from the site for transportation of large equipment, operators, and
maintenance teams.
v Line entries: establishment of line corridors (alternatives: multi-circuit pylons, UG lines).
v Pollution: risk of equipment failure and maintenance costs increase with pollution level.

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 Site Evaluation Criteria
To address community acceptance issues it is recommended to
v Adopt a low profile layout with rigid buses supported on insulators over solid shape
steel structures
v Locate substations in visually screened areas (hills, forest), other buildings, and trees
v Use gas-insulated switchgear (GIS)
v Use colors, lighting
v Use underground egresses as opposed to overhead
v Other elements that may influence community acceptance are noise and oil leakages or
spills.
v To mitigate noise that may be emitted by station equipment, attention should be paid
at station orientation with respect to the location of noise-sensitive properties and
the use of mitigation measures such as noise barriers, sound enclosures,
landscaping, and active noise cancellation.

1/25/22 11:12 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 38

 Syllabus
Introduction
Classification
Indoor Substations
Out-door Substations
Selection and Location of site
Schematic Diagram of Distribution Substation
Equipment and Measuring Accessories for Substations and Switch gear Installation

1/25/22 11:12 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 39

 Distribution Substation

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Reference: K.R. Siddhapura & D.B. Raval, “Transmission and Distribution of Power (WBSCTE)”, Vikash Publishing House
 Types of Distribution Substation
v Distribution substation may be subdivided into the following types:
i. H-pole mounted: Transformers of low rating say 25, 40, 63, 100 and 200 kVA are
mounted on rolled steel fixtures which are rigidly fastened to the two poles.
ii. Platform mounted: A platform is constructed on a four-pole structure for placing
the transformer on it. Platform mounting is done for trans-formers of capacity 250,
300 and 400 kVA.
iii. Plinth or foundation mounted: Transformers above 500 kVA are placed on a
plinth or foundation with a wall or fence surrounding it.

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 H-Pole Mounted
v The 11 kV/415 V transformer is mounted on a MS channel at a height 2.44 m from
ground level.
v For the protection of the transformer against lightning 11 kV lightning arrestors are
erected at the top of the H-pole structure.
v Supply is given to the H-pole substation through a 11 kV gang operating air break
switch.
v The operating handle of the G.O. (Gang Operating) switch is located on one of the poles
of the structure at a height of 1.25 in from ground.
v 11 kV horn gap fuse, installed on the HT side protects the transformer on the 11kV side.
v On the LT side of the transformer a three and a half core LT cable is taken from the LT
bushing terminals to the LT main switch.
v This main switch with fuse unit provides isolation and protection against feeder faults.
v LT cable is selected according to the capacity of the transformer.

1/25/22 11:12 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 42

 H-Pole Mounted Outdoor Substation [11kV/440V]

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 H-Pole Mounted Outdoor Substation [11kV/440V]

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 H-Pole Mounted Outdoor Substation [11kV/440V]

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 H-Pole Mounted Outdoor Substation [11kV/440V]

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 H-Pole Mounted Outdoor Substation [11kV/440V]

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 H-Pole Mounted Outdoor Substation [11kV/440V]

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 H-Pole Mounted Outdoor Substation [11kV/440V]

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Schematic Diagram of 11kV/440V H-Distribution Substation

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 Single Line Diagram of 11kV/440V Substation

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 Dimension of 11kV/440V Substation

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 Lets Try Designing

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 Estimation
Estimation of 11/0.44kV Double Pole Distribution Substation

S.No. Partiulars Specification Unit Quantity Remarks

1 PCC Poles 10 mtrs Nos 2
2 Lightning Arrestor 11kV grade, glazed Nos 3
3 Disc Insulator 11kV grade, porcelain, glazed for carrying the conductor
Nos 3
4 Shackle Insulator 440V grade, porcelain, glazed for carrying LT Conductor
Nos 8
5 Air Break Switch[Isolator] 11kV gang Operating Set 1
6 Horn Gap Fuse 11kV, Unity Set 1
7 Distribution Transformer 11/0.44kV, 100kVA No 1
8 Distribution Box 100kVA Nos 1
9 LT Side Cable 3.5C 120sq mm mtr 8
10 Earthing GI flat 50X6 mm Kg 200
11 MS Angle 75mmX75mmX6mm[2.5m*8pcs] Kg 114
12 MS Angle 50mmX50mmX6mm[2.5m*2pcs] Kg 22.5
13 MS Channel 100mmX50mmX5mm[2.5m*2pcs] Kg 47.8
14 Stray Set Set 2
15 Earthing 2nos body, 2 nos neutral and 2 nos lightning Aresstors
Set 6
16 Binding Wire Kg 8
17 Barbed Wire 12X12 SWG Kg 25
18 Nuts and Bolts As per required size kg 15
19 Aluminum Paint For Painting Poles and others ltr 3
20 Danger Board with clamps Written in Local, National and English Language Nos 1
21 Jumper Wire 20mm2 aluminum Kg 12
22 Substation Plate 100X50mm with all details Nos 1
23 Emire tap, lux, socket, gland and other as per
1/25/22 11:12 AM 24 Transportation and Labor Charge SK, Pulchowk Campus 54
 As Per NEA

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 Platform Mounted Distribution Substation
vWhen the transformer capacity is more than 200 kVA and is to be mounted outdoor,
platform mounted type of substation is to be installed.
vA four-pole structure is erected and platform is constructed on it.
vThe transformer is mounted on this platform.
vAir break switches, lightning arrestors, insulators etc. are installed on the four-pole
structure.

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Dimension of Platform Mounted Distribution Substation

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Reference: Dr S K Bhattacharya , “Electrical Engineering Drawing”, New-age International
Plinth or Foundation Mounted Distribution Substation
v Transformers of capacity above 500 kVA are too heavy for pole mounting and therefore
are to be installed on ground.
v Plinth or foundation mounted substations can be installed outdoor or indoor.
v The equipment's installed should be enclosed by a fence or a wall.
v The switch gear consists of circuit beakers, isolators etc.

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Dimension of Foundation Mounted Distribution Substation

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Reference: Dr S K Bhattacharya , “Electrical Engineering Drawing”, New-age International
Schematic Diagram of Indoor /Foundation Distribution Substation

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Reference: Dr S K Bhattacharya , “Electrical Engineering Drawing”, New-age International
 Layout of Indoor Substation

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 Single Line Diagram of 11/0.4kV Indoor Substation

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 Underground Distribution Substation

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Reference: K.R. Siddhapura & D.B. Raval, “Transmission and Distribution of Power (WBSCTE)”, Vikash Publishing House
 Underground Distribution Substation
v Where the population is dense and price of the land does not permit an outdoor substation,
this type of substation is used.
v In this substation, the complete equipment is placed underground.
v The design of the underground substation requires more care than any other substation.
v Following points must be considered while laying an underground substation:
i. The size of the substation should be small.
ii. Access for the equipment and personnel should be sufficient.
iii. There should be provision of emergency lighting and protection against the fire.
iv. Good ventilation should be provided.
v. The equipment such as transformer, OCB, etc., should be air cooled to avoid the use
of oil in the substation.
vi. Remote indication should be provided in case of any emergency.

1/25/22 11:12 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 64

 Syllabus
Introduction
Classification
Indoor Substations
Out-door Substations
Selection and Location of site
Schematic Diagram of Distribution Substation
Equipment and Measuring Accessories for Substations and Switch gear
Installation

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 Equipment's of Substation: The Connection
Incoming Line:
v The main function of the incoming line is to supply electrical power to the substation.
v Incoming line is the high voltage line coming from the transformer substation or
generating station.
Outgoing Line:
v The line which leaves the substation is known as outgoing line.
v It may be at reduced voltage or at the same voltage as that of the incoming line in case of
through substation.
Bus Bar:
v It connects the number of lines electrically which are operating at the same voltage and
frequency.
v Generally, copper or aluminum is used in the construction of bus bars.

1/25/22 11:12 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 66

 Equipment's of Substation

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 Equipment's of Substation: The Switchgear Installation
Isolators:
v It isolates or disconnects parts of the power system for repair and maintenance.
v It is placed on both sides of the circuit breaker.
v It should be operated when there is no load in the circuit because it has no provision to
quench the arc which is produced when the circuit is opened.
v It means the isolator should be operated after circuit breaker.
Circuit Breaker:
v The main function of a circuit breaker is to disconnect the circuit under abnormal or say
fault conditions.
v They operate automatically and disconnect the circuit during fault.
v However, manual operation can also be obtained for maintenance.

1/25/22 11:12 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 68

Equipment's of Substation: The Switchgear Installation
Lightning Arrestor
v The lightning arrester is a protective device which protects the system from lightning
effects.
v It has two terminals one is high voltage and the other is the ground voltage.
v The high voltage terminal is connected to the transmission line and the ground terminal
passes the high voltage surges to earth.

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 Equipment's of Substation: The Measuring Unit
CT Metering
v The metering CT measure and records the current when their secondary terminal is
connected to the metering equipment panel.
PT Metering
v A voltage transformer may be defined as an instrument transformer for the
transformation of voltage from a higher value to the lower value.

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 HT and LT Metering
v When 11 kV supply is taken by a single consumer, the supply company will prefer
providing high voltage metering.
v To accomplish this, a potential transformer and a current transformer are installed on the
high voltage lines, with the 11 kV VCB.
v The output of the CT and PT are brought to metering devices.
v The meters not only record the power consumed but also give indication of maximum
demand and the power factor.
v For low voltage metering, supply is run directly to the meters

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Equipment's of Substation: The Distribution Transformer
Step-down Transformer
v The step-down transformer converts the high voltage current into the low voltage current.

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 Equipment's of Substation: The Earthing
v For one transformer, two separate and distinct earth electrodes shall provided for neutral
earthing.
v For earthing the body of the transformer, LV and MV panels etc., the earth conductor is to
be connected to a common earth bus run between another two separate and distinct earth
electrodes.
v Thus for single transformer substation total number of earth electrodes shall four.
v Similarly for a two transformer substation, the total number of earth shall be 6 (4 for
neutral earthing and 2 for running a common between them and connecting the body of
the transformer and bus switchgear).
v Lightning Arrestor should be earthed separately at two distinct locations.

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 Substation Location
v For locating distribution transformer, the loads are treated as masses.
v The location point (X, Y ) is established by moments equated round the reference point
as origin of x- and y-axis.
v The LT lines length and loads position is plotted on graph/survey sheet to scale as per
geographical orientation.
v Algebraic sum of all the moments around y-axis and x-axis are calculated and divided by
total load (in BHP or kW) respectively, to get X, Y coordinates of the proposed
transformer load centre and is marked as near as practicable at site.

from reference point along x-axis and y-axis respectively.

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 Examples
Taking a simple case of three villages A, B, C, situated at equal distance of 500 m and
their respective light load 8, 10, 16 kW having unity power factor, as shown in Fig. The
prospective load is almost negligible. Find the suitable location of their distribution
transformer load centre.

1/25/22 SK, Pulchowk Campus 75

 Thank You
???
References
1. JB Gupta, “A course in Electrical Installation, Estimating & Costing”
2. https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/siemens-busway-purpose-and-definition
3. https://automationforum.co/introduction-to-busway-and-its-applications/
4. https://stevenengineering.com/tech_support/PDFs/45CBUS.pdf
5. https://automationforum.co/introduction-to-busway-and-its-applications/
6. https://www.eaton.com/us/en-us/products/low-voltage-power-distribution-control-
systems/busway/busway--fundamentals-of-low-and-medium-voltage-busway.html
7. https://media.distributordatasolutions.com/schneider/2018q1/39fbd9d7b6c1fcf2ec6062be846
497e3d5ff24af.pdf
 Student Work
v Compare Indoor and Outdoor Substation
v Draw Schematic of Distribution Substation
v Explain Factor affecting Selection of Sites for Distribution Substation.

1/25/22 11:12 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 77

Namaste
Industrial Power Distribution
and Illumination
Asst. Prof. Shahabuddin Khan
Pulchowk Campus
sk@pcampus.edu.np
 Chapter - 5
Electrification of Industrial Building( 5 hours)

Shahabuddin Khan
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
Pulchowk Campus, IOE
sk@pcampus.edu.np
 Syllabus
1. Concept of Industrial Installation
2. General rules guidelines for wiring of Industry
3. Installation and positioning of equipment's.
4. Principles of circuit design in power circuits.
5. Energy and power requirement for Lift, Conveyor-belt and HVAC
6. Procedures for designing the circuits and deciding the number of circuits.
7. Method of drawing single line diagram.
8. Selection of type of wiring and rating of wires & cables.
9. Load calculations and selection of size of conductor.
10. Selection of rating of main Panel Board and distributions board,
11. Protective switchgear Fuse, MCCB , MCB and accessories.

2/19/22 10:50 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 4

 Syllabus
1. Concept of Industrial Installation
2. General rules guidelines for wiring of Industry
3. Installation and positioning of equipment's.
4. Principles of circuit design in power circuits.
5. Energy and power requirement for Lift, Conveyor-belt and HVAC
6. Procedures for designing the circuits and deciding the number of circuits.
7. Method of drawing single line diagram.
8. Selection of type of wiring and rating of wires & cables.
9. Load calculations and selection of size of conductor.
10. Selection of rating of main Panel Board and distributions board,
11. Protective switchgear Fuse, MCCB , MCB and accessories.

2/19/22 10:50 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 5

 Concept of Industrial Installation
v Industrial Load consists of lighting as well as power load.
v Hence, the industrial installation can be divided into the following two categories.
Ø Power wiring installation
Ø Electrical installation for lighting, fan and heating

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 Concept of Industrial Installation
v The machinery and equipment's installed in a industry are run by electric motors.
v These motors are mostly the three phase-induction motor, this is due to their
suitability in use and other advantages.,
v These motors are supplied with 3-phase supply at 400 volts, The supply to these
motors is by wires ruin through conduit pipes. Mostly a surface conduit wiring
system is used for such installation.
v In industry, the light, fan and heating circuits are required for various reasons and
they need mostly the single phase 230 volts supply.
v The wiring of such installation is carried out in the same way as is done in case of a
"Residential Installation".

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 Concept of Industrial Installation
A typical wiring in a industry comprises of
i. A 3-phase, 4 wire supply system
ii. A 3-phase, 4 wire energy meter installed for measuring
energy
iii. I.C.T.P. switch with N.L. of suitable capacity.
iv. BUS-BAR chamber.
v. Controlling switches for motors.
vi. Motor- starters.

2/19/22 10:50 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 8

 Concept of Industrial Installation

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 Concept of Industrial Installation

2/19/22 10:50 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 10

 Syllabus
1. Concept of Industrial Installation
2. General rules guidelines for wiring of Industry
3. Installation and positioning of equipment's.
4. Principles of circuit design in power circuits.
5. Energy and power requirement for Lift, Conveyor-belt and HVAC
6. Procedures for designing the circuits and deciding the number of circuits.
7. Method of drawing single line diagram.
8. Selection of type of wiring and rating of wires & cables.
9. Load calculations and selection of size of conductor.
10. Selection of rating of main Panel Board and distributions board,
11. Protective switchgear Fuse, MCCB , MCB and accessories.

2/19/22 10:50 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 11

 Wiring Method
Joining box or Tee System
v In this installation method, connections
to any appliances are prepared through
joints.
v The joints are made from joint boxes
using appropriate connectors and joints
cutouts.
v This method of wiring doesn’t consume
cable but extra cost for connector box.
v It makes wiring weak if not properly
connected.
v Used for “Low Cost System”

2/19/22 10:50 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 12

 Wiring Method
Looping System
v This wiring installation method is universally used in any electrical method.
v Different appliances and lamps are connected in a parallel position so that every
appliance can be separately controlled.
v When the connection is required, the feed conductors are being lopped in by getting it
directly to the terminal and then fetching it forward again to the next points.
v The light and switch feeds are carried around the circuit by a series of loops.
v It will be carried around from one point to another until the last on the circuit is reached.
v The line or phase conductors are lopped either in a box or switchboard.

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 Wiring Method: Looping System
Advantages:
v It is easy to locate the fault. Because
the circuit of the wire is obtained from
board to board.
v Combined boxes are no longer needed.
v In an in-loop system, no joint of wire
is pressed into concealed.

Disadvantages:
v The longer the wire in this system,
the greater the voltage drop across
the line.
v Looping – usually becomes difficult
in switches and lamp holders.

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 Types of Wiring

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 Types of Wiring: Cleat Wiring
v In this system of wiring, cables are supported and gripped between porcelain cleats and
6mm. above the wall or roof.
v The main part is base, which is grooved to accommodate the cables, the other part is the
cap which is put over the base.
v This wiring system uses VIR (Vulcanised Indian Rubber) or PVC (Polyvinyl chloride)
wire.

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 Types of Wiring: Cleat Wiring
v This wire can be weatherproof.
v At present this wiring is not
used for home.
v This is because it is temporary
wiring. It is used especially in
temporary military campuses or
festival-related pavilions.

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 Types of Wiring: Cleat Wiring
Advantages
v Cheapest
v Installation and Dismantling is easy and quick
v Material is recoverable after Dismantling.
v Inspection can be made quickly.
v Less skilled persons are required.
v Alterations and additions are easy.

Disadvantages
v Not Good Looking
v Less Durable
v Cables are exposed to atmosphere and there is a possibility of mechanical injury.

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 Types of Wiring: Cleat Wiring
Where to Use
v For temporary installation in dry places
v Appearance is not so important
v Cost is main concern
v Not suitable for domestic premises
v Low Voltage i.e. Less than 250 V

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 Types of Wiring: Lead Sheathed Wiring
v In lead sheathed or metal sheathed wiring the cables used
are insulated wires, TRS or PVC, with metal outer covering
of about 1 mm. thick.
v The metal covering is known as sheathing and is made of
lead – aluminium alloy containing about 95% of lead.
v The metal sheathed cables are run on wooden batten and are
fixed to it by link – clips.
v The whole metal sheathing efficiently earthed as per IS732-
1983

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 Types of Wiring: Lead Sheathed Wiring
Advantages
v It provides protection against mechanical injury.
v It can be used in damp situations.
v It can be used in situations exposed to-sun, and rain provided no joint is exposed.
v It has longer life.

Disadvantages
v It is costly system of wiring.
v It is not suitable where chemical (acids and alkalies) corrosion may occur.
v In case of insulation damage, the metal sheath become alive and gives shock.

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 Types of Wiring: Wooden Casing Wiring
v It consists of rectangular blocks made from
seasoned and knots free wood (preferably
teakwood).
v The casing has usually two (or three) ‘U’ shaped
grooves, into which the VIR or PVC cables are laid
in such a way that the opposite polarity cables are
laid in different grooves.
v The casing is covered by means of a rectangular
strip of the same width as that of casing known as
capping and is screwed to it.
v This system of wiring is suitable for low voltage
installations.

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 Types of Wiring: Wooden Casing Wiring
Advantages
v It provides good insulation as conductors are apart.
v It provides good mechanical strength.
v Easy to inspect by opening the capping.

Disadvantages
v It is costly system now – a – days because it needs seasoned, knot free wood.
v There is every risk of fire.
v The labour cost is more because it requires skilled carpenters.
v This system can not be used in damp places.

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 Types of Wiring: Batten Wiring
v CTS cables are available in single-core, twin-core or three-core with a circular or oval in
shape.
v CTS cables are sufficiently chemical proof, water proof, steam proof.
v The cables are run or carried on well seasoned, perfectly straight and well varnished (on
all four sides) teak wood batten of thickness 10 mm. at least.
v The width of the batten depends upon the number and size of cables to be carried by it.
Battens are fixed to the walls or ceilings by means of gutties or wooden plugs.
v The cables are held on the wooden batten by means of tinned brass link clips spaced at
an interval of 10 cm.
v This system is suitable for low voltage installations.

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 Types of Wiring: Batten Wiring

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 Types of Wiring: Batten Wiring
Advantages
v It’s appearance is good, if carried properly.
v It’s life is sufficiently long.
v It can withstand the action of most chemicals such as acids and alkalies.
v It’s installation is easy and quick compared to casing-capping.
v It is cheap compared to casing – capping, metal conduit and lead sheathed wiring.
Disadvantages
v This system of wiring is not recommended in situations exposed to sun and rain, unless
preventive steps are taken.
v It can not be used in damp places.
v Good work man ship is required to make a sound job.
v Only suitable below then 250V.

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 Types of Wiring: Conduit Wiring
v Conduit wiring system consists of either VIR or PVC cables taken through tubes or
pipes and terminated at the outlets or switches / sockets.
v The tube or pipe is known as “conduit”.
v Conduit wiring may run over the surface of the walls and ceiling or may be concealed
under masonary work.
v Types of Conduits
1. Rigid steel / metal conduit.
2. Rigid PVC / non-metallic conduit.
3. Flexible steel conduit.
4. Flexible PVC / non-metallic conduit.

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 Types of Wiring: Conduit Wiring

PVC conducts has following

advantages over the metal conduct.
i. Lighter in weight- weighs only
about 1/6th the weight of
corresponding steel conduct.
ii. Cheaper than steel conduct
iii. Anti-corrosive
iv. Easy to install
But metallic conduit has better
mechanical protection.

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 Conduit Wiring: Surface Wiring
v This wiring is done on the outside of the wall obviously. Such wiring is known as
Surface Conduit Wiring.
v This is done by making a hole in the wall at equal distances and fixing it with the help
of a GI clamp.
v And by pulling the wire through this pipe, it is given to the board and light, fan, or
another consumer device.

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 Conduit Wiring: Concealed Wiring
v In this method of wiring, the PVC conduits are laid prior to the RCC casting and every
part of conduits are concealed inside the slab and wall.
v After concealing the conduit, wires are drawn into the conduits with the help of pull
wire.
Advantages of Concealed Wiring:
i. Better mechanical protection with compare to surface wiring
ii. Cheaper than surface wiring
iii. Better outlook of building
iv. Longer life than surface wiring
Disadvantages of Concealed Wiring:
i. Complete planning and design is necessary prior to the civil construction
ii. No flexibility for future alternation and expansion
v Concealed wiring is now-a-days widely used in modern buildings

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 Conduit Wiring: Concealed Wiring

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Size of Conduit and Number of Conductor Drawn in

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References: IS 732 (1989): Code of Practice for Electrical Wiring Installations [ETD 20: Electrical Installation]
Size of Conduit and Number of Conductor Drawn in

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References: IS 732 (1989): Code of Practice for Electrical Wiring Installations [ETD 20: Electrical Installation]
Size of Conduit and Number of Conductor Drawn in

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 Vertical Raising Main System
v It is not a complete wire system, but is a part of the system
replacing the cable from main panel to DBs at various floors.
v In a normal system DBs at various floor are supplied from
main control panel via individual sets of cable.
v A single vertical raising main system can supply power to all
DBs from the main control panel.
v A vertical raising main control of four bare copper or
aluminum bars laid vertically in a metal enclosure. The bars
are insulated from the metal enclosure and the enclosure is
earthed.
v Power is tapped at each floor through smaller bus bars or
insulated cable.
v A suitable switch fuse unit is provided at each tap off points.
v This system is most suitable for multi storey building.

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 Vertical Raising Main System
Advantages:
v Easy installation
v Long life
v Reliable operation (short ckt/fire)
v Easy maintenance

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 Comparison of Wiring Types

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 Choice of Wiring
1. Durability
2. Safety
3. Appearance
4. Cost
5. Mechanical Protection
6. Accessibility
7. Maintenance Cost

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 General rules guidelines for wiring of Industry
1. All equipment's used in power wiring shall be of iron-clad type in construction. All
conductors shall be enclosed in metallic covering which is electrically and
mechanically continuous.
2. In case of underground wiring, armored cables shall be used while in case of surface
wiring, rigid conduit shall be used to protect the wires.
3. The rag bolts (a part of which set in wall) are used for fixing metal clad parts with the
wall. In such cases, no wooden gutties shall be used.
4. The length of flexible conduit used for connection between the terminal boxes of
motors and starters etc.. should not be more than 1.25 m.
5. Surface conduit wiring system is preferred in comparison to concealed wiring as it
facilitates in addition, alteration and maintenance etc.
6. Separate conduits are preferred for each motor for the reasons of maintenance etc.

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 General rules guidelines for wiring of Industry
7. Supply to each motor, regardless of its size is controlled by suitable linked switch or
circuit breaker near to the motor.
8. Looping of conductors from terminals of one motor to next motor terminals is not
allowed.
9. Starter Selection:
a. The starting current of motors is 1.5 to 2 times their full-load current. Starters are
used to control this starting current. For safety point of view, V.I.R. wires having
nearly twice the full-load capacity of motors are to be used.
b. Upto 3 H.P. motors a direct on-line starter may be used if not specified.
c. Cage motors from 5 H.P. to 15 H.P. will be started by star-delta starter.
d. Slip-ring induction motors shall be started by rotor resistance starter.
e. Motors above 15 H.P. are generally started by auto-transformer starter, the
number of wires required being only 3 from starter to motor, in comparison with
star-delta starter.

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 General rules guidelines for wiring of Industry
10. The minimum cross-sectional area of conductor for power wiring is 1.25 mm2 of
copper conductor and 1.5 mm2 for aluminium conductor.
11. The rating of fuse should be based on starting current of motor and on the full
current. Generally, the rating of fuse should be twice the rating of cables.
12. The conduit used for power wiring should be continuous (electrically) throughout its
run and connected to the frame of the motor. The frame of the motor should be earthed
by two separate and distinct earth wires.
13. Copper earth wires of cross-sectional area not less than half of the largest current
carrying conductor shall be used. The cross-sectional area of G.I. wire if used as an
earthing conductor should be such that its conductivity is not less than that of copper
conductor.
14. A control panel is used for starting of motors, which consists of control switch and
starter. It may be installed on nearby wall or near to motor foundation.
15. If motors are installed on foundation, the height of it may be taken as 1 to 1.25 m from
floor if not specified.
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 General rules guidelines for wiring of Industry
16. Depending upon number of wires to be run and size of wire, the size of conduit to be
selected from the table of conduit pipes.
17. When conduit is to be run on floor, it is generally installed nearly 0.25 to 0.5 m below the
floor.
18. On an average three saddles per meter run of conduit will be required.
19. The maximum voltage drop at the extreme end i.e. terminal plate of motor should not be
more than 5% of the declared supply voltage.
20. While selecting a main-switch for installation in industry, the starting current of
highest rating motor plus full-load current of remaining motors shall be considered.
21. The same rule shall be used to determine size of cable to connect the main-switch from
suppliers main-board.
22. Every non-current carrying metal part (including body of motor) used in power wiring in
industry shall be connected with two independent and distinct earth wires. The consumer
is required to provide his own earthing system with two independent earth electrodes.
The supplier provides one earthed terminal at or near the commencement of supply.
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 Syllabus
1. Concept of Industrial Installation
2. General rules guidelines for wiring of Industry
3. Installation and positioning of equipment's.
4. Principles of circuit design in power circuits.
5. Energy and power requirement for Lift, Conveyor-belt and HVAC
6. Procedures for designing the circuits and deciding the number of circuits.
7. Method of drawing single line diagram.
8. Selection of type of wiring and rating of wires & cables.
9. Load calculations and selection of size of conductor.
10. Selection of rating of main Panel Board and distributions board,
11. Protective switchgear Fuse, MCCB , MCB and accessories.

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 Location for Installation
v The height for meter board, Main switch board are to be fitted 1.5 meters above the
ground level.
v Casing will be run at a height of 3.0 meters from ground level.
v Light brackets should be fixed at a height of 2 to 2.5 meters above the ground level.
v 5A/6A and 15A/16A socket outlets shall be installed at the following positions, unless
otherwise specified.
ü Non-residential buildings - 23 cm above floor level.
ü Kitchen — 23 cm above working platform and away from the likely positions of
stove and sink.
ü Bathroom — No socket outlet is permitted for connecting a portable appliance
thereto. MCB/IC switch may be provided above 2 m for fixed appliances, and at
least 1 m away from shower.
ü Rooms in residences — 23 cm above floor level, or any other level in special cases
as desired by the Engineer-in-charge.

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 Assignment
What are the location of switch, power socket for Hospital, Residential Load, Router and
Wall AC, DB Box, CCTV and Motor Controller.

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 Syllabus
1. Concept of Industrial Installation
2. General rules guidelines for wiring of Industry
3. Installation and positioning of equipment's.
4. Principles of circuit design in power circuits.
5. Energy and power requirement for Lift, Conveyor-belt and HVAC
6. Procedures for designing the circuits and deciding the number of circuits.
7. Method of drawing single line diagram.
8. Selection of type of wiring and rating of wires & cables.
9. Load calculations and selection of size of conductor.
10. Selection of rating of main Panel Board and distributions board,
11. Protective switchgear Fuse, MCCB , MCB and accessories.

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 Types of Distribution Board

MPB

MDB

FDB FDB

SDB SDB

Load Load
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 Distribution Board
MDB = Main Distribution Board
vA distribution board unit installed in the
buildings which firstly receive the incoming
single phase electric supply (AC low voltage
(LV) (230V AC or 120V AC in US) from
transformer secondary through electric pole
and energy meter or the distribution
company’s electric service provider outlets is
known as Main Distribution Board.
vMain Distribution Board (MDB) is also
known as Fuse board or consumer
unit where the main protective and isolation
devices are installed to provide electricity in
a safe range to the connected electrical
appliances.
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References: https://myelectrical.com/notes/entryid/87/voltage-drop-in-installations-concepts
 Distribution Board
SDB = Sub Distribution Board
vThe Distribution Board which is used to
distribute electrical wiring and circuits within a
selected area in a building or house, i.e. floor in a
multi storey building.
vThe Sub distribution board is connected and
supplied from the Main Distribution Board
through different wires and cables rated
according to the load requirement.

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References:
 Distribution Board
FDB = Final Distribution Board
vThe Distribution Board which provide electric
supply to the Final and Sub Final Circuits is
known as Final Distribution Board.
vFDB (Final Distribution Board) directly
connected through SDB (Sub Distribution Board)
and the final switches are used to control the
connected electrical devices and appliances such
as light, air-conditioner, fan etc.

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References:
 Distribution Board

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References: http://electricalinstallationblog.blogspot.com/2009/12/electrical-db-pictures.html
 Design of DB

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 Design of DB

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 Syllabus
1. Concept of Industrial Installation
2. General rules guidelines for wiring of Industry
3. Installation and positioning of equipment's.
4. Principles of circuit design in power circuits.
5. Energy and power requirement for Lift, Conveyor-belt and HVAC
6. Procedures for designing the circuits and deciding the number of circuits.
7. Method of drawing single line diagram.
8. Selection of type of wiring and rating of wires & cables.
9. Load calculations and selection of size of conductor.
10. Selection of rating of main Panel Board and distributions board,
11. Protective switchgear Fuse, MCCB , MCB and accessories.

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 Circuit it
An assembly of electrical equipment supplied from the same origin and protected against
overcurrent by the same protective device(s).
Certain types of circuit are categorised as follows:
1. Category 1 Circuit
v A circuit (other than a fire alarm or emergency lighting circuit ) operating at low
voltage and supplied directly from a mains supply system.
2. Category 2 Circuit
v With the exception of fire alarm and emergency lighting circuits, any circuit for
telecommunication ( for example, radio, telephone, sound distribution, intruder
alarm, bell and call and data transmission circuits ) which is supplied from a safety
source.
3. Category 3 Circuit
v A fire alarm circuit or an emergency lighting circuit.

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 Circuit and Subcircuit

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 Number of Subcircuit for Light and Fan Load
v A light, fan and 5 Amp three pin socket load is considered in a sub circuit.
v There are maximum 10 points in light and fan and 6A Socket Outlet in sub circuit as per
IE ( Indian Electricity ) rules.
v The maximum load for single light and fan sub circuit should not exceed 800 W.
v If separate circuit is provided for fan, then the number of fan shall not exceed ten.
v However, in case of CFL points where load per point may be less, number of points may
be suitably increased.
v There are minimum two sub circuit is kept in the residential housing therefore if there is
fault in one sub circuit, other sub circuit does not affected and load get supply though
other sub circuit.

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References: https://law.resource.org/pub/in/bis/S05/is.sp.30.2011.svg.html, https://cpwd.gov.in/publication/internal2013.pdf
 Number of Subcircuit for Power Load
v The 15 Amp three pin socket load is calculated in the power sub circuit.
v It includes water heater, AC, refrigerators etc.
v The maximum load for power sub circuit should not exceed 3000 W. If the power load
exceed above 3000 W, separate power circuit is taken.
v Power circuit in non-residential building will have only one outlet per circuit.
v Each power circuit in residential building can feed following outlets:
Ø Not more than 2 Nos. 16A outlets. /Use 3 Nos for Nepal
Ø Not more than 3 Nos. 6A outlets.
Ø Not more than 1 No.16A and 2 Nos. 6A outlets.
v Load more than 1 KW shall be controlled by suitably rated MCB and cable size shall be
decided as per calculations.
v Power sub-circuit shall be designed according to the load but in no case shall there be
more than two 16A outlets on each sub-circuit.
v For Low Voltage Load, Power sub-circuits shall be designed according to the load but in
no case shall there be more than four outlets on each sub-circuit.
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References: https://law.resource.org/pub/in/bis/S05/is.sp.30.2011.svg.html, https://cpwd.gov.in/publication/internal2013.pdf
 Possible No of Outlets

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References: https://happho.com/electrical-fittings-required-2-bedroom-house/
 Location of Outlets
v The location and number of light points and other outlets are determined from the size of
building and its utility.
v To a great extent it is also a matter of personal preference.
v It is advisable to plan 10 to 15% more than the required number of outlets for future
extension.
v A minimum of four outlets per average size room should be provided.
v Light points may be provided on wall or ceiling or on both but should be such as to
provide uniform illumination and cause minimum glare.
v In large rooms or halls the light points should be spaced at a distance not exceeding 5
metres.
v In schools, libraries, etc., the spacing between two adjacent light points should not be
more than their height above the floor.
v Fan points should he provided at the rate of one fan per 16 sq.mm area.
v Other outlets such as sockets etc., should he provided according to requirements and
located at convenient positions.
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References: https://law.resource.org/pub/in/bis/S05/is.sp.30.2011.svg.html, https://cpwd.gov.in/publication/internal2013.pdf
 Location of Power Outlets
v As per furniture layout or user’s requirements.
v If not mentioned, Place at one power socket for 2.5-3m radius.
v In a Room, Place at least two power socket.

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 Example
A residential house consists of following loads. Find out number of sub circuits.
No. of T5 tube light 48” = 20
No. of ceiling fan = 8
No. of Three pin ( 5 amp ) socket = 10
No. of Three pin ( 15 amp ) socket = 6
Light and Fan circuit sub circuit load :
( 20 * 28 ) + ( 8 * 60 ) + ( 10 * 100 )
560 + 480 + 1000
2040 Watt
Number of Light and Fan sub circuit =
2040 / 800 = 2.55 = 3
Power sub circuit load : ( 6 * 1000 ) = 6000
Watt
Number of Power sub circuit = 6000 /
3000 = 2
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References: https://www.myelectrical2015.com/2019/04/find-out-number-sub-circuits.html
 Example 2
Location Light Points Fan Points 5 A Sockets 15 A Socket
Outlets Outlets
Bedroom No. 1 2 1 1 1
Bedroom No. 2 2 1 1 -
Bedroom No. 3 1 1 1 -
Drawing-Dinning 3 2 1 1
Room
Kitchen 1 - - 1
Toilet 1 - - -
Front Verandah 1 - - -
Back Verandah 1 - - -

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 Example 2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 = 12
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑎𝑛 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 = 5
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 5𝐴 𝑆𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 4
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 15𝐴 𝑆𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 3
𝐴𝑠 𝑃𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝐸𝑅, 𝑆𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡/𝑓𝑎𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑠.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡/𝑓𝑎𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑠 = 12 + 5 + 4 = 21
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝑓𝑎𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑠 = 12×60 + 5×100 + 4×100 = 1620 𝑊
𝐴𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝐸𝑅, 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 10 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 800𝑊
1620
𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑆𝑢𝑏 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 = =
800

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 Example 2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 15𝐴 𝑆𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 3
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑠 = 3×1000 = 3000 𝑊
𝐴𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝐸𝑅, 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 3000 𝑊
𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑢𝑏 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 = 2

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 Example 2

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References: Raina, K. B. Electrical Design Estimating and Costing. New Age International, 2007.
 Load Balancing Sheet

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 Syllabus
1. Concept of Industrial Installation
2. General rules guidelines for wiring of Industry
3. Installation and positioning of equipment's.
4. Principles of circuit design in power circuits.
5. Energy and power requirement for Lift, Conveyor-belt and HVAC
6. Procedures for designing the circuits and deciding the number of circuits.
7. Method of drawing single line diagram.
8. Selection of type of wiring and rating of wires & cables.
9. Load calculations and selection of size of conductor.
10. Selection of rating of main Panel Board and distributions board,
11. Protective switchgear Fuse, MCCB , MCB and accessories.

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 68

 MDB Overview

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 MDB Overview

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 MDB Overview: Surface and Recessed Mounted

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 MDB Size: Based on Busway
1. SPN Distribution Board (Incoming+ Outgoing)
v 6way (Row) SPN = 6 X 1SP= 6Nos (Module) of single pole MCB as outgoing feeders.
v 8way (Row) SPN = 8 X 1SP= 8Nos (Module) of single pole MCB as outgoing feeders.
v 10way (Row) SPN = 10 X 1SP= 10Nos (Module) of single pole MCB as outgoing feeders.
v 12way (Row) SPN = 12 X 1SP= 12Nos (Module) of single pole MCB as outgoing feeders.
v Normally single phase distribution is mainly used for small single phase loads at house wiring or
industrial lighting wiring.
2. TPN Distribution Board (Incoming, Outgoing)
v 4way (Row) TPN = 4 X TP= 4nos of 3pole MCB as outgoing feeders =12 No of single pole MCB.
v 6way (Row) TPN = 6 X TP= 6nos of 3pole MCB as outgoing feeders =18 No of single pole MCB.
v 8way (Row) TPN = 8 X TP= 8nos of 3pole MCB as outgoing feeders =24 No of single pole MCB.
v 10way (Row) TPN = 10 X TP= 10nos of 3pole MCB as outgoing feeders =30 No of single pole
MCB.
v 12way (Row) TPN =12 X TP= 12nos of 3pole MCB as outgoing feeders =36 No of single pole MCB

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 MDB Size: Based on Module

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 Rating of MDB

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References: http://site.iugaza.edu.ps/oqarmout/files/2010/12/lecture6.pdf
 Example
Design Distribution Box of one House and Calculation of Size of Main ELCB and branch
Circuit MCB as following Load Detail. Power Supply is 430V (P-P), 230 (P-N), 50Hz.
Consider Demand Factor 0.6 for Non Continuous Load & 1 for Continuous Load for Each
Equipment.
v Branch Circuit-1: 4 No of 1Phase, 40W, Lamp of Non Continues Load + 2 No’s of 1Ph,
60W, Fan of Non Continues Load.
v Branch Circuit-2: 2 No of 1Ph, 200W, Computer of Non Continues Load.
v Branch Circuit-3: 1 No of 1Ph, 200W, Freeze of Continues Load.
v Branch Circuit-4: 8 No of 1Ph, 40W, Lamp of Non Continues Load + 2 No’s of 1Ph 60W,
Fan of Non Continues Load.
v Branch Circuit-5: 4 No of 1Ph , 40W, Lamp of Non Continues Load + 1 No’s of 1Ph 60W,
Fan of Non Continues Load.+ 1 No’s of 1Ph 150W, TV of Continues Load
v Branch Circuit-6: 1 No of 1P , 1.7KW, Geyser of Non Continues Load.
v Branch Circuit-7: 1 No of 1Ph, 3KW, A.C of Non Continues Load.
v Branch Circuit-8: 1 No of 3Ph, 1HP, Motor-Pump of Non Continues Load.
2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 75
References: https://electricalnotes.wordpress.com/2015/10/02/calculate-size-of-main-elcb-brach-mcb-of-distribution-box/#comments
 Example

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 Example

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 Example

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 Example

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 Example
Size of MCB for Branch Circuit-1:
v Load Current of Lamp = (No X Watt X Demand Factor)/Volt
=(4X40X0.6)/230=0.40Amp
v Load Current of Fan= (No X Watt X Demand Factor)/Volt =(2X60X0.6)/230=0.31Amp
v Branch Circuit-1 Current as per NEC = Non Continues Load+125% Continues
Load
v Branch Circuit-1 Current as per NEC =(0.4+0.31)+125%(0) =0.73Amp
v Type of Load=Lighting Type
v Class of MCB=B Class
v Size of MCB=6 Amp
v No of Pole of MCB=Single Pole

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 80

 Example
Size of MCB for Branch Circuit-5:
v Load Current of Lamp = (No X Watt X Demand Factor)/Volt
=(4X40X0.6)/230=0.42Amp
v Load Current of Fan= (No X Watt X Demand Factor)/Volt =(1X60X0.6)/230=0.16Amp
v Load Current of TV = (No X Watt X Demand Factor)/Volt =(1X150X1)/230=0.65Amp
v Branch Circuit-5 Current as per NEC = Non Continues Load+125% Continues
Load
v Branch Circuit-5 Current as per NEC =(0.42+0.16)+125%(0.65) =0.57+0.82=1.39Amp
v Type of Load=Lighting Type
v Class of MCB=B Class
v Size of MCB=6 Amp
v Breaking Capacity: 6KA
v No of Pole of MCB=Single Pole

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 81

 Example
Size of MCB for Branch Circuit-7:
v Load Current of A.C = (No X Watt X Demand Factor)/Volt
=(1X3000X0.6)/230=7.83Amp
v Branch Circuit-7 Current as per NEC = Non Continues Load+125% Continues
Load
v Branch Circuit-7 Current as per NEC =(7.83)+125%(0) =7.83Amp
v Type of Load=Heating & Cooling Type
v Class of MCB=C Class
v Size of MCB=16 Amp
v Breaking Capacity: 6KA
v No of Pole of MCB=Single Pole

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 82

 Example
Size of MCB for Branch Circuit-8:
v Load Current of Motor-Pump = (No X Watt X Demand Factor)/(1.732XVolt )
=(1X746X0.6)/(1.732X430)=0.60Amp
v Branch Circuit-8 Current as per NEC =Non Continues Load+125% Continues
Load
v Branch Circuit-8 Current as per NEC =(0.60)+125%(0) =0.60Amp
v Type of Load=Motor-Pump Type
v Class of MCB=C Class
v Size of MCB=16 Amp
v Breaking Capacity: 10KA
v No of Pole of MCB= Three Pole

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 83

 Example

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 Example
v Total Load Current as per NEC= 18.04Amp——–(A)
v Max Size of Branch circuit MCB=16Amp
v Total Current of Panel as per Branch Circuit= 2X Max Size of Branch circuit MCB
v Total Load Current of Panel as per Branch Circuit =2X16=32Amp——(B)
v Total Load Current of Panel as per NEC = Maximum of (A) and (B)
v Total Load Current of Panel as per NEC=32Amp
v Min Size of ELCB/RCCB as per NEC=40Amp
v Class of ELCB/RCCB= B or C Class
v No of Pole of ELCB/RCCB=TP or FP
v Sensitivity( I∆n)=30ma
v Breaking Capacity=10KA

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 85

 Example
Size of Distribution Board:
v No of Single Pole Branch Circuit MCB (SP)= 7 No’s
v No of Three Pole Branch Circuit MCB (TP)= 1 No’s
v Main ELCB (TP)=1 No’s
v Total No of Way of D.B (SPN)= (SP)+3X(TP)=7+(3X2)=13Way SPN
v Total No of Way of D.B (TPN)= (SP)/3+ (TP)=(7/3)+(2)=4+2=6Way SPN
v Select Either 14Way SPN or 6 Way TPN

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 86

 Example: Balancing

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 Example

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 Syllabus
1. Concept of Industrial Installation
2. General rules guidelines for wiring of Industry
3. Installation and positioning of equipment's.
4. Principles of circuit design in power circuits.
5. Energy and power requirement for Lift, Conveyor-belt and HVAC
6. Procedures for designing the circuits and deciding the number of circuits.
7. Method of drawing single line diagram.
8. Selection of type of wiring and rating of wires & cables.
9. Load calculations and selection of size of conductor.
10. Selection of rating of main Panel Board and distributions board,
11. Protective switchgear Fuse, MCCB , MCB and accessories.

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 89

 Single Line Diagram
v A single-line diagram (SLD) is a high-level schematic diagram showing how
incoming power is distributed to equipment.
v A diagram which shows, by means of single lines and graphic symbols, the course of an
electric circuit or system of circuits and the component devices or parts used therein.

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 90

 Steps for Drawing Single Line Diagram
1. Identify the appropriate Symbols
The source for standardized electrical diagram
symbols comes from the document IEEE Std
315, ANSI Y32.9, CSA Z99.

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 91

References: https://www.leafelectricalsafety.com/blog/single-line-diagram
 Steps for Drawing Single Line Diagram
2. Connect the Schemetic Symbols
vConnect the schematic symbols
vTo start, connect your electrical
symbols using one line.
vYou will notice that this diagram is
missing the cables, these can be
added in without a symbol using
some arrows and annotation.

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 92

References: https://www.leafelectricalsafety.com/blog/single-line-diagram
 Steps for Drawing Single Line Diagram
3.Indicate equipment separation
vYou can also group symbols using a
dash-dotted box to indicate they are
part of one piece of equipment.
vHere notation was added for the cables
using a loop with a line to point to
cable data, and dash-dotted boxes for
equipment enclosed together.

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 93

References: https://www.leafelectricalsafety.com/blog/single-line-diagram
 Steps for Drawing Single Line Diagram
4. Add equipment data
v Once you have all the symbols and
connections figured out you can start
adding the equipment info.

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 94

References: https://www.leafelectricalsafety.com/blog/single-line-diagram
 Syllabus
1. Concept of Industrial Installation
2. General rules guidelines for wiring of Industry
3. Installation and positioning of equipment's.
4. Principles of circuit design in power circuits.
5. Energy and power requirement for Lift, Conveyor-belt and HVAC
6. Procedures for designing the circuits and deciding the number of circuits.
7. Method of drawing single line diagram.
8. Selection of type of wiring and rating of wires & cables.
9. Load calculations and selection of size of conductor.
10. Selection of rating of main Panel Board and distributions board,
11. Protective switchgear Fuse, MCCB , MCB and accessories.

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 95

 Current Carrying Capacity
v The current carrying capacity of a wire or cables is defined as the maximum values of
current that the wire or cable can carry continuously without producing excessive heating
and without damaging its insulation.
v The current carrying capacity of cables or wire depends upon the following factors:
i. Number of cores: If number of core is more, the rate of heat dissipation will decrease
and the current carrying capacity will decrease.
ii. Method of installation: The cooling effect will more effective in cable laid
underground with compare to cable laid in the exposed of air . Therefore the cable laid
underground will have comparatively high current carrying capacity.
iii. Ambient air temperature: The current carrying capacity of cable or wire decreases
with increases in ambient temperature.
iv. Resistivity of conductor material.

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 96

 Selection of Size of Conductor
While selecting the size of cable for a particular application, the following two factors has
to be considered:
i. Current carrying capacity of cable
v The derated current carrying capacity of the cable selected must be greater than the line
current in the cable.
v Check by Datasheet
v Full Load Current for DC Motor
𝐻. 𝑃. 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 × 735.5
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 97

 Selection of Size of Conductor
v Full Load Current for Single Phase AC Motor
𝐻. 𝑃. 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 × 735.5
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 × 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
v Full Load Current for Three Phase AC DC Motor
𝐻. 𝑃. 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 × 735.5
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
√3×𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 × 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 98

 Selection of Size of Conductor
ii. Voltage drop in the cable
v The Voltage drop must be within the permissible limits.
v Do necessary calculation of voltage drop.
v Depends on length and resistance of conductor used.

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 99

Selection of Size of Conductor: Voltage Drop

For DC System,
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 2𝐼𝑅
Let us define K,
As per NEC, It is the dc resistance for a 1K Cmil conductor that is 1K feet Long @ a 75
0C Operating temperature.

K=12.9 Ohms for Copper and K=21.2 for Aluminum

K=0.02 for Copper when length is in meter and area is in sq mm
K=0.03 for Copper when length is in meter and area is in sq mm
2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 100
Selection of Size of Conductor: Voltage Drop

For DC System,
𝐿
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 2𝐼𝐾
𝐴
𝐿
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 2𝐼𝐾 ≤ 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝
𝐴
2𝐼𝐾𝐿
≤ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 101

Selection of Size of Conductor: Voltage Drop

For Single Phase AC System,

𝑃!"
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝑉 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜙
2𝐼𝐾𝐿
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 ≥
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 102

Selection of Size of Conductor: Voltage Drop
For Three Phase Three Core AC System,
𝑃!"
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
3 𝑉# 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜙
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑅𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 = 𝐼×𝑍$/&'
𝐼 is the line current going through the
conductor to the load.
3×𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 3×𝐼×𝑍$/&'
𝐿
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 3 𝐼()*+ 𝐾
𝐴
𝐿
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 3 𝐼()*+ 𝐾 ≤ 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝
𝐴
3 𝐼()*+ 𝐾𝐿
≤ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝
2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 103
Selection of Size of Conductor: Voltage Drop
For Three Phase 3.5C Core AC System,
𝑃!"
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
3 𝑉# 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜙
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑛 𝑅 − 𝑁 𝐶𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 = 𝐼$ ×𝑍 + 𝐼" 𝑍
𝐼$
𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 𝐼$ ×𝑍 + 𝑍
2
3𝐼$
𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 𝑍
2
𝐿
𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 1.5×𝐼%&'( ×𝐾
𝐴
𝐿
𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 1.5×𝐼%&'( ×𝐾 ≤ 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝
𝐴
1.5×𝐼%&'( 𝐾𝐿
≤ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 104

 Example
Design the size of cable, conduit and its controlling unit of following motors.

Rated Full Load Starting

S.No Motor Type Rating Efficiency pf Input Voltage Current Current
1 DC 10 80 250
Single Phase
2 AC 1 80 0.8 240
Three Phase
3 AC 10 85 0.8 400

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 105

 Example
Design the size of cable, conduit and its controlling unit of following motors.

S.N Rated Full Load Starting

Motor Type Rating Efficiency pf Input
o Voltage Current Current
9193.
1 DC 10 80 250 36.775 55.1625
75
Single Phase 919.3
2 1 80 0.8 240 4.788411458 7.182617188
AC 75
Three Phase 8652.
3 10 85 0.8 400 15.61180599 23.41770899
AC 94

Based on Power Rating refer, starter type which gives idea of number of wires to be
used and hence, we can recommend the size of conduit.
Fusing current is determined by starting current of each motor.

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 106

 Example

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 107

 Example

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 108

 Syllabus
1. Concept of Industrial Installation
2. General rules guidelines for wiring of Industry
3. Installation and positioning of equipment's.
4. Principles of circuit design in power circuits.
5. Energy and power requirement for Lift, Conveyor-belt and HVAC
6. Procedures for designing the circuits and deciding the number of circuits.
7. Method of drawing single line diagram.
8. Selection of type of wiring and rating of wires & cables.
9. Load calculations and selection of size of conductor.
10. Selection of rating of main Panel Board and distributions board,
11. Protective switchgear Fuse, MCCB , MCB and accessories.

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 109

 Fusing
v Fusing is the process of cutting out a circuit during short circuit and overload condition.
v Different devices are available for this purpose and they are:
i. Re-wirable fuse
ii. HRC fuse
iii. MCB
iv. MCCB
v. ACB
vi. OCB

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 110

 Fuse

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 111

 Terminologies
Current rating of fuse:
v It is that value of RMS current which a fuse element can carry continuously without
producing excessive heating and melting.
Fusing current:
v It is the minimum current (RMS value) at which the fuse element melts.
v More than current rating
𝐼, = 𝐾𝑑-/.
Where K is fuse constant.
v It depends on
a) Type of Material Used
b) Type of Enclosure
c) Cross-Sectional Area
d) Type of surface

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 112

 Terminologies
Fusing Factor:
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐹𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐹= >1
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
v For less value of F, it is prone to malfunction due to action in overload for small tie
which might be not harmful.
v Semi-enclosed/Rewireable Fuse=1.9-2
v Cartridge Fuse =1.45
Breaking Capacity:
v Breaking capacity is the maximum RMS short circuit current a fuse can safely blow
without a catastrophic failure such as a fire, breakage or explosion.

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 113

 Selection of Fuse Wire
v Factors
ü Maximum Current rating of the circuit
ü Current rating of the smallest cable in the circuit to be protected by fuse.
v Fuse is the weakest link in the circuit.
v If a small appliances is connected to a SDB with comparably large fuse; the a local fuse
to be provided for that appliances
v In a circuit where current is fluctuating, fuse wires is chosen such that it can carry
momentary overload like in Motor.

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 114

 Kit-Kat Fuse
v Semi-enclosed rewireable
v Fusing Current=2*Rated Current
v Standard Ratings of Fuse Wire are: 6, 16, 32,…
v Re-wirable fuse is limited to the application whose fault
level is less than 4kA

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 115

 Disadvantage of Kit-Kat Fuse
1. Unreliable Operation
1. Possibility of Operation of fuse due to selection of wrong size of fuse wire
2. Due to oxidation, the fuse wire deteorite
3. Length of wire varies results in alteration of ratings
2. Lack of Discrimination
A 50A fuse cannot be discriminated from a 40A fuse but 80A fuse can based on
diameter of fuse wire.
3. Small time lag
4. No current limiting features
5. Slow Speed of Operation
6. No means of extinguishing the arc that blows after fuse melts.

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 Cartridge Fuse
v Enclosed cylinder shaped fuse with either metal caps (ferrules) or blade contact
points, at both ends.
v Most cartridge fuses are rated for 250 Volt to 600 Volt circuits, dependent on the class
of the fuse, and rated for varying amperages as high as 600 amps, again dependent on
the specific fuse.
v Glass covered filled with powder, sand, CaCO3, quartz(filler)
v Filler cool down the arc.

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 HRC Fuse
v High Rupturing Capacity
v At generating station, High rated current leads to high stress. So rewireable fuse is
not advisable.
v It has rupturing capacity exceeding 16kA are covered in this category.
v The fuse element is made from silver and is surrounded by an inert arc quenching
medium like chemically treated sand enclosed in an outer body of ceramic.

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 HRC Fuse
According to breaking or rupturing capacity HRC fuses are sub-divided into following
classes:
Category Rupturing capacity
Class-1 16 kA
Class-2 33 kA
Class-3 46 kA
Class-4 80 kA
The standard rating of HRC fuses available are:-
2A, 4A, 6A, 10A, 16A, 25A, 30A, 50A, 63A, 80A, 100A, 125A, 160A, 200A, 320A,
400A, 500A, 630A, 800A, 1000A and 1250 A.
The usual fusing factor is 1:45.

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 HRC Fuse
Advantages
v Capable of clearing high and low fault currents
v They do not deteriorate with age.
v They have high speed of operation.
v They required no maintenance
v They are cheaper than other circuit interrupting devices of equal breaking capacity
Disadvantage
v They have to be replaced after each operation

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 HRC Fuse Vs Rewireable
Advantages of HRC fuse over re-wirable fuse
i. Simple and easy installation
ii. More accurate than re-wirable fuse
iii. Higher rupturing capacity
iv. Non-deterioration for long time

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 MCB (Miniature circuit breaker)
v There are the circuit breakers which are manufactured in
miniature (small) physical size.
v MCB have breaking capacity up to 10kA, 25kA.
v It has thermal as well as magnetic tripping device,
therefore it provides overload as well as short-circuit
protection.
v Because of its small physical size, they are suitable for
mounting in distribution board to provide protection for
lighting circuit, motor circuit and heating circuit.
v These MCB cut out the circuit during short circuit and
overload condition and they can be re-used again after
cleaning the fault in the circuit.
v The standard ratings of MCB are - 6A, 10A, 16A, 32A,
40A, 50A, 63A, 80A, 100A, 125A.
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 Circuit Breaker Based on Poles
Based on the number of poles, the breakers are classified as
1. SP – Single Pole
2. SPN – Single Pole and Neutral
3. DP – Double pole
4. TP – Triple Pole
5. TPN – Triple Pole and Neutral
6. 4P – Four Pole

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 Circuit Breaker Based on Poles
SP ( Single Pole ) MCB:
Ø In Single Pole MCCB, switching & protection is affected in only one phase.
Ø Application: Single Phase Supply to break the Phase only.
DP ( Double Pole ) MCB:
Ø In Two Pole MCCB, switching & protection is affected in phases and the neutral.
Ø Application: Single Phase Supply to break the Phase and Neutral.

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 Circuit Breaker Based on Poles
TP ( Triple Pole) MCB:
Ø In Three Pole MCB, switching & protection is affected in only three
phases and the neutral is not part of the MCB.
Ø 3pole MCCB signifies for the connection of three wires for three phase
system (R-Y-B Phase).
Ø Application: Three Phase Supply only (Without Neutral).
TPN (3P+N) MCB:
Ø In TPN MCB, Neutral is part of the MCB as a separate pole but
without any protective given in the neutral pole (i.e.) neutral is only
switched but has no protective element incorporated.
Ø TPN for Y (or star) the connection between ground and neutral is in
many countries not allowed. Therefore the N is also switches.
Ø Application: Three Phase Supply with Neutral

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 Circuit Breaker Based on Poles
4 Pole MCB:
Ø 4pole MCCB for 4 wires connections, the one additional 4th pole for neutral wire
connection so that between neutral and any of the other three will supply.
Ø In 4-Pole MCCBs the neutral pole is also having protective release as in the phase poles.
Ø Application: Three Phase Supply with Neutral

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 Difference between TPN and 4P (or SPN and DP)
vTPN means a 4 Pole device with 4th Pole as Neutral. In TPN opening & closing will open
& close the Neutral.
vFor TPN, protection applies to the current flows through only 3 poles (Three Phase) only;
there is no protection for the current flow through the neutral pole. Neutral is just an
isolating pole.
vTP MCB is used in 3phase 4wire system. It is denoted as TP+N which will mean a three
pole device with external neutral link which can be isolated if required.
vFor the 4 pole breakers, protection applies to current flow through all poles. However
when breaker trips or manually opened, all poles are disconnected.
vSame type of difference also applies for SPN and DP.

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 MCB Classification Based on Trip Curves

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 Information from MCB

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 Moulded Case Circuit Breaker (MCCB)
v They are very much similar to MCB but it has higher
rupturing capacity with comparison to MCB and its
physical size is larger than MCB.
v MCCB has various categories as per breaking capacity,
such as:-
5kA, 10kA, 25kA, 30kA, 35kA, 40kA, 50kA, 80kA, etc.
v MCCB are very suitable to protect main cable in the
distribution system.
v The standard ratings of MCCB are- 5A,10A, 15A, 20A,
30A, 40A, 50A, 60A, 75A, 100A, 125A, 150A, 160A,
175A, 200A, 125A, 250A, 300A, 400A, 500A, 600A,
700A, 800A, 1000A, 1200A, 1600A.
v Trip characteristics is adjustable.

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 Moulded Case Circuit Breaker (MCCB)

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 RCCB
v An RCCB (Residual Current Circuit Breaker) AKA RCD
(Residual Current Device) is a breaker that compares the
current in the line and neutral conductors, and trips if they
are different.
v It’s very important to note that, an RCCB may be as well as,
but never instead of, a fuse or MCB (Miniature Circuit
Breaker)
v An RCBO (Residual Circuit Breaker / Overload) combines
the functions of both an RCCB and an MCB.
v A current of around 30mA for a duration of only few
seconds is enough to paralyze a person by electrocution,
which is actually fatal.
v Hence, to prevent that RCCBs operate if any residual
current in the range of 5mA to 40mA is detected for less
than 40mS.
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 Installation of MCB and RCD

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 Installation of MCCB and RCD

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 Example
In a workshop, one 15hp(metric) 400 Volts, three phase 50Hz motor is to be installed.
Prepare the estimates for material required.

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 Example

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 Example

Prepare the estimates of Wire Size from

meter to MDB, MDB to Control Panel, and
Control Panel to Motor, Fuse Size, MDB
Box.

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2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 138
 Example: Try to Validate the Results

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 Syllabus
1. Concept of Industrial Installation
2. General rules guidelines for wiring of Industry
3. Installation and positioning of equipment's.
4. Principles of circuit design in power circuits.
5. Energy and power requirement for Lift, Conveyor-belt and HVAC
6. Procedures for designing the circuits and deciding the number of circuits.
7. Method of drawing single line diagram.
8. Selection of type of wiring and rating of wires & cables.
9. Load calculations and selection of size of conductor.
10. Selection of rating of main Panel Board and distributions board,
11. Protective switchgear Fuse, MCCB , MCB and accessories.

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 Lift
v The initial lift problem is one of service; so many factors enter in to this problem that each
individual case must be considered as a separate problem in itself.
v However, some accepted general rules may be stated for the guidance of lift selection.
a. Capacity & number of lifts.
(A minimum capacity of 13 passenger lift for office bldg. and 8 passenger lift for
residential building). Ensure provision of goods lift.
b. Lift well size.
c. Pit depth.
d. Machine room size.
e. Over head.
f. The floor of lift machine room shall be designed for a uniform load of 1000 kg/sqm.
g. Lift pit to be water proofed.
h. No structural member intrusions into lift well, like column, beam projections which
compromise lift well dimensions.

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 Design of Lift
Size and Shape of the Car: -
Ø The size of the car is determined either from the number of passengers to be carried or by
limitations in the building design.
Ø In figuring the car of area required for a given number of passengers, the usual practice is
to allow a space of 0.2 m2/person.
Ø The maximum load capacity of the lift is figured on a basis of 360 kg/m2, which assume
the average weight of a passenger to be 70 kg.

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 Design of Lift
Lift Speeds (m/min.): -
v The speed at which a lift should travel is determined by consideration of the size and height
of the building in addition to the character of the service to be performed; i.e., residence,
hotels, department stores and offices.
v The usual practice for the speed of lift is as follows: -

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 Design of Lift
Capacity of lifts:
v The capacity of passenger lifts varies from 500 kg to 2000 kg, about 500 kg in residence,
2000 kg in department stores and from 1500 to 2000kg in office buildings.
v The capacity determines the car size, which should be of sufficient floor, are to provide not
more than 360 kg/m2

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 Design of Lift
Number of Lifts Required:
v The number of lifts required to supply a given service is difficult to determined accurately
because each building is an individual problem in itself, due to the large variation in the
demands such as internal traffic depend on types of offices.
v Accordingly, the results obtained in similar buildings are used as a basis of calculation.
v The following method may be used as guide for determining the number of lifts required
in a building of known dimensions. The population can be estimated from the rentable area
as follows:

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 Design of Lift
v Total travel in meter if not known, can be estimated by assuming 5 m. for the ground
floor and 3.5 m. between other floors.
v The estimated time for synchronizing the cars, loss in time due to accelerating and
retarding, loading and unloading at the first floor is 30 seconds.
v The estimated time for accelerating and retarding, loading and unloading for each floor
above the first is 10 seconds.
v The estimated time required emptying the building above the first floor usually ranges
from 40 to 60 minutes.

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 Example

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 Lift Specifications

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 Lift Specifications

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 Power Requirement of Lifts
v When selecting a motor, it is important to note that the rating of the motor (i.e., that on
the nameplate) refers to net output power from the motor.
v This is equal to the product of the output net torque (i.e., the output mechanical torque
less the friction and windage losses) and the output rotational speed in radians per
second.
v This output mechanical power will obviously be less than the input electrical power to
the motor, due to the following losses (taking an AC motor as an example):
ü Stator copper losses.
ü Core losses (Eddy current and hysteresis losses).
ü Rotor copper losses.
ü Friction and windage losses.
v Thus the efficiency of the motor is the division of the output mechanical power by the
input electrical power.
v By using the input rated current, voltage and power factor, and the output speed and
torque, the efficiency of any motor can be calculated.
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References: Al-Sharif, Lutfi. (1999). Lift and Escalator Motor Sizing with Calculations and Examples. Lift Report. 25. 16-23.
 Method 1
Steady state method (power only)
The first and most commonly used method is to check that the motor supplies
sufficient power to move the out of balance mass at the rated speed.
The formula
v The basic method can be used in most cases to select the size of the motor.
v The worst case is taken as that of lifting a fully loaded car in the up direction at the rated
speed (assuming that the counterweight ratio is 50% or less).

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References: Al-Sharif, Lutfi. (1999). Lift and Escalator Motor Sizing with Calculations and Examples. Lift Report. 25. 16-23.
Following stages is used to calculate the Power Requirements
v The fully loaded passenger mass is reduced by the amount of counterweight. This
represents the out of balance mass.
v This is multiplied by the acceleration of gravity, to determine the force in Newtons
needed to move this out of balance mass against gravity in the up direction.
v Multiplying this force by the rated speed gives the rate of flow of energy, or in other
words the power in watts. This represents the net output power of the system.
v This calculated net output power has to flow through the system, and thus a larger value
of power has to be supplied to account for all losses in the shaft and gearbox. Thus, the
net output power is divided by the shaft efficiency and the gearbox efficiency to provide
the required motor power output rating.
v The efficiency of the shaft and the gearbox (forward) can be taken as a combined figure
of 85%, if no exact data is available. The forward efficiency of the gearbox is taken in this
case because the motor is driving. The reverse efficiency is only taken if the braking
calculation is being carried out. The forward and reverse efficiencies for worm gearboxes
are different.
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References: Al-Sharif, Lutfi. (1999). Lift and Escalator Motor Sizing with Calculations and Examples. Lift Report. 25. 16-23.
 Sizing of Lift Motor

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References: Al-Sharif, Lutfi. (1999). Lift and Escalator Motor Sizing with Calculations and Examples. Lift Report. 25. 16-23.
 Example 1
In a lift system which has an MG set supplying its DC hoist, calculate the size of the AC
prime mover for a 49 passenger lift, running at 1.6 m/s, if the efficiency of the installation
(including the MG set, the DC hoist motor and the shaft efficiency) is 70%, and the
counterweight ratio is 40%.

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References: Al-Sharif, Lutfi. (1999). Lift and Escalator Motor Sizing with Calculations and Examples. Lift Report. 25. 16-23.
 Example 2
An 8 passenger hydraulic lift, runs at a speed of 1 m/s, and has an overall efficiency of
80%. If the mass of the car is equal to the rated load in the car, then calculate the required
minimum size of the motor for the pump unit.

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References: Al-Sharif, Lutfi. (1999). Lift and Escalator Motor Sizing with Calculations and Examples. Lift Report. 25. 16-23.
 Method 2
Dynamic method (Moment of inertia)
v The basic power method, only ensures that the motor can lift the out of balance
masses at the rated speed.
v It thus only addresses the steady state situation (i.e., after all masses have started
moving at the rated speed).
v However, the motor has to accelerate these masses up to the rated speed, and it
has to do so at an acceptable value of acceleration.
v In this section we examine the moment of inertia method, as a checker for the basic
method.
v It ensures that the motor is capable of supplying the required kinetic energy for
translational and rotational masses at the required acceleration.

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References: Al-Sharif, Lutfi. (1999). Lift and Escalator Motor Sizing with Calculations and Examples. Lift Report. 25. 16-23.
 Method 2

v A value of acceleration of 0.8-1.0 m/s2 is

acceptable.
v If the value is more, this is still acceptable if
the drive is a variable speed drive (i.e.,
ACVV1 , VVVF2 , DC SCR because the
drive the exact required voltage to achieve the
required acceleration.
v If the acceleration is less than 0.6 m/s2 , then
the motor is not adequate, and a larger size
motor with a higher torque needs to be
selected, or the masses have to be reduced.
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References: Al-Sharif, Lutfi. (1999). Lift and Escalator Motor Sizing with Calculations and Examples. Lift Report. 25. 16-23.
 Example 3
A lift system is designed to run at 1.75 m/s, with a car capacity of 28 passengers. The car
mass is 2000 kg, and the counterweight ratio is 50%. Select a motor which will run at a
speed of 920 rpm from the table below.

Jcoupling = 0.15 kg m2
Q= 2100 kg
C/W = 3050 kg
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References: Al-Sharif, Lutfi. (1999). Lift and Escalator Motor Sizing with Calculations and Examples. Lift Report. 25. 16-23.
 Example 3

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References: Al-Sharif, Lutfi. (1999). Lift and Escalator Motor Sizing with Calculations and Examples. Lift Report. 25. 16-23.
 Example 3

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References: Al-Sharif, Lutfi. (1999). Lift and Escalator Motor Sizing with Calculations and Examples. Lift Report. 25. 16-23.
 Energy Consumption
v Schroeder (1986) has
Drive Floors above TP(seconds)
developed a generalised
ground Range Mean
formula for calculating the
Hydraulic without less than 6 5-7 6
daily energy consumption
counterweight
of a lift installation.
Geared AC 2-speed 6 9-12 10.5
v He based the formula on
the typical trip time, which
ACVV 12 7-10 8.5
he labelled as TP.
(high mass)
v This factor TP depends on
ACVV 12 5-8 6.5
the number of floors, the
(low mass)
type of drive and
Gearless Motor- generator 18 4-6 5
consequently the rated
Thyrisor 18 3-5 4
speed.

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References: Joris Schroeder, “Energy Consumption and Power Requirements of Elevators”
 Energy Consumption
Once the relevant installation has been found in the table, then the mean value of TP in the
table is used. Alternatively, for more accuracy, “the lower end of the range is used for 1:1
roping and a relatively large motor, or the upper end of the range is used for 2:1 roping and
a relatively small motor” (Schroeder, 1986).
This is then used in the following formula:
E = (R x ST x TP)/3600
where
E is the daily energy consumed in kWh/day
R is the motor rating in kW’s
ST is the number of starts per day

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References: Joris Schroeder, “Energy Consumption and Power Requirements of Elevators”
 Energy Consumption
The difficulty with the parameter ST is that it has to be estimated or measured, thus
affecting the final accuracy of the estimate.
The value found is then used to calculate the yearly energy consumed (e) per floor unit area
(m2), as follows (Schroeder, 1986):
𝑘𝑊ℎ
𝐸 ×𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠/𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟×0.85
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑒=
𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛×𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒/𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛

This gives the annual energy consumed in units of energy (kWh) per square metre.

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 Find Energy Consumption of Lifts?

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 Power Requirement in Escalator
The sizing of the escalator motor depends on a number of factors
v The vertical rise of the escalator.
v The efficiency of the escalator.
v The efficiency of the gearbox.
v The running speed of the escalator.
v The angle of inclination of the escalator.
v The number of passengers per step.
v The rise of each step.

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References: Al-Sharif, Lutfi. (1999). Lift and Escalator Motor Sizing with Calculations and Examples. Lift Report. 25. 16-23.
 Motor Sizing
v When sizing an escalator motor, it is only necessary to use the static method (i.e., to
ensure that the motor can move all the masses at rated speed).
v The time it takes to accelerate up to full speed is not as critical as that in the case of a lift,
because escalators only start a few times a day (or in some cases only once a day).
v Following is the derivation of the formula for deciding the kW size of the motor. The
weight of each passengers will be (assuming a 75 kg per passenger mass):
𝐹 = 𝑚×𝑔
v Where:
m is the mass of one passenger in kg.
g is the acceleration due to gravity

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References: Al-Sharif, Lutfi. (1999). Lift and Escalator Motor Sizing with Calculations and Examples. Lift Report. 25. 16-23.
 Motor Sizing
v The effective number of steps on an escalator is equal to the vertical rise divided by the
step rise:

v Where:
RE is the escalator vertical rise.
RS is the step vertical rise.
Assuming that the number of passengers per step is n, then the total weight of all passengers
on the escalator is:

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References: Al-Sharif, Lutfi. (1999). Lift and Escalator Motor Sizing with Calculations and Examples. Lift Report. 25. 16-23.
 Motor Sizing

Thus, the force in the direction of

travel (denoted as Feff ) resulting from
the weight of all passengers is:

Where: θ is the angle of inclination of the escalator

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 168

References: Al-Sharif, Lutfi. (1999). Lift and Escalator Motor Sizing with Calculations and Examples. Lift Report. 25. 16-23.
 Motor Sizing
By multiplying this force by the linear speed of the escalator, the required power is found.
However, the efficiency of the stepband and of the gearbox should be taken into
consideration, as well as the power needed to keep the handrails moving. The final formula
thus becomes:

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References: Al-Sharif, Lutfi. (1999). Lift and Escalator Motor Sizing with Calculations and Examples. Lift Report. 25. 16-23.
 Example
An escalator has a rise of 20 m, is intended to run at a linear speed of 0.75 m/s, and will
carry two passengers per step (i.e., n=2). Calculate the power rating of the necessary
motor, assuming that the total efficiency of the gearbox and the stepband is 83%. Assume
an angle of inclination of 30° to the horizontal.

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References: Al-Sharif, Lutfi. (1999). Lift and Escalator Motor Sizing with Calculations and Examples. Lift Report. 25. 16-23.
 Air Conditioning System
v Air-conditioning is maintenance of specified inside conditions: temperature, relative
humidity, air changes and air quality. Air-conditioning also includes winter heating and
clean air system.
v Depending upon specific requirements, following systems of air-conditioning are
followed:
i. Window type AC Units.
ii. Split type AC Units.
iii. Package type AC Units.
iv. Central AC System.

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 What is HVAC???

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 Basic Principle

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 Air Conditioning System Types
Window type Units:
v Suitable for individual isolated rooms.
v Consumes very high amount of power.
v No relative humidity control.
v Very little control over air quality.
v Suitable for area upto 100 Sqm.
Split Units:
v They are same as window type units, except that the compressor units are located away
from evaporator (fan) units.
v The noise of compressor is kept away.
v Energy wasteful.

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 Air Conditioning System Types
Package type:
v They are mini and compact central plants available up to 10-Ton capacity.
v This system is suitable for areas between 100 to 1000 sqm.

Central AC Plants:
v They are suitable for large areas.
v Excellent control over temperature, humidity, clean air, air changes, noise control, uniform
distribution and have energy efficiency.
v A properly designed central AC system will be reliable, effective and efficient.
v Hence for air-conditioning areas in excess of 1000 sqm, central AC plant is preferred.

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 Air Conditioning System Sizing

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 Power Rating of Air Conditioning System
As a general rule of thumb, for AC power consumption calculation you should take,
v 1 ton of cooling = 1,000 watts
v 1.5 ton of cooling = 1,500 watts
v 2 ton of cooling = 2,00 watts
v 3 ton of cooling = 3000 watts and so on.

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 HVAC System Requirements

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 Thank You
???
References
1. JB Gupta, “A course in Electrical Installation, Estimating & Costing”
 Student Work
v.

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 180

 Rough
𝑃!"
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
3 𝑉# 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜙
+',%-
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 3×𝐼)* ×𝑍+/)* + 𝐼" 𝑍+/"
+',%-
𝐼" 𝑍+/)*
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 3×𝐼% ×𝑍+/)* +
2
𝐿 𝐼" 𝐿
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 3×𝐼%&'( ×𝐾 + ×𝐾
𝐴 2 𝐴
)*
)* 𝐿 𝐼%&'( 𝐿
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 𝐼%&'( ×𝐾 + ×𝐾
𝐴 2 𝐴
)* 𝐿
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 1.5×𝐼%&'( ×𝐾
𝐴
)* 𝐿
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 1.5×𝐼%&'( ×𝐾 ≤ 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝
𝐴
)*
1.5×𝐼%&'( 𝐾𝐿
≤ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝

2/19/22 10:51 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 181

Namaste
Industrial Power Distribution
and Illumination
Asst. Prof. Shahabuddin Khan
Pulchowk Campus
sk@pcampus.edu.np
 Chapter - 6
System Components for Industrial Illumination
(6 hours)

Shahabuddin Khan
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
Pulchowk Campus, IOE
sk@pcampus.edu.np
 Syllabus
System Components for Industrial Illumination(6 hours)
1. Light Sources
i. Incandescent Filament Lamps
ii. Fluorescent Lamps
iii. High Intensity Discharge Lamps
iv. LED Lamps
v. Types Luminaries
2. Types of Industrial Lighting Systems
i. Factory Lighting for Visual Tasks
ii. Security Lighting
iii. Emergency Lighting

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 Light
v Light is that part of the electromagnetic
spectrum that is perceived by our eyes.
v The wavelength range is between 380 and 780
nm.

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 The Eye

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 Light: Day and Night
v The cones come on during the day
and we see colours,
v Whereas at night the rods take over
and we only see shades of grey

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 Melanopic Effect Of Light
v The retina also contains photosensitive ganglion cells.
v These are sensitive to blue light and suppress the sleep hormone melatonin at night.
v Melatonin is responsible for a good sleep at night.
v Suppressing melatonin in the morning helps keep you awake during the day.
v This means that the right light controls the circadian rhythm thus a healthy waking and
sleeping behaviour

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 Effect of Light
v Light for visual functions
Ø Illumination of task area in conformity with relevant standards
Ø Glare-free and convenient
v Light for emotional perception
Ø Lighting enhancing architecture
Ø Creating scenes and effects
v Light creating biological effects
Ø Supporting people’s circadian rhythm
Ø Stimulating or relaxing

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 Basic Parameters of Lighting

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 Luminous Flux
v The luminous flux describes the quantity of light emitted by a light source.
v The luminous efficiency is the ratio of the luminous flux to the electrical power
consumed (lm/W).
v It is a measure of a light source’s economic efficiency.
v Abbreviation: Φ Phi
v Unit: lm Lumen

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 Luminous Intensity
v The luminous intensity describes the quantity of light that is radiated in a particular
direction.
v This is a useful measurement for directive lighting elements such as reflectors.
v It is represented by the luminous intensity distribution curve (LDC).
v Abbreviation: Ι
v Unit: cd Candela

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 Illuminance
v Illuminance describes the quantity of luminous flux falling on a surface.

𝐿𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥(𝑙𝑚)
𝐸 𝑙𝑥 =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑚!)
v Abbreviation: E
v Unit: lx Lux

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 Luminance
v Luminance is the only basic lighting parameter that is perceived by the eye.
v It describes on the one hand a light source’s impression of brightness, and on the other, a
surface and therefore depends to a large extent on the degree of reflection (colour and
surface).
v Abbreviation: L
v Unit: cd/m2

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 Quality Characteristics of Lighting
Traditional quality criteria New quality criteria
v Sufficient illumination level v Changing lighting situations
v Harmonious brightness distribution v Personal control
v Glare limitation v Energy efficiency
v Avoidance of reflections v Daylight integration
v Good modelling v Light as an interior design element
v Correct light colour
v Appropriate colour rendering

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 Illuminance Maintenance Value
v Value below which the illuminance level must not fall in the visual task area.
v If the precise location is not known, the limit should be applied to the whole room or a
specific working area.

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 Illuminance Maintenance Value

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 Illuminance Level for Residential Homes
Entrance Hall 300
Master Bed Room 250
Bed Room 220
Kitchen 300
Dining Area 200
Utility Area 150
Corridor 70
Toilets & Bathrooms 150
Parking Area 100
Lift 100
Ramp 50
Security Room 200
Stairs 100
Causal Reading 150
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 Visual Task Area
v Visual task area Illuminance levels are specified for specific visual tasks and are
designed for the area in which these may take place.
v If the exact location is unknown, the room as a whole or a defined area of the
workstation is used for specification.
v The visual task area may be a horizontal, vertical or inclined plane.

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 Area immediately surrounding the visual task area
Here illuminance may be one level lower than in the visual task area (e.g. 300 lx to 500 lx).

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 Area immediately surrounding the visual task area

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 Lamp Efficiency
v It is defined as the ratio of the luminous flux to the power input.
v It is expressed in lumens per unit watt.
v Table given below gives the approximate efficiency of incandescent tungsten filament
lamp and fluorescent lamps.

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 Maintenance Factor
v The initial value of Illuminance multiplied by the maintenance factor gives the
illuminance maintenance value.
v The maintenance factor can be determined individually, and takes the installation’s
reduction in luminous flux caused by soiling and ageing of lamps, luminaires and
room surfaces into account.

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 Uniformity
v In order to perform visual tasks in
illuminated areas, there should not be any
great differences in brightness so that
uniformity should not fall below
𝐸#$%
𝑈" =
Ē
v Uniformity UO is the ratio between the
lowest (Emin) and the mean illuminance
level (Ē) in the area to be evaluated.

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 Luminaire Efficiency
v The luminaire efficiency tells us how much luminous flux leaves the luminaire in relation
to the luminous flux emitted by the lamp.
v It does not tell us whether the light emitted from the luminaire contributes to the
illumination of the reference plane or whether the light is, for example, absorbed by a
black ceiling.

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 Utilization Factor
v The light flux reaching the working plane is always less than the lumen output of the
lamp since some of the light is absorbed by the various surface textures and that is given
by Utilization Factor.
v The UF is expressed as a number which is always less than unity.

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 Reflectance factors
v This means the light reflected from ceilings, walls and floors which and depends on the
colours, type of floor and ceilings.
v The reflectance factors of the room and object surfaces determine not only the
perception of the room but also the reflected light and thus the room’s brightness.
v The reflectance factor table in the system helps you determine the reflectance factors.

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 Reflectance factors
Material Reflection Coefifcient
Yellow Bricks 0.5
Dark Bricks 0.4
Red Bricks 0.3
Cement 0.27
Concrete 0.55
Granite Stone 0.4
Marble White 0.45
Dye[Snow White] 0.7
Light color wallpaper for walls 0.5-0.3
Pure Glass 0.7
Asphalt 0.4
black Tiles 0.1
white mosaic kashi 0.7
red mosaic kashi 0.3
Dark Marble For Flooring 0.1

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 Room Index
vRoom dimensions:
1. Length (a)
2. Width (b)
3. Height (h)
v Useful Height, Hk.
vThis can be calculated as:
hk = h- hd or hk= h-hd-hv
where :
hk = useful height
h = room height
hd = height of working area, usually taken as : 0.85 m
hv = height of illumination unit hanging from the ceiling , measured in (m).

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 Reflection Coefficient and Utilization Factor
v The reflection coefficients can be used to
determine the utilization factor UF for any
luminaire from the manufacturers
catalogues when the room index is
calculated.
v For example, Table -2 gives the utilization
factor UF for a fluorescent luminaire with
single 40W lamp and prismatic diffuser
0011 mm length for different values of the
room reflection coefficients: C – ceiling
reflection, W- wall reflection, F- floor
reflection. If these values are: (0.5, 0.5, 0.2)
and the room index is calculated to be 1.50,
then the UF = 0.52

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 Utilization Factor

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 Direct Glare
Cause
v Luminaires without glare control
v Very bright surfaces
Effect
v Loss of concentration
v More frequent mistakes
v Fatigue
Remedy
v Luminaires with limited luminance levels
v Blinds on windows

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 Reflected Glare
Cause
v Reflective surfaces
v Incorrect luminaire arrangement
v Incorrect workstation position
Effect
v Loss of concentration
v More frequent mistakes
v Fatigue
Remedy
v Matching luminaire to workstation (layout)
v Indirect lighting
v Matt surfaces

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 Colour Rendering
v Colour rendering is the ability of a light source to reproduce surface colours (8 test
colours R1 to R8) as faithfully as possible compared to a reference light source.
v It is identified by the colour rendering index (CRI).
v The best colour rendering is Ra = 100.
v Light sources are divided up into colour rendering levels:
Ø Ra > 90 very good colour rendering
Ø Ra > 80 good colour rendering

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 Light Sources
Incandescent Sources:
v When certain objects are heated to a high temperature, they begin to emit light.
v Both infrared and visible light is produced in the process.
v Example- Candle, incandescent lamp.

Luminescent Sources:
v Light can be produced by accelerating charges in a luminescent material.
v One common way of doing it is bypassing current through the material.
v Example- Fluorescent tube light, electric bulb

Gas Discharge Sources:

v Passing electricity through certain gases at very low pressure can produce light too.
v Example – Neon lamp, Sodium lamp

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 Light Sources
Lamp is equipment, which produces light.

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 Incandescent Lamp
Incandescent Lamps were first invented by Edison in 1879.

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 Blackening of Glass Bulb

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 Working of Incandescent Bulb
v An incandescent bulb works on the principle
of incandescence, a general term meaning
light produced by heat.
v In an incandescent type of bulb, an electric
current is passed through a thin metal
filament, heating the filament until it glows
and produces light.

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 Illuminance Dependent on Voltage

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References: Mathias Bottheim, Determination and analysis of power quality ongrid and off-grid in Nepal and its effect on electrical appliances, Technical University of Munich
 Illuminance Dependent on Frequency

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References: Mathias Bottheim, Determination and analysis of power quality ongrid and off-grid in Nepal and its effect on electrical appliances, Technical University of Munich
 Average Life Dependent on Voltage

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References: SynthLight Handbook Chapter 3: Artificial Lighting
 Fluorescent Lamps
v High to very high luminous efficiency
v Good to very good colour rendering
v Long service life
v Wide selection of standard ranges
v Dimmable
v Use: efficient wide-area lighting

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 Working of Fluorescent Lamp
v An alternating electrical field between
two electrodes in the discharge tube
produces invisible UV radiation.
v The tube’s white fluorescent coating
converts this radiation into high-
quality, visible light.
v These lamps need ignitors and current
limiting; these functions are combined
in an electronic ballast. Lamp
v The luminous flux of fluorescent lamps
is highly dependent on their operating
position and ambient temperature.

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 Characteristics of Fluorescent Lamp

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 Compact Fluorescent Lamp
v Compact designs
v High luminous efficiency
v Excellent colour rendering
v Wide selection of standard ranges
v Dimmable
v Use: commercial and prestigious areas, hospitality

v These lamps are compact versions of tubular or toroidal fluorescent lamps and operate in a
very similar way.

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 Illuminance Dependent on Voltage

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References: Mathias Bottheim, Determination and analysis of power quality ongrid and off-grid in Nepal and its effect on electrical appliances, Technical University of Munich
 Illuminance Dependent on Frequency

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References: Mathias Bottheim, Determination and analysis of power quality ongrid and off-grid in Nepal and its effect on electrical appliances, Technical University of Munich
 High Intensity Discharge Lamps
v The term high-intensity discharge applies to arc-discharge sources with a high power
density.
v With most HID lamps, the arc tube is enclosed in an outer glass bulb.
v As with fluorescent lamps, HID lamps require ballasts to regulate the arc current flow
and to deliver the proper voltage to strike the arc.
v Electronic ballasts are more efficient and provide more precise control of the arc tube
voltage over life, resulting in more consistent colour and longer life.
v Before the lamp will relight, it must cool sufficiently to reduce the vapour pressure to a
point where the arc will restrike.
v The time required to cool depends on a luminaire´s ability to dissipate heat. Typically in a
luminaire, HID lamps will relight in 3 to 10 minutes.
v HID lamps used for illumination in buildings belong to three principal families:
1. mercury-vapour lamps
2. high-pressure sodium lamps and low pressure sodium lamps
3. metal-halide lamps
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 High Intensity Discharge Lamps

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 LED Lamp
v Very efficient light production
v Wide selection of standard ranges
v Can be switched and dimmed as required
v Very long service life
v Good to very good colour rendering
v Very good production of coloured light
v Use: LEDs can be used for both functional and
decorative lighting in indoor and outdoor
locations.

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 Components and Working

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References: https://toolboom.com/en/articles-and-video/led-light-bulb-diy-repair-at-home/
 Types of LED Bulbs
v Standard through-hole LED:
ü often used as indicator light source, although with low light output.
ü Due to their shorter service life, higher probability of failure and sensitivity to UV
radiation, they are not used in lighting technology.
v SMD (surface mounted device) LED:
ü an LED that is reflow-soldered to the surface of a printed circuit board (using a reflow
oven).
ü Basically, it consists of an LED chip protected by silicon coating mounted in or on a
housing or a ceramic plate with contacts.
v CoB (chip on board) LED:
v the LED chip is mounted directly on the printed circuit board.
v This allows a dense arrangement of chips close to each other.

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 Illuminance Dependent on Voltage

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References: Mathias Bottheim, Determination and analysis of power quality ongrid and off-grid in Nepal and its effect on electrical appliances, Technical University of Munich
 Illuminance Dependent on Frequency

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References: Mathias Bottheim, Determination and analysis of power quality ongrid and off-grid in Nepal and its effect on electrical appliances, Technical University of Munich
 Comparison

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The Cheapest Luminaries is Often Not the Lowest Cost

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 Luminaire
v A luminaire is a complete lighting unit consisting of one or more lamps (light sources)
together with optical and mechanical components.
v It is designed to operate the lamps, that means to position and protect the lamps and to
connect them to the power supply.
v The main function of a luminaire is to realise a lighting concept which fulfils the visual
task.

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 Types of Lighting/Lighting Schemes/Luminaries Types
v Direct Lighting
v Indirect Lighting
v Indirect/Direct Lighting
v Mellow Lighting

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 Types of Lighting: Direct
v Light falls from the luminaires on the ceiling directly onto the workplace, in part highly
directional
v Glare suppression is important under flat angles
v The ceiling can appear dark (cave effect)
v The workplace layout should not allow any shadows
v High energy efficiency is achieved for the work area

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 Types of Lighting: Indirect
v Light is directed to the ceiling and walls so that it illuminates the workplaces indirectly
v The lighting effect may appear diffuse through the absence of shadows
v The room increases in height
v The light is glare-free
v Workplaces can be arranged at random
v Lower energy efficiency

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 Direct/Indirect Light
v Light is directed to the workplace directly and indirectly via the ceiling from suspended
luminaires or free-standing luminaires
v Pleasant room visuals
v High user acceptance
v Good contrast ratios
v Flexible workplace layout with an indirect share of > 60%
v Good combination of energy efficiency and lighting quality

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 Mellow Light
v The advantages of direct-indirect lighting are combined in a ceiling-mounted
luminaire
v Possibility of a free workplace layout
v Glare-free lighting that looks good make for a high acceptance
v Gives impression of daylight in a room
v Good combination of energy efficiency and lighting quality

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 Safety Aspects of Lighting
The level and type of lighting needed for safety in working areas therefore depends on:
i) The type of work being carried out or effectively reveals the task;
ii) The hazard associated with it; and
iii) Safe and comfortable visual working environment
1. Illuminance and Planes:
2. Glare
3. Color Effect
4. Flickering
5. Strobostic

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 Safety Aspects of Lighting: Illuminance and Planes
v The amount of light on a surface affects our ability to see.
v The finer the detail, the higher the illuminance required.
v Of equal importance is the illuminance in adjacent areas.
v It is not sufficient to illuminate one area if an adjacent area through which movement
occurs is inadequately lit.
v This is often the case on construction sites and in storage areas

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 Safety Aspects of Lighting: Glare
v Glare is a contrast in brightness between different objects in one’s field of vision.
v It occurs when one part of the visual field is brighter than the average brightness to
which the visual system is adapted.
v To check for glare, place a mirror on the work surface. Any bright light that reflects in
the mirror is a source of glare.
v Here vision is not directly impaired but there is discomfort, annoyance, irritability or
distraction, the condition is called discomfort glare and it is related to symptoms of
visual fatigue.

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 Safety Aspects of Lighting: Glare

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 Safety Aspects of Lighting: Colour Effects
v A surface lit by different artificial light sources or by daylight under changing sky
conditions, may appear to vary in colour.
v Where colour judgement is required (e.g. for electrical work), this may affect safety but
with most light sources, the change in colour appearance is insufficient to create
problems.
v Under monochromatic light sources, such as low pressure sodium discharge lamps,
colours will not be identifiable and a hazard may go unnoticed.
v At very low illuminances, colour vision fails and all colours are seen as shades of grey.

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 Perception of Colour

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 Safety Aspects of Lighting: Stroboscopic Effects
v All lamps that operate from an alternating electricity supply may produce oscillations in
light output.
v When the magnitude of these oscillations is great and their frequency is a multiple or sub
multiple of the frequency of movement of machinery, that machinery will appear to be
stationary or moving in a different manner.
v This is called the stroboscopic effect.
v It is not common with modern lighting systems but where it does occur it can be
dangerous, so appropriate action should be taken to avoid it.

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 Safety Aspects of Lighting: Light Flicker
v Light flicker refers to quick, repeated changes in light intensity - light that appears to
flutter and be unsteady.
v It is caused when the voltage supplied to a light source changes or when the power line
voltage itself fluctuates.
v The severity of the flicker depends on several factors such as:
i. How often and regularly the voltage fluctuates;
ii. How much of a voltage change occurs;
iii. The kind of light (incandescent, fluorescent or high intensity discharge lighting
systems (HID));
iv. The gain factor of the lamp [gain factor is a measure of how much the light intensity
changes when the voltage fluctuates - (% relative change in light levels) divided by
(% relative fluctuation in voltage)]; or
v. The amount of light in the lighted area (ambient light levels).

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 Safety Aspects of Lighting: Light Flicker

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 Safety Aspects of Lighting: Veiling Reflection
v It is a reflection of incident light that partially or totally obscures the details to be seen
on a surface by reducing the contrast.
v Veiling reflections may be sharp-edged or vague in outline, but regardless of form they
can affect task performance and cause discomfort.
v Veiling reflections are high luminance reflections which overlay the detail of the task.

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 Health Aspect of Lighting
v Poor lighting that makes the visual system work harder, may lead to visual fatigue or
eyestrain because the normal healthy eyes cannot be strained by overuse.
v In sufficient quantities, light can also cause tissue damage or specific sight damage.

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 Industrial Lighting Systems
v The industrial buildings are most often characterized with a great diversity of visual
tasks, performed in adjacent zones.
v The necessary illuminance on the work plane may vary significantly in a single
industrial premise, according to the visual task performed and the placement of the work
planes in the zones.
v Therefore it is necessary in the stage of design all the specifics of the different tasks to
be considered and optimized by means of lighting control strategy that takes into
account the presence of natural daylight and takes advantage of it to maximum extend.

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 Requirement of Industrial Lighting
A good industrial lighting should take into account:
a) adequate quantity of illumination, and
b) good quality of illumination.

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 Types of Industrial Lighting
1. Factory Lighting for Visual Tasks
i. General Lighting
ii. Localized Lighting
iii. Local Lighting
2. Security Lighting
3. Emergency Lighting

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 Factory Lighting for Visual Tasks: General Lighting
v The purpose of a general lighting scheme in an industrial interior is primarily to provide
for safe movement of the occupants, and to make a contribution to their welfare and
comfort, while providing lighting for the tasks to be performed in the interior.
v It provides uniform illumination over the whole working area and does not limit the
positioning of the work;

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References: Guidelines on Occupational Safety and Health for Lighting at Workplace, Department of Occupational Safety and Health, Malaysia
Factory Lighting for Visual Tasks: General Lighting

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References: Handbook of Industrial Lighting Stanley L. Lyons, FCIBS
 Factory Lighting for Visual Tasks: Localized Lighting
v If the tasks are performed in only a part or parts of the area, and a substantial proportion
of the area is used for movement, storage etc, then it may be possible again to light the
whole area to a lower general illuminance but to augment the lighting over certain areas
where work is performed by means of localized lighting.
v Localized lighting is centrally switched, and is not under the direct control of the
operative at the work-station
v sometimes, localized luminaires may be at a lower height than general Lighting
v It provides different
levels of illumination in
different parts of the same
working areas and it
matches the level of
illumination to the
location of the task;
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References: Guidelines on Occupational Safety and Health for Lighting at Workplace, Department of Occupational Safety and Health, Malaysia
Factory Lighting for Visual Tasks: Localized Lighting

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References: Handbook of Industrial Lighting Stanley L. Lyons, FCIBS
 Factory Lighting for Visual Tasks: Local Lighting
v The functions of local lighting are mainly to boost the general lighting to a value
suitable for specific tasks at specific places, and to provide lighting of a special quality
or direction for the efficient performance of the visual task.
v In one important characteristic, local lighting differs from general lighting, in that local
lighting is always under the direct control of the operative at the work-station, control
of switching, and often control of direction and intensity too.

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References: Guidelines on Occupational Safety and Health for Lighting at Workplace, Department of Occupational Safety and Health, Malaysia
 Factory Lighting for Visual Tasks: Local Lighting

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References: Handbook of Industrial Lighting Stanley L. Lyons, FCIBS
 Emergency Lighting
v Emergency lighting is lighting provided to replace temporarily the normal lighting
when that normal lighting fails.
v Its purposes are two-fold:
i. to enable persons to escape from danger and to get to a designated place of
safety; (this is termed escape lighting)
ii. to enable essential things to be done during a failure of the mains-operated
normal lighting; (this is termed stand-by lighting)
v They can be self contained or Central Battery System

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 Emergency Lighting: Escape Lighting
v The basic requirements for a system of escape lighting are that it shall be available at
the instant of failure of the normal lighting or, at most, very few seconds after
v It shall provide sufficient light to enable persons to locate the route towards safety
and be able to traverse the escape route
v It shall be in operation long enough to enable all persons to leave the premises

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 Illumination Level: Escape Routes

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References: https://www.orlight.com/resources/res/32/Orlight_guide_on_Emergency_Lighting_1.pdf
 Illumination Level: Open Area

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References: https://www.orlight.com/resources/res/32/Orlight_guide_on_Emergency_Lighting_1.pdf
 Illumination Level: High Risk Areas
v In areas of high risk, the emergency maintained illuminance on the plane of work
(reference plane) shall be not less than 10% of the normal required illuminance for that
task.
v As a minimum, it should not be less than 15 lux and shall be free of harmful stroboscopic
effects.

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 Location

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References: https://www.orlight.com/resources/res/32/Orlight_guide_on_Emergency_Lighting_1.pdf
 Location

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References: https://www.orlight.com/resources/res/32/Orlight_guide_on_Emergency_Lighting_1.pdf
 Location

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References: https://www.orlight.com/resources/res/32/Orlight_guide_on_Emergency_Lighting_1.pdf
 Battery Backup Duration
v The battery back-up of the emergency
lighting system will depend on the use
of the building and the evacuation
strategy.
v 3 hour duration is required in places of
entertainment (cinemas, theatres, etc)
and for buildings that have a sleeping
risk (hotels and guesthouses, etc.).
v 1 hour duration may be acceptable, in
some premises, if evacuation is
immediate and re-occupation is
delayed until the system has
recharged.

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References: https://www.orlight.com/resources/res/32/Orlight_guide_on_Emergency_Lighting_1.pdf
 Emergency Lighting: Standby Lighting
v Stand-by lighting is lighting which will be used during outage of the normal mains-
supplied lighting, and its use is not necessarily associated with a critical emergency such
as a fire.
v But, when the mains supply fails, although it may be impossible to continue normal
operations, it may be necessary to perform certain essential tasks to prevent possible
danger or loss, e.g. to bring dangerous plant to a safe state of shut-down; to hand-wind
suspended loads down to take the strain off lifting gear; to damp down boilers or release
the pressure in vessels; to stop rotating machinery or apply brakes; to ventilate enclosed
spaces etc etc.

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References: https://www.orlight.com/resources/res/32/Orlight_guide_on_Emergency_Lighting_1.pdf
 Security Lighting

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 Security Lighting: Continuous Lighting
v Continuous lighting is the most common security-lighting system.
v It consists of a series of fixed lights arranged to flood a given area continuously with
overlapping cones of light during darkness.
v Usually, a 50 percent overlap is desirable so that if one lamp fails, the lamps on either
side can fill in (although at a reduced level) for the failed unit.
v Two primary methods of using continuous lighting are glare projection and controlled
lighting.
v The glare projection security-lighting method is used when the glare of lights directed
across the surrounding terrain will not be annoying (Remember, keep the neighbors on
your side.) nor will it interfere with adjacent operations. It is a strong deterrent to a
potential intruder because it makes it difficult to see inside the area.
v Controlled lighting is best when it limits the width of the lighted strip outside the
perimeter, such as along highways. In controlled lighting, the width of the lighted strip is
controlled and adjusted to fit the particular need. This method of lighting may illuminate
or silhouette employees.
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 Security Lighting: Standby Lighting
v Standby lighting has a layout similar to continuous lighting.
v However, the lights are not lit continuously but are turned on (either automatically or
manually) when suspicious activity is detected or suspected by the security force or
alarm systems.
v Standby lighting also is referred to as “crash” lighting.
v It can have a devastating psychological effect on an attacker or intruder whose cover of
darkness disappears suddenly.

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 Security Lighting: Moveable Lighting
v Movable lighting consists of manually operated, movable lights that may be lit during
hours of darkness or only as needed.
v The system normally is used to supplement continuous or standby lighting.
v Movable lights often are mounted on telescoping poles on trailers that have their own
power generation for maximum flexibility.

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 Security Lighting: Emergency Lighting
v Emergency lighting may duplicate any or all of the systems described above.
v Its use is limited to times of power failure or other emergencies when the normal system
is inoperative.
v Emergency lighting depends on an alternative power source such as installed or portable
generators or batteries.
v Most building codes require these types of lights inside commercial or public buildings.
v They must switch on automatically and must provide enough light to permit occupants to
exit safely.

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 Properties of Security Lighting
Direction.
vLight from any source has a specific direction, but it can be reflected and refracted so that it
becomes multidirectional (ambient) light. The directionality of security lighting can be
arranged to accomplish two different purposes:
Ø Silhouette an intruder. An intruder who is between the light source and the
observation point is backlit or silhouetted
Ø Identify an intruder. The light must strike the intruder face-on and be reflected back
to the observation point.

Glare.
v Glare is discomfort produced by one or more sources of visible light. When appropriate,
glare can be used deliberately against a potential intruder. Glare must be carefully
controlled and managed so that it does not impede the effectiveness of CCTV or prevent
employees from seeing an attacker.

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References: https://www.fs.fed.us/t-d/phys_sec/deter/props.htm
 Choice of Security Lighting
Illumination level.
v A light meter can be used to measure illumination level in footcandles or lux (in the
metric system). Incident light meters measure the level of the light striking a target.
Reflected light meters measure the level of light reflected by a target. Illumination levels
measured by both types of meters are important to lighting security designers.
Quality.
v Each type of artificial light source has its own spectral signature. Incandescent lights
cover the entire visible spectrum while gas discharge lights (mercury vapor, metal
halides, low- and high-pressure sodium) lights and fluorescent lights may cover only part
of the spectrum. Lights that cover part of the spectrum can distort colors. For example, a
piece of red material will look brown under low-pressure sodium light. This distortion
must be considered if color CCTV cameras will be used. It must also be considered when
security officers are taking witness statements that involve color descriptions.

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References: https://www.fs.fed.us/t-d/phys_sec/deter/props.htm
 Choice of Security Lighting
According to CPNI (2009), several factors influence the choice, such as:
v Area requiring coverage
v Lighting levels
v Purchase cost
v Running or operational cost
v Lamp life expectancy
v Start-up time to full brightness and restart time
v Colour rendition – the ability to produce accurate colours
v Light output
v Reflectiveness of surrounding surfaces
v Maintenance considerations

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 Security Lighting: Illumination Levels
Area lux level
Perimeter 5
Vehicle entrance 100 High Pressure Sodium (SON) and
Pedestrian entrance 50 tungsten halogen are used for
Security Lighting.
Roadways 5-20
Open yards 2.5
Decks on open piers 2-50
Car parks 2-20
Loading docks 160
Gatehouse 300

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References: https://www.ifsecglobal.com/video-surveillance/how-to-choose-the-right-security-lighting/
 Benefits of Good Industrial Lighting
1. Good illumination scheme encourage the personnel for better working.
2. In commercial, correctly planned scheme promote the sale.
3. In a factory lighting arrangements are planned to increase productivity & to improve
the quality of production.
4. Correct & good illumination scheme avoid the accidents
5. Adequate & glare free illumination provides pleasant atmosphere for staff.
6. Good illumination scheme increases overall efficiency.
7. By proper illumination scheme energy saving will be effective & with cost saving
also.

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 Luminaries Used in Industry
S.No. Area Luminaries Lux Level

1 Office Building FTL, LED, CFL 500 lux

2 Testing Center FTL, LED, CFL 400 to 500 lux
3 Workspace Halogen Lamps, Mercury Vapour Lamps, Above 5000 lux
Sodium Vapour Lamp
4 RnD Center FTL, LED, CFL 500 to 600 lux
5 Outdoor/Parking Area Mercury or Sodium Vapor Lamp 1000 to 2000 lux
6 Quality Control Department FTL, LED, CFL 600 to 700 lux
7 Sales Department FTL, LED, CFL 300 to 400 lux
8 Commissioning Department FTL, LED, CFL 400 to 500 lux
9 Small Store Room without FTL, LED, Projector Lamp, Filament Lamp, 200 to 300 lux
sunlight Halogen Lamp, Metal Halide lamps etc
10 Highbay Area FTL, LED, Projector Lamp, Filament Lamp, Above 600 lux
Halogen Lamp, Metal Halide lamps etc

1/25/22 2:26 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 104

 Thank You
???
References
1. JB Gupta, “A course in Electrical Installation, Estimating & Costing”
2. https://www.eaton.com/content/dam/eaton/markets/buildings/fundamentals-of-emergency-
lighting-guide.pdf
3. Guidelines on Occupational Safety and Health for Lighting at Workplace, Department of
Occupational Safety and Health, Malaysia
4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z0vKi1QQARM
5. The Lighting Handbook, Zumtobel Lighting GmbH
 Student Work
v Compare different types of LED Bulbs available in Market and how will you
differentiate them.

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 Extra
v Poor lighting that makes the visual system work harder, may lead to visual fatigue or
eyestrain because the normal healthy eyes cannot be strained by overuse.
v In sufficient quantities, light can also cause tissue damage or specific sight damage.
v Visual Fatigue
v Visual fatigue comprises all those symptoms that arise after excessive stress on any of the
functions of the eye. The symptoms of visual fatigue vary according to the lighting
condition and the task being carried out. The symptoms are likely to occur whenever the
visual system has to act at the limits of its capabilities for any length of time. Poor lighting
is not the only cause; the inadequacies of a person’s visual system can also create
problems. Among the symptoms are:
v i) Painful irritation (burning) accompanied by lachrymation, reddening of the eyes and
conjunctivitis; ii) Breakdown of vision e.g. blurred or double vision; iii) Reduced powers of
accommodation and convergence; iv) Reduced visual acuity, sensitivity to contrast, and
speed of perception; and v) Referred symptoms e.g. headaches, fatigue and giddiness.
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 Extra
v Poor lighting can also cause other indirect effects of the natural response to insufficient
luminance or veiling reflections. For example by getting closer to the task or to look at it
from a different direction can mean adopting unusual postures that lead to other forms
of strain, such as backache. Refer Figure 3. 4.2.2
v Tissue Damage Light sources produce optical radiation in the infrared (IR), visible and
ultra-violet (UV) arts of the spectrum. The amount of radiation emitted in each depends
on the nature of the source. In sufficient quantities, each type can damage human tissue.
There are two main ways in which this can happen; i) Radiation induces a chemical
reaction in the tissue (photochemical); and ii) Radiation heats or burns exposed tissue
(thermal).

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 Extra
v Infrared Radiation (IRR) Visible and near IR radiation between the range of IR-A: 700-1400
nanometres are transmitted through the eyes and focused onto the retina. If the
temperature of the retina rises, thermal injury or burns may result. Even if there is no
appreciable temperature rise, photochemical injury can be caused by the shorter
wavelength towards the blue end of the spectrum. Severe over-exposure can lead to
permanent disability such as cataract and scotoma, but because light sources capable of
causing permanent damage are uncomfortably bright, and the natural tendency to look
away from them usually provides protection from accidental exposure. Whoever exposed
to such bright source such as glass blower and furnace man should not try to overrule
this natural response. If people must look at uncomfortable bright sources, they should
wear eye protection with the appropriate filters or shade to reduce the intensity of the
luminance.

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 Extra
v Longer IR radiation wavelength is not transmitted through the eyes, but is absorbed by
the cornea, the humours and the lens. When the lens absorbs such radiation, thermal
injury may result which shows up as opacities and cataracts, e.g. glass employees
cataract. Exposure of the skin to longer IR radiation wavelength raises its temperature,
and could lead to heat stress and less commonly, to local burns. Discomfort should
provide adequate warning.

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 Extra
v Ultra-Violet Radiation (UVR) The effects of UV radiation are mainly photochemical. When
the shorter UVR wavelength is absorbed by the eye, the conjunctive and cornea may
become painfully inflamed. Common examples are ‘arc-eye’ and ‘snow- blindness’.Unless
exposure is grossly excessive, this condition is temporary and clears within two days.
Longer UVR wavelength is absorbed mainly by the lens of the eye and is thought to
contribute to the development of cataracts. If applied to the skin, UVR causes reddening
(erythema). When this happens gradually over a period of days, it may lead to a tan, but
excessive UVR wavelength can cause the symptoms associated with sunburn. Prolonged
exposure to the high levels of shortwave UVR present in intense sunlight is associated
with an increased risk of skin cancers.

1/25/22 2:26 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 111

Namaste
Industrial Power Distribution
and Illumination
Asst. Prof. Shahabuddin Khan
Pulchowk Campus
sk@pcampus.edu.np
 Chapter - 7
Illuminating Design Principle(8 hours)

Shahabuddin Khan
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
Pulchowk Campus, IOE
sk@pcampus.edu.np
 Syllabus
1. Basic Consideration for Illuminating Design
i. Space Function
ii. Provision of Quality and Quantity of illumination
iii. Selection of Lighting Systems, Sources, Luminaries, and Controls
iv. Definitions of Terminology
2. Lumen Method of Lighting Computations
3. Point-to-point Lighting Computation
4. Design Procedures

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 Syllabus
1. Basic Consideration for Illuminating Design
i. Space Function
ii. Provision of Quality and Quantity of illumination
iii. Selection of Lighting Systems, Sources, Luminaries, and Controls
iv. Definitions of Terminology
2. Lumen Method of Lighting Computations
3. Point-to-point Lighting Computation
4. Design Procedures

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 Space Function
v The function of a space greatly influences the way in which lighting is applied.
v The same type of visual task may be encountered, regardless of location, in a factory,
store, or home.
v But factors such as economics, appearance, and quality of lighting results desired can
influence the lighting design developed for the task.
v Thus application techniques generally designated as industrial lighting, store lighting, and
so on, have developed based on lighting solutions for the types of visual tasks encountered
in each type of occupancy.
v It is necessary to relate the design of a lighting installation to the particular occupancy of
the space it is to serve.

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 Provision of Quality and Quantity of illumination
vRequired Illumination must be met
vUniformity
vNo Glare
vUniform
vGood Color Rendering

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 Selection of Lighting Systems
v Illuminating engineers have at their disposal a wide range of types and sizes of light
sources, luminaires, and lighting equipment.
v They should exercise their professional judgment to make choices based on economic
analyses and application requirements.

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 Selection of Control System
Manual Control:
(i) On /Off from single or multiple positions
using fixed switches.
(ii) On /Off using infra red remote controller.
(iii) On /Off / dimming from fixed switch
position.
(iv) Multiple lighting scene control using infra
red remote controller.
Automatic Control:
(i) Time switch
(ii) Occupancy sensors
(iii) Daylight sensor
(iv) Dimming
(v) Reduced voltage
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 Control Systems

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 Control Systems

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 Control Systems

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 Control Systems

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 Syllabus
1. Basic Consideration for Illuminating Design
i. Space Function
ii. Provision of Quality and Quantity of illumination
iii. Selection of Lighting Systems, Sources, Luminaries, and Controls
iv. Definitions of Terminology
2. Lumen Method of Lighting Computations
3. Point-to-point Lighting Computation
4. Design Procedures

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 Lumen Method of Lighting Computations
v The Lumen Method of design is an arithmetical procedure for determining for any
desired illuminance in an interior: the number of luminaires of a type; the required
lumen output, and hence the power and number of lamps per luminaire.
v Thus, a lighting layout may be prepared which uses the luminaires correctly (viz at
correct mounting height and spacing-to-mounting-height ratio).
v A further calculation enables the designer to confirm that the resulting Glare Index will
not exceed the Limiting Glare Index specified for that application in the CIBS/IES Code.

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 Basic assumptions underlying the lumen method
v Rectangular room
v Ratio of length to width = 1.6 : 1, with a max. of 4 : 1
v Completely empty room
v Uniform reflectance and completely diffuse reflection properties of the perimeter
surfaces
v Uniform distribution of luminous flux over all areas
v Regular luminaire configuration throughout the room
v In the case of fluorescent lamps, luminaire axis=room axis

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 Lumen Method of Lighting Computations
The Formula is,
𝑙×𝑛×𝑁×𝑈𝐹×𝑀𝐹×𝐴𝑏𝑠
𝐸! =
𝐴
v where Eh is the illuminance (lux) on a plane, e.g. the floor or a working plane. If not
otherwise specified, the working plane is assumed to be 0.85 m above the floor.
v 𝑙 is the number of lumens per lamp. Unless otherwise specified, this will be the Lighting
Design Lumens
v n is the number of lamps per luminaire.
v N is the number of luminaires.
v UF is the Utilization Factor
v MF is the Maintenance Factor
v Abs is the Absorption Factor
v The equation may be transposed to discover any required unknown

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 Placement

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 Space Height Ratio of Luminaries
v The minimum number of luminaires which may be used to achieve satisfactory uniformity is
determined by the maximum spacing-to-mounting height ratio (S:Hm) specified by the
luminaire maker.
v For fluorescent tubes and HID lamps used up to around 6 m height, the maximum ratio is
usually 1.5:1, viz, if the mounting height above the working plane is 5 m, then the maximum
spacing between luminaires will be 7.5 m.
v For 'high bay' luminaires, typically for use above 5 m mounting height, the ratio is usually 1:1.
v As one cannot have a fraction of a row, and over-spacing is to be avoided, divide the width (m)
by the permitted spacing (m), and round the number up to determine the minimum number of
rows.
v Similarly, divide the length by the permitted spacing and round up the result to determine the
minimum number of luminaires per row.
v Subsequent calculation may reveal that a greater number is required, but there is no objection
to somewhat closer spacing; indeed, with fluorescent luminaires, a continuous line of
luminaires end-to-end (e.g. on trunking) is economical and good practice.

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 Space Height Ratio of Luminaries
v In the case of fluorescent luminaires that do not have an axially-symmetrical intensity
distribution, maximum spacing information stated in the photometric data may indicate
nature of SHR i.e SHR(max), SHR(tr), SHR(ax).
v SHR(TR) and SHR(AX) should not exceeds SHR(max) i.e. 2.
v Usually we take the factor 1⁄2 when the dimensions of the room are such that the ratio of
the length to the width is less than 1.6, otherwise we take the factor of 1⁄3 .

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 Space Height Ratio of Luminaries
v For a rectangular arrangement of luminaires and by approximation,
1 𝐴
𝑆𝐻𝑅 =
𝐻" 𝑁
where
Ø A = total floor area
Ø N = number of luminaires
Ø Hm = mounting height N

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 Utilization Factor
v The result of performing the Lumen Method calculation is to determine the average
horizontal illuminance over the area.
v In practice, not all the lumens emitted by the lamps reach the working plane; some are
trapped in the luminaire; some will be emitted towards the walls or ceiling, and only a
proportion of these will be reflected back towards the working plane.
v The proportion of 'useful lumens' actually reaching the working plane is defined by the
utilization factor (UF):
𝐿𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
𝑈𝐹 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝐿𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛
v The UF may be discovered by reference to tables quoted for actual products by the
luminaire makers, or for types of luminaires given in Interior Lighting Design Table. We
can use Room index to find the Utilization Factor.

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 Maintenance Factor
v The Maintenance Factor (MF) used in the Lumen Method calculation provides an
allowance for the light lost due to dirt on the lamp and luminaire.
v It is defined as:
𝐿𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑
𝑀𝐹 =
𝐿𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛
v The light output per luminaire will decline from the time of installation due to the
gradual build-up of dirt, and will be substantially restored by thorough cleaning.
v The actual MF will depend upon the rate of soiling which must be estimated from tables,
or the estimate may be based on the soiling record of similar luminaires in the same
location or in a location having the same propensity for soiling, and the frequency of
cleaning.

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 Rate of Depreciation of Lumens
v The economic value of a planned maintenance routine is often under-estimated.
v The annual average rate of depreciation of lumen output from luminaires (D) is found from
the formula
𝐸# − 𝐸$
𝐷=
𝐸#×𝑇
v where E0 is the initial illuminance
v Ex is the illuminance after a period T, and
v T is the time in years.
v Luminaires do not all depreciate at the same rate; ventilated luminaires which have a
through-draught may have a D-factor as low as 0.05, while a nonventilated reflector or an
enclosed luminaire which aspirates soiled air might have a D-value around 1.00

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 Economical Cleaning Time
v The optimum economic cleaning interval is
that period over which the cost of the light
lost by dirt equals the cost of cleaning the
luminaires, and is given by
𝐶 2𝐶
𝑇=− + 𝑌𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
𝐴 𝐴×𝐷
where A is the annual cost of operating the
luminaires (i.e. energy consumption,
amortisation, lamp replacements etc) without
the cleaning cost,
C is the cost of cleaning the luminaires once,
D is the average rate of depreciation of lumen
output due to soiling

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 Total Light Loss

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 Maintenance Factor

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 Depreciation Factor
v This is merely the reverse of the maintenance factor.
v Its value is more than unity
v 𝑴𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 = 𝟏 − 𝑪𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒍𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

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 Waste Light Factor
v When a surface is illuminated by a number of lamps, there is certain amount of wastage
due to overlapping of light waves.
v Its value will be between 1.2 to 1.5

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 Absorption Factor
v Absorption Factor is a factor used in Lumen Method calculations to allow for the light
loss due to absorption and scattering of light during its passage from the luminaires to the
working plane.
v This is a factor that is often completely omitted from calculations, or, if employed, is
often much under-estimated.

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 Syllabus
1. Basic Consideration for Illuminating Design
i. Space Function
ii. Provision of Quality and Quantity of illumination
iii. Selection of Lighting Systems, Sources, Luminaries, and Controls
iv. Definitions of Terminology
2. Lumen Method of Lighting Computations
3. Point-to-point Lighting Computation
4. Design Procedures

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 Example
A production area in a factory measures 60 metres x 24 metres. Find the number of lamps
required if each lamp has a Lighting Design Lumen (LDL) output of 18,000 lumens. The
illumination required for the factory area is 200 lux. Utilisation factor = 0.4 and Lamp
Maintenance Factor = 0.75
The mounting height (Hm) = 4 metres and The spacing to mounting height ratio is 3 : 2.

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 Example

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 Example

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 Example

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 Assignment
The average illuminance specified at floor level in a sports nail is 700 lux. The hall
dimensions are 100m by 50 m with an overall height of 23 m. The specified lamps are high
pressure sodium with a lumen output of 110,000. The maximum spacing to height ratio is
1.25. The light loss factor may be taken as 0.9. Give a dimensioned plan showing a suitable
arrangement of luminaires assuming 1 lamp per luminaire and the luminaires to be
effectively 1 m below the ceiling of the hall. The following table gives the utilization factors
as a function of room index.
RI 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5
UF 0.6 0.66 0.7 0.73 0.77 0.79 0.81 0.83 0.84

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 Assignment
A factory measuring 50m x 10m has a lighting scheme consisting of 4 rows of 25 lighting
fittings each housing 2No. 65-Watt fluorescent lamps. For a 65-Watt fluorescent lamp the
Lighting Design Lumens (LDL) is 4400 lm.
(a) Find the installed flux in total. [880,000 lumens ]
(b) What is the installed flux per m2 of floor area. [1760 lm/m2. ]

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 Assignment
A room measures 15m x 7m x 3.6m high and the design illumination is 200 lux on the
working plane (0.85 metres above the floor). The Utilisation factor is 0.5 and the
Maintenance factor is 0.8. If the LDL output of each fitting is 2720 lumens, calculate;
(a) the number of fittings required.
(b) the fittings layout
(c) If the spacing/mounting height ratio is 1 : 1 determine whether the current design is
acceptable.

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 Spacing Linear Luminaries

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Steps to be followed for calculation of Number of Luminaries
1. Find required lux level
2. Select luminaire
3. Determine room index and then find UF
4. Determine Number of Fixtures

𝐸×𝐴
𝑁=
𝑙×𝑛×𝑁×𝑈𝐹×𝑀𝐹×𝐴𝑏𝑠

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Steps to be followed for calculation of Number of Luminaries
5. Determine Minimum spacing between luminaire
Minimum spacing = SHR * Hm
Hm= Mounting height
SHR= Space to height ratio.
6. Determine Number of required rows of luminaire along width of the room
Number of required rows= width of the room/ Minimum spacing
7. Determine Number of luminaire in each row
Number of luminaire in each row= Total luminaire / Number of rows
8. Axial spacing along luminaire
Axial spacing= Length of the room/ Number of luminaire in each row
9. Transverse spacing between luminaire
Transverse spacing = Width of the room/ Number of row

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 Example
An office has length of 20m, width=10m,height=3m.
1) Ceiling to desk height is 2m.
2) Area to be illuminated to a general is 250 lux using twin lamp 32 watt CFL Luminaire with
a SHR(Tr) of 1.25.
3) Each lamp has an initial output of 85 lumen per watt.
4) Maintenance factor is 0.63, Utilisation factor is 0.69
Design a lighting system for this office

Step 1: Total Flux Required

E=250 lux [Given]
Step 2: Select Luminaries
CFL Luminaries, Used as twins of size 32W
Total Wattage=2*32=64W
Step 3: Determine Room Index and UF
No Need to calculate Room Index as UF is given. UF=0.69
1/29/22 10:27 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 42
 Example
An office has length of 20m, width=10m,height=3m.
1) Ceiling to desk height is 2m.
2) Area to be illuminated to a general is 250 lux using twin lamp 32 watt CFL Luminaire with
a SHR(Tr) of 1.25.
3) Each lamp has an initial output of 85 lumen per watt.
4) Maintenance factor is 0.63, Utilisation factor is 0.69
Design a lighting system for this office

Step 4: Number of Luminaries

𝐸×𝐴
𝑁=
𝑙×𝑛×𝑈𝐹×𝑀𝐹×𝐴𝑏𝑠
𝐿𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛
𝑙= ∗ 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑝 = 85×32 = 2720
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡
250×20×10
𝑁= = 21.14 ≈ 21
2720×2×0.69×0.63× 1
1/29/22 10:27 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 43
 Example
An office has length of 20m, width=10m,height=3m.
1) Ceiling to desk height is 2m.
2) Area to be illuminated to a general is 250 lux using twin lamp 32 watt CFL Luminaire with
a SHR(Tr) of 1.25.
3) Each lamp has an initial output of 85 lumen per watt.
4) Maintenance factor is 0.63, Utilisation factor is 0.69
Design a lighting system for this office

Step 5: Minimum Spacing between Lamps

Minimum spacing = SHR ∗ Hm
= 1.25×2
= 2.5

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 Example
An office has length of 20m, width=10m,height=3m.
1) Ceiling to desk height is 2m.
2) Area to be illuminated to a general is 250 lux using twin lamp 32 watt CFL Luminaire with
a SHR(Tr) of 1.25.
3) Each lamp has an initial output of 85 lumen per watt.
4) Maintenance factor is 0.63, Utilisation factor is 0.69
Design a lighting system for this office

Step 6: Determine Number of required rows of luminaire along width of the room
𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑚
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠 =
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔
10
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠 = =4
2.5

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 Example
An office has length of 20m, width=10m,height=3m.
1) Ceiling to desk height is 2m.
2) Area to be illuminated to a general is 250 lux using twin lamp 32 watt CFL Luminaire with
a SHR(Tr) of 1.25.
3) Each lamp has an initial output of 85 lumen per watt.
4) Maintenance factor is 0.63, Utilisation factor is 0.69
Design a lighting system for this office

Step 7: Determine Number of luminaire in each row

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑒
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑟𝑜𝑤 =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠
22
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑟𝑜𝑤 = = 5.25 ≈ 5
4

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 Example
An office has length of 20m, width=10m,height=3m.
1) Ceiling to desk height is 2m.
2) Area to be illuminated to a general is 250 lux using twin lamp 32 watt CFL Luminaire with
a SHR(Tr) of 1.25.
3) Each lamp has an initial output of 85 lumen per watt.
4) Maintenance factor is 0.63, Utilisation factor is 0.69
Design a lighting system for this office

Step 8: Axial spacing along luminaire

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑚
𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑟𝑜𝑤
20
𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 = = 4𝑚
5

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 Example
An office has length of 20m, width=10m,height=3m.
1) Ceiling to desk height is 2m.
2) Area to be illuminated to a general is 250 lux using twin lamp 32 watt CFL Luminaire with
a SHR(Tr) of 1.25.
3) Each lamp has an initial output of 85 lumen per watt.
4) Maintenance factor is 0.63, Utilisation factor is 0.69
Design a lighting system for this office

Step 9: Transverse spacing between luminaire

𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑚
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑤
10
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 = = 2.5𝑚
4

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 Example

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References: https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/an-example-of-calculating-the-number-of-indoor-lighting-fixtures
 Assignment
A factory area is 40m long, 20m wide. Calculate the minimum number of luminaires and
Design a suitable layout given a mounting height above the working plane of 5.5m and the
following SHR's apply.
Transverse 2.00 : 1 (spacing between rows)
Axial 1.75 : 1 (spacing in rows)

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 Example
In a conference hall 20m × 40m × 5.5 m is to be illuminated using 72W rectangular CFL
lamps. Inside hall an average illumination of 108 lumen/m2 is to be provided on the working
plane. Calculate the number of lamp set required to be fitted in the hall. Draw layout
diagram showing arrangement of lamp set. Efficiency of lamp is 60Lum/W.

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 Example

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 Example

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 Find the Number of Power Socket

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 Sizing DB

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 Syllabus
1. Basic Consideration for Illuminating Design
i. Space Function
ii. Provision of Quality and Quantity of illumination
iii. Selection of Lighting Systems, Sources, Luminaries, and Controls
iv. Definitions of Terminology
2. Lumen Method of Lighting Computations
3. Point-to-point Lighting Computation
4. Design Procedures

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1/29/22 12:14 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 57
 Point to Point Light Calculations
v Predict direct illuminance at each point on a plane, using measured data of luminous
intensity distribution of a source or a luminaire
v Based on the inverse square law and cosine law
v Three factors must be considered:
Ø Luminous intensity
Ø Distance
Ø Orientation of the surface

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References: The Installer’s Guide to Lighting Design, Good Practice 300
 Inverse Square Law
v The area illuminated by the point light source
increases in proportion to the square of the distance.
v It follows that the average illuminance would
decrease by the same ratio.
𝐼
𝐸= %
𝑑
where d = the distance between the source and the
object.

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 Cosine Law for Lighting Calculation
v When light does not fall normally on a surface, the area illuminated increases reducing
the average illuminance by the same ratio.
𝐼×𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐸=
𝑑%

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Relation Between Direct and Angled Average Illumination

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 Example
A walkway is illuminated by Philip 250W lamps each having a luminous intensity of 4750
candela in all directions below the horizontal. Each lamp is installed at a height of 6m and the
distance between them is 16 metres. Calculate the illuminance contributed by each lamp:
a.
i. directly underneath,
ii. 8 metres from the base,
iii. 16 metres from the base,
iv. 32 metres from the base.
b. The total illuminance at:
i. the base of each lamp post,
ii. midway between the base of each lamp post.
c. Sketch an illuminance profile on a straight line joining the base of each lamp post.

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 Example

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 Example

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 Example

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 Example

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 Example

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 Thank You
???
References
1. https://abs.cu.edu.tr/Dokumanlar/2016/EEE463/495694447_lightingdesignstudentsguide.pdf
 Student Work
v.

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Namaste
Industrial Power Distribution
and Illumination
Asst. Prof. Shahabuddin Khan
Pulchowk Campus
sk@pcampus.edu.np
 Chapter - 8
Outdoor Lighting(6 hours)

Shahabuddin Khan
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
Pulchowk Campus, IOE
sk@pcampus.edu.np
 Syllabus
v Introduction
v Selection of Street Light Sources
v Selection of Luminaries
v Design Procedure of Street Lighting Scheme
v Basic Floodlighting Effects
v Selection of Floodlight Sources
v Selection of Luminaries
v Design Procedures
v Application Guide: Buildings, color, Examples of flood lighting Installation.

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 Street Light
v Providing street lighting is one the most important – and expensive – responsibilities
of a city.
v Lighting can account for 10–38% of the total energy bill in typical cities worldwide
(NYCGP 2009).
v Street lighting is a particularly critical concern for public authorities in developing
countries because of its strategic importance for economic and social stability.
v Inefficient lighting wastes significant financial resources each year, and poor lighting
creates unsafe conditions.
v So, Proper Efficient Street Light Should be provided.

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 Objective of Street Light
The main objects of street lighting are:
(i) To make the traffic and obstructions on the road clearly visible in order to promote
safety and convenience.
(ii) To make the street more attractive.
(iii) To increase the community value of the street.

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 Nature of Street Lighting

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 Nature of Street Lighting
The nature of street lighting is altogether different than indoor lighting on following account.
(1) There are no walls and ceilings which can reflect or diffuse light in absence of which hard
shadows cannot be avoided.
(2) Since areas to be illuminated are very large, it is not practicable for economic reason nor
technically essential to have same level of illumination as is required for indoor lighting.

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 Selection of Street Lamp

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 Selection of Street Lamp
v Street lighting installations normally use one of three types of high intensity discharge
(HID) lamps: high pressure sodium vapor (HPSV), metal halide (MH), or mercury
vapor (MV).
v HSPVs produce a yellowish light, have a long life, are very energy-efficient, and have
good lumen maintenance (maintain light output for a long period of time), but have poor
color rendering properties.
v MH lamps are the most frequently used alternative to HPSV in new installations. They are
also quite efficient and provide much better color rendering. However, these lamps tend to
have a shorter lamp life (some models below 10,000 hours) and poor lumen maintenance
over the life of the lamp. Recent developments have shown improvements in these areas,
but the improved lamps are presently limited in supply and higher in cost.
v MV lamps are the least efficient of the HID types and have poor lumen maintenance.

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 Selection of Street Lamp
v Light-emitting diode (LED) technology is a fast-evolving technology with significant
energy-saving potential. Operating for an average of 10 hours per day, LEDs have a life
span of up to 13 years, and provide a pleasant spectrum of light (Masthead LED
Lighting, 2009). The lifetime and performance depends on quality of the LED, system
design, operating environment, and other factors such as the lumen depreciation factor
over a period of time.
v Although the upfront cost of the LED is more than the cost of most HID lamps, the
energy consumed by the LED is half of the lamp’s energy (or less) and LEDs last longer
than conventional lamps, resulting in significant savings. The LED fixture does not
require a ballast or a capacitor; instead it converts the supply voltage to low voltage
direct current, using a small electronic power supply.

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 Classification of Luminaries
A. Cutoff luminaire:
v A luminaire whose light distribution is
characterized by rapid reduction of luminous
intensity in the region between about 80º and the
horizontal.
v The direction of maximum intensity may vary
but should be below 65º.
v The principal advantage of the cutoff system is
the reduction of glare.

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References: https://twitter.com/geoscitweeps/status/992083902901579779?lang=fi
 Classification of Luminaries
B. Semi-cutoff luminaire:
v A luminaire whose light distribution is characterized by a less severe reduction in the
intensity in the region of 80º to 90º.
v The direction of maximum intensity may vary but should be below 75º.
v The principal advantage of the semi-cutoff system is a greater flexibility in siting.

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References: https://twitter.com/geoscitweeps/status/992083902901579779?lang=fi
 Classification of Luminaries
C. Non-cutoff luminaire:
v A luminaire where there is no limitation on light distribution at any angle.
v This luminaire is permissible when a certain amount of glare may be accepted (when
daytime appearance of the street is important) and when the luminaires are large and have
reduced brightness.

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References: https://twitter.com/geoscitweeps/status/992083902901579779?lang=fi
 Selection of Luminaries

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References: https://twitter.com/geoscitweeps/status/992083902901579779?lang=fi
 Pole Arrangement Schemes
1. Single side arrangement, where all the luminaires are on one side of the road. This is
recommended only when the width of the road is equal to or less than the mounting
height.

2. Staggered arrangement, where the luminaires are placed on either side of the road in a
zigzag formation. This is recommended when the road width is 1 to 1.5 times that of the
mounting height.

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 Pole Arrangement Schemes
3. Opposite mounting, where the luminaires are situated on either side of the road opposite
to one another. This is advisable for road widths more than 1.5 times that of the mounting
height.

4. Axial mounting, where the luminaires are placed along the axis of the road. This is
recommended for narrow roads the width of which does not exceed the mounting height

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 Principle of Street Light Installation
v Diffusion Principle
v Specular Reflection Principle

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 Diffusion Principle
v In this case the lamps fitted with suitable reflectors are used.
v The reflectors are so designed that they may direct the light downwards and spread as
uniformly as possible over the road surface.
v In order to avoid glare the reflectors are made to have a cut-off of between 30° to 45° so
that the filament is not visible except from underneath it.
v The diffusing nature of the road surface causes the reflection of a certain proportion of the
incident light in the direction of the observer, and therefore, the road surface appears
bright to the observer.
v The illumination at any point on the road surface is calculated by applying point to point
or inverse-square law method.
v Over certain proportions of the road the surface is illuminated from two lamps and the
resultant illumination is the sum of the illuminations due to each lamp.

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 Diffusion Principle

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 Specular Reflection Principle
v In this case the reflectors are curved upwards so that the light is thrown on the road at a very
large angle of incidence.
v It is observed that a motorist requires to see objects about 30 metres away.
v Much of the light from the lamp L3 is not reflected towards the observer, whereas most of
the light from lamps L1 and L2 is reflected towards him.
v Thus the object will appear silhouetted against the bright road surface due to lamps at a
longer distance.
v The requirement of a pedestrian, who requires to see objects in his immediate
neighbourhood, is also fulfilled in this method as some light from the lamps falls directly
downwards.
v This method of street lighting is only suitable for straight sections of the road.
v This method is more economical also as compared to the diffusion method of lighting but it
suffers from the disadvantage that it produces glare for the motorists.

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 Specular Reflection Principle

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 Design of Street Light
v Street illumination level in Lux
𝑨𝒍×𝑪𝑼×𝑴𝑭
𝑬=
𝑾×𝒅
v E = The illumination in Lux
v w = Width of the roadway
v d = Distance between luminaries
v cu = Coefficient of utilization. Which is
dependent on the type of fixture, mounting
height, width of roadway and the length of mast
arm of outreach?
v mf : It is the maintenance factor (Normally 0.8
to 0.9)

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Reference: https://electricalnotes.wordpress.com/2014/05/04/calculate-no-of-street-light-poles/
 Example
Calculate Lamp Lumen for street Light Pole having Road width of 7 meter, distance between
two Pole is 50 meter, Maintenance factor is 0.9, Coefficient of utilization factor is 0.29, light
pedestrian traffic is medium and Vehicular traffic is very light and Road is concrete road.
Solution:
From Above table Recommended of illumination (E) in Lux is 6.46 per sq. meter.
w = 7.00 meters , d = 50 meters , mf = 0.9, cu = 0.29
To decide Lamp Watt It is necessary to calculate Average Lumens of Lamp (Al).
v Average Lumen of Lamp (Al)=(E x w x d) / Cu x mf
v Al=(6.46x7x50)/(0.29×0.9)= 8662.83 Average lumen
v Lamp lumen of a 250 watts lamp is 11,500 lm which is the nearest value to 8662.83 lumen.
v Therefore, a 250 watts lamp is acceptable.
Let’s Computing for the actual illumination E for 250 Watt Lamp
v Illumination (E)=(Al x (cu x mf)) / (w x d)
v E= (11500×0.29×0.9) / (7×50) = 8.57 lumen per sq meter.

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Reference: https://electricalnotes.wordpress.com/2014/05/04/calculate-no-of-street-light-poles/
 Example
Calculate Space between Two Pole of Street Light having Fixture Watt is 250W , Lamp output
of the Lamp (LL) is 33200 lumens, Required Lux Level (E) is 5 lux, Width of the road (W) =
11.48 feet (3.5 M), Height of the pole (H) = 26.24 feet (8 M), Coefficient of utilization (CU) =
0.18, Lamp Lumen Depreciation Factor (LLD) = 0.8, Luminaries dirt Depreciation Factor
(LDD) = 0.9
Solution:
Luminaries Spacing (S) = (LLxCUxLLDxLDD) / (ExW)
Luminaries Spacing (S) = (33200×0.18×0.9×0.8) / (5×11.48)
Luminaries Spacing (S) = 75 feet (23 Meters)

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Reference: https://electricalnotes.wordpress.com/2014/05/04/calculate-no-of-street-light-poles/
 Calculate Lux Level for Street Lighting
v The Average Lux Level of Street Light is measured by 9 point method.
v Make two equal quadrants between two Street light poles. on the lane of light poles( one
side pole to road).
v We have 3 points P1, P2 and P3 under the light pole then P4 & P7 are points opposite pole
1 or Point P3 same is applicable for P6 and P9 for Pole 2.
v The average lux = [(P1+P3+P7+P9)/16]+[(P2+P6+P8+P4)/8]+[P5/4]

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 Flood Lighting
v Flood Lighting is the term used for mass scale
outdoor/external lighting of areas buildings or
monuments, may be mono chromatic or colored
lighting.
v Most of the cultural and industrial activities are being
performed in night time demanding flood lighting of
areas and surfaces during odd hours.
v Flood lighting is required for public places like car
parking's and parks, airport yards, monuments, stadia,
bus depot, landscape and construction site.

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 Flood Lighting

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 Illumination Level for Flood Lighting
Areas Illumination in lux
Landscapes 50-150
Areas Illumination in lux
Construction work 40-60
Stadium 100-300
Excavation work 10-20
Badminton court 200-300
Parking 5-10
Tennis court 150-300
General campus lighting for watching 2-5
Football and hockey 100-200
Quarries 20-25
Indoor games 200-300
Decorative and specular effects 100-200
Petrol pumps 20-150
Sign boards advertising 100-300
Bus Depot 20-50
Water tanks 80-120
Airport Apron 100-200
Railway yards 1-10
Ship yards 40-50
Dredging 40-60
Docks and loading platforms 20-30

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 Flood Lighting for Monument
v In monumental lighting aesthetics is of more importance than level of illumination.
v Monumental lighting require more of art than engineering.
v To have a clear perception of any object its boundaries and contours should have contrast
with its general shape so that its shape can be judged.

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Illumination Level for Monumental/Building Lighting
Illumination level in Lux
Building Surfaces Reflection Factor
A B C
White Terracotta, Cream
Teraacotta, Light Marble, Portland 0.6 to 0.7 150 100 50
Stone
Light Grey Limestone, Buff Lime
stone, Smooth Buff-face Brick 0.4 to 0.6 200 120 70
Concrete
Sand stone, Smooth gey brick,
medium flrey lime stone, Dark 0.2 to 0.4 250 150 100
Stones
Dark Field Grey Brick, Comon Red
0.1 to 0.2 300 180 120
Brick, Brown Cudappa
A= Surrounding having good lighting
B=Surroundings with medium intensity/lower portion of building
C= Poor Lighting Environment/ Higher Portion of Building

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 Design of Flood lighting
v It has been found from experience
that the best general arrangement
of the flood lights for a square or
rectangular plan building is as
shown in Fig.
v If the flood-lights -arc placed on
either side of the diagonal as
½ Eav shown, the effect achieved is a
contrast in brightness between the
two adjacent sides of the building.
300 Eav Path for alternative
v This together with a difference in
Position of luminaries lighting level helps to reveal the
Main form of the building while the
Facade oblique angle of incidence brings
out the texture of the building's
surface material.
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 Shadow Portions in Recessed

Sh
ad
ow

Fig: Shadows in Recessed Portion

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 Shadows Avoided By Localized Lighting

Lo
ca
lL
ig
th

Fig: Shadows in Recessed Portion

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Shadows Shortened By Placing Luminaries at a Distance

Lo
ca
lL
ig
th

Fig: Shadows in Recessed Portion

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 Choice of Sitting
v The sitting of the flood lights and the choice of floodlight type (viz, beam width, beam-
shape and intensity) are mutually dependent.
v As a general rule, a low building would be lighted by a moderate intensity narrow-beam
flood light placed close to and aimed steeply upwards, or a similarly powered unit but of
wide beam placed farther away.
v In each case, the taller the building, the higher must be intensity of the flood light used.

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Recommended Minimum Illuminance According to Building Material

Surroundings Surroundings
Material Poorly lit(lux) Highly lit(lux)
Light 30 120
Plaster
Dark 100 400
Limestone/ Light 40 160
Sandstone Dark 80 320
Terracota/ Light 50 200
Concrete Dark 80 320
Light 50 200
Granite
Dark 150 540
Light 30 120
Brick
Dark 150 500
Light 30 120
Marble
Dark 300 900
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Projectors and their Classification/Luminaries Selection

Reflector Type Distance of Mounting Beam Spread (Vertical)

Narrow Above 20m 12-250
Medium 9 to 20 m 25-400
Wide 1 to 9 m 40-900

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Flood Light as per Luminous Flux Distribution

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 Flood Light as per Luminous Flux Distribution
v If the area or surface which is illuminated is perpendicular to center of beam, circular
pattern is formed although boundary line of this circle is not well defined.
v By definition boundary is considered to be there where illumination level falls to one
tenth of value of center of illuminated circle.
v By proper overlapping of these circles it is easy to get uniform illumination.
v If center of beam is at angle other than 900, we get ellipses instead of circles.
v Illumination at the end of major axis of ellipse will be less.
v However, this effect is not much pronounced for angle of incidence up to 450.
v If this angle is more than 450 variation in illumination is appreciable as asymmetrical type
projectors shall be necessary where intensity of illumination is more in the portion of
beam reaching the edges of the ellipse.
v Use of wide beam projector is beneficial as compared to narrow beam projector but since
overlapping of light beam is limited with wide beam spread illumination is less uniform.

2/2/22 6:26 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 40

 Terminologies

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 Terminologies
Beam spread
v It is the angle with respect to vertical axis of fitting where luminous intensity of luminaire
falls to one tenth of its maximum.
Beam factor
v It is the ratio of lumen output in solid angle contained by of a beam-spread projector to
total lamp lumen.
v This factor takes into account the absorption of light reflector and front glass of projector
lamps.
v Its values lies from 0.3 to 0.6

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 Terminologies
Waste light factor
v When a number of projectors are utilized for flood Lighting the flux emitted by one
projector overlaps the jurisdiction of illumination created by adjacent projector in either
lateral or transverse direction, and some flux of outer rows of luminaires goes beyond the
scope of area to be illuminated.
v The ratio of useful flux to total original flux emitted by lamps is called waste light
factor.
v Value of this factor is 1.2 for rectangular and 1.5 for irregular object such as statues,
monuments etc.

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Location of Flood Luminaries Installation/ Flood Light Schemes

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 Location of Flood Luminaries Installation

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 Location of Flood Luminaries Installation

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 Number of Luminaries and their arrangement
In Flood Lighting/spot lighting calculation of illumination is done with the help of
following formula.
𝜙×𝑁×𝜂!
𝐸=
𝐴×𝜂" ×𝜂#
Where,
𝜙 = 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠
𝐸 = 𝐼𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝐿𝑢𝑥
A=Area
𝑁 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠
𝜙 = 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠
𝜂! = 𝑈𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝜂# = 𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝜂" = 𝑊𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒 𝐿𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

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 Steps for Flood Light Calculation
v The problem of flood-lighting calculations may be roughly separated into three steps.
First Step:
Ø Illumination Level Required:
v The illumination level (lumens/m2 ) required depends upon the type of building, the
purpose of the flood lighting the amount of conflicting light in the vicinity etc.
Second Step:
Ø Type of Projector:
v Two considerations enter into the choice of a projector, viz., beam size and light output.
v The former determines the area covered by the beam and the latter the illumination
provided.
v Beam angle of the projector is decided keeping in view the distance of projector from the
surface.

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 Steps for Flood Light Calculation
Third Step:
Ø Number of projectors:
v For any desired intensity over a definite surface the number of projectors required is
obtained from the following relation.

𝐸×𝐴×𝜂" ×𝜂#
𝑁=
𝜙×𝜂!
Where,
v N = number of projectors,
v A = Area of surface to be illuminated in square metres
v E = Illumination level required in lumens/m2

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 Example
Calculate the number of 100W flood light projectors needed to illuminate the upper 75m of
one face of 100m tower, of width 12m, if the approximate initial brightness is to 20 lux per
square meter. The projectors are based at ground level, 50m from the base of the tower.
The beam factor is 0.3, reflection factor of the walls is 0.2, maintenance factor is 0.8, waste
light factor is 1.2 and lamp efficiency is 20 lumens/Watt.

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 Example
A vertical red wall of size 25 m x 10 m (High) of monument is to be illuminated from a
distance of 30 m by fittings planted in ground. Find the number of fittings/ lamps and their
arrangement.

Reflector Type Distance of Mounting Beam Spread (Vertical)

Narrow Above 20m 12-250
Medium 9 to 20 m 25-400
Wide 1 to 9 m 40-900
E=120 lux
Beam Factor=0.5
MF=1.6
WF=1.2

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 Example

30m

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 Example

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 Example

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 Examples of Flood Lighting Installation
Floodlighting Badminton Court:
v The recommended illumination level is 200-300 lux.
v Lights should be mounted on poles 8-9 m high placed at each end of the net.
v Two lamps of 750 to 1000W mounted in open porcelain enamelled reflectors on each pole
will provide adequate light.
Tennis Court
v Wide angle deep bowel reflectors should be used.
v Illumination 150-300lux, mounting height 9m.
v Eight to sixteen 1000W lamps will be required to provide the necessary illumination.

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 Examples of Flood Lighting Installation
Football ground
v For school games, adequate lighting can be provided by floodlights on poles 13- 15m.
high and spaced 24m apart at about 5m from the side lines.
v Four to six 1000W lamps will be required on each pole.
v For bigger field, floodlights should be fitted on Towers 25-30m. high and spaced about
45m apart.
v Three towers will be required on each side with 12 to 20, one thousand-watt projectors on
each tower.
v The towers are located behind the spectator stands.

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 Comparison of Light Sources

2/2/22 6:26 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 57

 Thank You
???
References
1. https://www.slideshare.net/vijayraskar501/illumination-lighting
2. https://www.slideshare.net/vijayraskar501/illumination-lighting
3. https://www.engineeringenotes.com/illumination-engineering/street-lighting/street-lighting-
objects-principles-and-lamps-illumination-engineering/37289
4. https://beeindia.gov.in/sites/default/files/ctools/Energy%20Efficient%20Street%20Lighting%
20Guidelines.pdf
5. https://www.electrical4u.com/road-lighting-design/
 Student Work
v Explain different Floodlighting Effect.

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 Sh
ad
ow

2/2/22 6:26 PM SK, Pulchowk Campus 60

Namaste
Industrial Power Distribution
and Illumination
Asst. Prof. Shahabuddin Khan
Pulchowk Campus
sk@pcampus.edu.np
 Chapter - 9
Emergency and Back-up Supply System for
Industrial Plant(6 hours)

Shahabuddin Khan
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
Pulchowk Campus, IOE
sk@pcampus.edu.np
 Syllabus
Emergency and Back-up Supply System for Industrial Plant(6 hours)
1. Battery Supply System
i. Battery Installation
ii. Charging and Maintenance
2. Emergency Supply System
3. Uninterrupted Supply for Critical Load

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 Some Terminologies
Automatic transfer switch:
v Self-acting equipment for transferring one or more
load conductor connections from one power source to
another.
Bypass/isolation switch:
v A manually operated device used in conjunction with
an automatic transfer switch to provide a means of
directly connecting load conductors to a power source
and of disconnecting the automatic transfer switch.
Commercial power:
v Power furnished by an electric power utility company.
v When available, it is usually the prime power source;
however, when economically feasible, it sometimes
serves as an alternative or standby source.

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References: https://junkeelectric.en.made-in-china.com/product/cZMxXzfTCLWC/China-63A-MCB-Type-ATS-Panel-Automatic-Transfer-Switch-Changeover-to-Intelligent-Diesel-Generator.html
 Some Terminologies
Emergency power system:
v An independent reserve source of electric energy that, upon failure or outage of the
normal source, automatically provides reliable electric power within a specified time to
critical devices and equipment whose failure to operate satisfactorily would jeopardize
the health and safety of personnel or result in damage to property.
Standby power system:
v An independent reserve source of electric energy that, upon failure or outage of the
normal source, provides electric power of acceptable quality so that the user’s facilities
may continue in satisfactory operation.
Uninterruptible power supply (UPS):
v A system designed to automatically provide power, without delay or transients, during
any period when the normal power supply is incapable of performing acceptably.

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 General Criteria for Preliminary Consideration

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References: From IEEE Std. 446-1995. Copyright 1995 IEEE. All rights reserved.
 General Criteria for Preliminary Consideration

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References: From IEEE Std. 446-1995. Copyright 1995 IEEE. All rights reserved.
 General Criteria for Preliminary Consideration

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References: From IEEE Std. 446-1995. Copyright 1995 IEEE. All rights reserved.
 Emergency Power Supply
v Emergency power systems are designed to provide automatic backup power within 10
seconds of standard power loss to all systems that ensure the safety of individuals.
v These include egress lighting, smoke ventilation and fire alarm systems to name a few.
v These backup power systems must be built separate from main power systems, right down
to their own conduit runs and electrical panels.

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 Standby Power Supply
v Standby power systems are required for certain industries to provide automatic backup
power within 60 seconds.
v Unlike emergency power systems, standby systems may use the same components as a
building’s standard electrical system.
v A standby system can be used to run important but non-critical systems for safety, such as
HVAC and communications systems.

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 Backup Power Supply
v Backup power systems are designed to provide power to functions that are important to
your business during power outages.
v They may be engaged automatically when an outage is detected, or may need to be
activated manually.
v Like standby systems, backup systems can share the same components and wiring as the
main power system.
v Typically backup systems are used to keep occupants comfortable and prevent loss of
data or funds.

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 Power Sources for Emergency and Backup Supply
Batteries

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 Power Sources for Emergency and Backup Supply
Batteries
v Batteries are used for emergency power supply and as a backup power source for
communications, security systems, telephone, and fire alarm systems.
v Batteries provide a low first-cost option as an emergency source, but have a relatively
high maintenance cost.
v They also have limited capacity, thereby restricting the equipment loads that they are
suitable for supplying; their low-voltage operation presents voltage drop limitations.

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 Power Sources for Emergency and Backup Supply
Batteries
v They are typically in the form of unitized equipment (wallpacks) consisting of a
rechargeable storage battery, automatic charger, floodlight-type lamps, and automatic
transfer relay.
v Operation is typically at 12 VDC.
v These constitute decentralized systems.
v There are also centralized systems that power remote lighting heads and exit lights that
typically operate at 24 or 32 VDC.
v A variation of this is centralized inverter systems, which operate regular light fixtures and
exit lights on their normal AC voltage.
v Another variation is decentralized, self-contained, emergency lighting inverter units.

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 Power Sources for Emergency and Backup Supply
Local Generation
v Local generation is advisable when service is absolutely essential for lighting or power
loads, or both, and when these loads are relatively large and are distributed over large
areas.
v Several choices are available in the type of prime mover, voltage of the generator, and
method of connection to the system.
v Various alternates should be considered as per starting time requirements.
v The prime mover supply may be steam, natural gas, gasoline, diesel fuel, or liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG).

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 Power Sources for Emergency and Backup Supply
Multiple Service Connection
v Local generation or batteries may not be
considered when the local utility provider can
supply two or more service connections across
different lines from distinct generation
stations, ensuring that system disturbances or
storms do not impair both supplies at the same
time.
v A second line for emergency power should not
be relied upon, however, unless total loss of
power can be tolerated on rare occasions.
v The alternate feeder can either serve as a
standby with primary switching or have its
own transformer with secondary switching.

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 Battery Supply System

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 Battery
A battery is a source of the electric potential energy that after some internal chemical
reactions, the chemical energy is converted to the electrical energy and this energy is
accessible in its poles.
vA set of cells, which are connected in parallel or series to boost
the current or voltage.
vPrimary:
ØIf a battery is used only once and cannot be charged to be
used again, then it is called a primary battery.
Ø ZnMnO2 (Dry Cell), ZnAgO2, LiSOCl2 (Lithium Thionyl-
chloride)
vSecondary:
ØIf the battery can be recharged and used for a number of
times, it is called a secondary battery
Ø Pb/Pb2(Lead Acid Battery), LiSO2(Lithium Sulphur
Dioxide), LiPo (Lithium ion Polymer)
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Comparison of Different Battery Technologies

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 Electrical Characteristics of Batteries: Voltage

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 Electrical Characteristics of Batteries: Voltage
v The value of emf varies with change in specific gravity of electrolyte, temperature and
length of time since it was last charged.
v Emf increases with increase in specific gravity and vice versa but internal resistance of cell
also increases.

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Electrical Characteristics of Batteries: Battery Capacity
vThe total amount of electrical energy. That a battery can store is called battery capacity.
vThe unit is amp-hour(Ah)
v𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟×𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 → 𝑊. ℎ𝑟
v𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒×𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
v𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒×𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡×𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 → 𝑉. 𝐴. ℎ𝑟
v𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
v𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒×𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

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BATTERY CAPACITY
Electrical Characteristics of Batteries: Depth of Discharge
vDepth of Discharge is defined as the capacity that is discharged from a fully charged
battery, divided by battery nominal capacity.
vDepth of discharge is normally expressed as a percentage.
vFor, example, if a 100 Ah battery is discharged for 20 minutes at a current of 50 A, the
depth of discharge is 50 * 20 / 60 / 100 = 16.7 %.

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DEPTH OF DISCHARGE

Load requires
200Ah
DEPTH OF DISCHARGE
DEPTH OF DISCHARGE
DEPTH OF DISCHARGE(DOD)
STATE OF CHARGE (SOC)
BATTERY CYCLE
BATTERY CONNECTIONS
 Charging and Discharging Rates

Id (A)
C=I2t

C10
10 A
100 Ah
C20
5A
100 Ah

10 hr 20 hr t

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 Efficiency
The efficiency of a cell can be considered in two ways :
1. The quantity or ampere-hour (Ah) efficiency
2. The energy or watt-hour (Wh) efficiency

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 Efficiency
amp−hour discharge
𝐴ℎ 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
amp−hour charge
vThe Ah efficiency of a lead-acid cell is normally between 90 to 95%, meaning that about 100
Ah must be put back into the cell for every 90-95 Ah taken out of it.
vBecause of gassing which takes place during the charge, the Ah available for delivery from the
battery decreases.
vIt also decreases
(i) due to self-discharge of the plates caused due to local reactions and
(ii)due to leakage of current because of faulty insulation between the cells of the battery.

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 Efficiency
Output in Wh
𝑊ℎ 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
Input in Wh
v The Wh efficiency varies between 72-80%.
v If Ah efficiency is given, Wh efficiency can be found from the following relation :

v From the above, it is clear that anything that increases the charge volts or reduces the
discharge volts will decrease Wh efficiency.
v Because high charge and discharge rates will do this, hence it is advisable to avoid these.
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 Comparison
Ah Efficiency Wh Efficiency
The Ah efficiency does not take into The Wh efficiency does take into account
account the varying voltages of charge and the varying voltages of charge and
discharge. discharge.
It is constant for charging and discharging Usually, during discharge the e.m.f. falls
case as it is independent on voltage. from about 2.1 V to 1.8 V whereas during
charge it rises from 1.8 volt to about 2.5 V.
So, Efficiency do vary.
amp−hour discharge Output in Wh
𝐴ℎ 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑊ℎ 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
amp−hour charge Input in Wh
𝑉!
𝑊ℎ 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝐴ℎ 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦×
𝑉"
Greater than Wh Efficiency Less Than Ah Efficiency

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 Example
Calculate i) Ampere-hour efficiency ii) Watt-hour efficiency of a secondary cell which is
discharged at uniform rate of 30A (=Id) for 6h (=Td) at an average terminal voltage of 2V
(=Vd). It then charged at the uniform rate of 40A (=Ic) for 5h (=Tc) to restore it to
original condition. The terminal voltage during charging is 2.5V (=Vc). Ans: 90%, 72%

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 Example
A electric cell is discharged at a steady current of 4A for 12 hours, the average terminal
voltage being 1.2V. To restore it to its original state of charge, a steady current of 3A for
20 Hours is required, the average terminal voltage being 1.44V. Calculate the Ah
efficiency and Wh efficiency in this particular case. Ans: 80%, 72.13%

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 Battery Sizing
1. Identify and Select battery Chemistry
v E.g. Lead-Acid, Li-Polymer, etc.
v Based on Application, Availability and Capital Investment
2. Find out DoD allowable for the battery type
v LEAD Acid (SLI) à DoD= 20%
v Lead Acid (tubular) à DoD=80%
v Li-Poà DoD =70%
3. Find out Wh requirement of load (Whload)
4. Calculate Capacity
𝑊ℎ$%"&
𝑊ℎ!"# = ×𝐴𝐷
𝐷𝑜𝐷
𝑊ℎ!"#
𝐴ℎ!"# =
𝑉!"#'(%)*("$

5. Select C-rate

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Design a Battery Bank for the following Load requirements.

Devices/Equipments Qty. Wattage Backup Time

Desktop 6 125 6
LED bulbs 24 10 6
CCTV system 1 200 6
Inverter AC 3 400 6
Refrigerator (1000L) 6 525 6
Centrifugal Milk Separator 2 2000 6

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 As
Devices/Equipment's Qty. Wattage Total Load Backup Hrs Total WHr
Desktop 6 125 750 6 4500
LED bulbs 24 10 240 6 1440
CCTV system 1 200 200 6 1200
Inverter AC 3 400 1200 6 7200
Refrigerator (1000L) 6 525 3150 6 18900
Centrifugal Milk Sepearator 2 2000 4000 6 24000
Total 3260 9540 57240

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 If Battery is 12V with 80%DOD and AD=1

Battery back up required 57240 whr

Batter Back up required with 80% DOD 71550 whr
Using battery of 12V, 200AH @C10 2400 whr
Number of batteries required 29.8125 30

If DC Bus Bar is 48V.

Batteries in series 4
Bank in Parallel 8

Since it is not recommended to connect more than 4 parallel banks, we need to

reconfigure the battery system using batteries of higher amperage capacity which will
allow us to meet our bank capacity requirement.
2/13/22 10:29 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 47
 Redesign
Battery spec (V , AH) 2 1500
Using Battery of 2V, 1500 AH 3000 whr
Number of batteries required 23.85 24
24 in series
Battery configuration 1 in parallel
Total Battery capacity 72000 whr

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 Sizing Inverter for Battery Bank

Total Connected Load 9540 W

Power Factor 0.8
Size of Inverter required 11.925 KVA 12 KVA
For Three Phase system
Total Number of Inverter 3 nos
Required KVA of each inverter 4 KVA
Available size of Inverter 5 KVA

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 Battery Installation
v During the design of the battery
system, care should be taken to
assure the proper installation of the
battery system.
v First, the necessary codes and
regulations must be followed.
v Second, the installation needs to be
designed to minimize access by
unauthorized personnel.
v And finally, the installation must be
designed for ease of maintenance

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 Factors to Be Considered for Battery Installation
Location:
v The battery should be located in an area isolated from normal foot traffic.
v A battery room is ideal, but a caged or otherwise protected area is acceptable.
Ventilation:
v Calculations should be made to determine the amount of hydrogen gas that is produced
under worst case conditions.
v Since hydrogen is an explosive gas, OSHA has stated that accumulations of hydrogen gas
must be limited to less than 1%.
v Therefore, sufficient ventilation is required to meet the criteria.

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 Factors to Be Considered for Battery Installation
Temperature:
v The battery should be maintained at a constant temperature, preferably at 25°C.
v If other ambient temperatures are anticipated, the manufacturer should be consulted,
especially at higher temperatures where loss of battery life can occur.
v Care should also be taken to maintain all batteries at the same temperature. This can be
difficult on multi-step or tiered battery racks where batteries near the floor are often times
at a lower temperature than the batteries higher on the rack.
Maintainability:
v The installation should be such that the battery can be easily maintained.
v Multi-step systems can be difficult to maintain if the top battery row is to far from the
front of the battery.
v Furthermore, special barrier or catch basins should be used which are not cumbersome for
the maintenance personnel.
v Finally, acid resistant paint should be used on the floor, if appropriate, which can be
readily cleaned.
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 Issues with Poor Installation of Battery
v loss of life on the battery due to the high operating
v inadequate battery capacity at lower temperatures,
v deratings of battery charger,
v possible gassing problems even on “maintenance free” lead acid batteries, and
v premature failure of the battery system and possible subsequent catastrophic failure of
major electrical equipment.

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Battery Charging System: Constant Voltage(CV) Method
v The voltage is held constant throughout the charge by means of a variable resistance.
v Constant voltage allows the full current of the charger to flow into the battery until the
power supply reaches its pre-set voltage.
v The current will then taper down to a minimum value once that voltage level is reached.
v The battery can be left connected to the charger until ready for use and will remain at that
“float voltage”, trickle charging to compensate for normal battery self-discharge.

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Battery Charging System: Constant Current(CC) Method
v The charging current is held constant by means of a variable resistance in the
charging circuit.
v Constant current is a simple form of charging batteries, with the current level set at
approximately 10% of the maximum battery rating.
v Charge times are relatively long with the disadvantage that the battery may overheat if it is
over-charged, leading to premature battery replacement.
v This method is suitable for Ni-MH type of batteries.
v The battery must be disconnected, or a timer function used once charged.

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 Battery Charging System: CC-CV Method
v The CC-CV charging method is a hybrid
approach that combines the two previously
mentioned charging methods.
v It uses CC charging in the first charging
stage, and when the voltage reaches the
maximum safe threshold value, the charging
process shifts to the CV charging method.
v The charging process is complete when the
current levels off or when full battery
capacity is reached.
v The charging time is mainly defined by the
constant current value (CC mode), while the
capacity utilization is predominantly
influenced by the constant voltage value (CV
mode).
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Battery Charging System: Multi-Constant-Current Method
v The MCC charging method includes several constant current stages, where the current is
gradually decreased as the terminal voltage reaches a default voltage threshold.
v The charging process continues until the battery reaches the terminal conditions.
v The MCC method is suitable for charging the following battery types: lead-acid, NiMH,
and Li-ion batteries.

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 Charger Applications

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 Trickle Charging
v When a storage battery is kept entirely as an emergency reserve, it is very essential that it
should be found fully charged and ready for service when an emergency arises.
v Due to leakage action and other open-circuit losses, the battery deteriorates even when idle
or on open-circuit.
v Hence, to keep it fresh, the battery is kept on a trickle charge.
v The rate of trickle charge is small and is just sufficient to balance the open-circuit losses.
v For example, a standby battery for station bus-bars capable of giving 2000 A for 1 hour or
400 Ah at the 10-hr rate, will be having a normal charging rate of 555 A, but a continuous
'trickle' charge of 1 A or so will keep the cells fully charged (without any gassing) and in
perfect condition.
v When during an emergency, the battery gets discharged, it is recharged at its normal
charging rate and then is kept on a continuous trickle charge.

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 Charger
In sizing the dc current rating of the battery charger, the following should be considered:
ü recharge time T in hours,
ü dc continuous load current L in amperes,
ü the Ah of recharge in ampere-hours,
ü temperature correction C1 (check with manufacturer),
ü altitude correction factor C2 (check with manufacturer),
ü charger conversion factor typically 1.10 (check with manufacturer)
ü and battery charger rating A in amperes.
v The following equation includes the above factors:
1.1×𝐴ℎ 1 1
𝐴 = +𝐿 × ×
𝑇 𝐶1 𝐶2

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 Example
An example of the above equation is as follows:
Recharge time T is 8 h.
Continuous load current L is 5 A
The maximum ampere-hours of discharge is 150 Ah.
The maximum ambient temperature is 55°C resulting in C1 = 0.80
The altitude is 1500 m resulting in C2 = 0.90.

1.1×𝐴ℎ 1 1
𝐴 = +𝐿 × ×
𝑇 𝐶1 𝐶2

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 Maintenance of Battery
1. Charge battery once it is down to 20% capacity.
v Do not allow battery to drop below 20% power before charging.
v Discharging the battery’s banks too far will harm the battery, permanently impacting the
performance and endurance of the battery.
v It may also overheat, damaging electric circuits to the forklift.
v Allow battery to charge to full power uninterrupted.
v A battery’s lifespan is often proportional to the number of charges it receives.
v Undercharging, charging for short periods of time multiple times a day (this includes quick
charging during a lunch break) or charging before battery has discharged more than 50% of
its power can all lead to decreased performance rate and a shortened battery life.

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References: https://ibcipower.com/6-steps-for-proper-battery-maintenance/
 Maintenance of Battery
2. Deliver equalizer charge when necessary.
v This is a deliberate overcharge that many batteries require to function properly and
efficiently.
v Chargers for batteries that need this will have button that must be manually pressed to
turn on the equalizer charge.
v If you are uncertain about whether an equalizer charge is necessary, how often to deliver
it or how to deliver an equalizer charge, consult your battery/charger manual for further
instructions.
v During the process of receiving an equalizer charge, batteries will charge for a longer
period of time.
v This extended charge time may lead to overheating, and batteries should be monitored
during this process.

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References: https://ibcipower.com/6-steps-for-proper-battery-maintenance/
 Maintenance of Battery
3. Turn power off and allow battery to cool before removing.
v Do not turn power off until after battery has reached 100% power.
v The battery will run more efficiently throughout the day if it has reached full power.
v This practice will also decrease the number of times the battery needs to be charged, thus
increasing the battery’s lifespan.
v Battery must cool before being placed back into service or it may overheat, potentially
damaging both the battery and electrical circuits

4. When water/electrolytes are needed, be sure to water battery after charging and
disconnecting.
v It is not safe to water battery at any other point in time.
v Charge before watering as heat of charging can cause changes in water levels (both as
evaporation and overflow).
v If water levels are quite low before charging, you may add a small amount of water to
prevent battery overheating during the charging process.
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References: https://ibcipower.com/6-steps-for-proper-battery-maintenance/
 Maintenance of Battery
5. If battery is overfilled, clean battery immediately following overflow.
v Overflow during this process will leak battery acid across the surface of the battery and
will cause corrosion if not immediately cleaned.
v Corrosion and residual acid can deteriorate battery life and cause battery to overheat
during charging and use.

6. Clean battery with a neutralizing detergent solution on a regular basis.

v Surface cleaning will prevent dirt build-up, corrosion and resulting problems.
v Clean battery after watering.
v This will save you from repeating a step in the event of an overflow, water drips, etc.
v Always clean batteries in the designated washing area with the appropriate equipment and
specialized neutralizing detergent.
v The neutralizing agent may be a specified cleaner or a simple sprinkling of baking soda.

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References: https://ibcipower.com/6-steps-for-proper-battery-maintenance/
 Inspection and Testing of Battery for Maintenance
vInspection of the battery and battery charger. Included in the inspection should be a
visual inspection, cleaning, and periodic checking for tightness of hardware and fittings.
vTesting for the specific gravity of the electrolyte. Since the electrolyte is a relatively weak
solution of sulfuric acid in the lead acid battery, the specific gravity can be measured to
determine the concentration of sulfuric acid. While individual applications will vary slightly
on the actual application of the battery system, the following are common values of specific
gravity:
Ø 1.26 for Automotive service
Ø 1.245 for Partly cycled batteries
Ø 1.275 for Heavily cycled batteries such as those used form electric industrial trucks.
Ø 1.210 for Standby or emergency service batteries such as used in electric substations.
Specific gravity curves can be used to determine the amount of capacity remaining in a
battery cell as a function of specific gravity. The specific gravity of the electrolyte will
decrease as the battery is discharged.

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 Inspection and Testing of Battery for Maintenance
vLoad testing of a battery should be periodically performed to test the discharge
characteristics of a battery. Care must be taken to follow the battery manufacturer’s
recommendations on such a test. Load testing on some battery systems such as the lead-
calcium type batteries should be limited throughout the life of the battery due to some “loss-
of-life’’ caused by load testing. Also, specific gravity and individual cell voltages should be
monitored during the load test to catch individual weak cells prior to cell reversal.
vRecords should be kept on all testing and maintenance. As the battery ages, the degradation
of the system can be monitored through such records and corrective actions can be taken
prior to failure of the system.

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 Emergency Supply System
Standby Generator
v The NEC standards states that,
in case of failure of utility
supply, an emergency source
(Generator) should start
operating in nearly 10 seconds
to provide power for the whole
emergency system.
v The generator will power up all
the emergency loads such as
lighting (20-30% of all system
lighting fixtures), power (for
special loads) and etc.

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 Emergency Supply System
Central Battery
v Due to the generator will take some time to start and get into operation, central battery is
required to provide supply instantaneously in case of power failure.
v Central batteries are mainly for lighting and HVAC (smoke dampers ) systems.

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 Uninterrupted Supply
v A UPS is a device or system that provides quality and continuity of an AC power source.
v Every UPS should maintain some specified degree of continuity of load for a specified
stored-energy time upon AC input failure
v The term UPS commonly includes equipment, backup power source(s), environmental
equipment (enclosure, heating and ventilating equipment), switchgear, and controls, which,
together, provide a reliable, continuous-quality electric power system.

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 Terminologies
Critical load:
v That part of the load that requires continuous electric power for its successful operation.
Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) system:
v Consists of one or more UPS modules, energy storage battery (per module or common
battery), and accessories (as required) to provide a reliable and high-quality power supply.
v The UPS isolates the load from the primary and emergency sources, and, in the event of a
power interruption,
v provides regulated power to the critical load for a specified period depending on the
battery capacity. (The battery is normally sized to provide a capacity of 15 min when
operating at full load.)
UPS module:
v The power conversion portion of the UPS system. A UPS module may be made entirely of
solid-state electronic construction, consists of a rectifier, an inverter, and associated
controls along with synchronizing, protective, and auxiliary devices.

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 Types of Uninterrupted Supply
Nonredundant UPS configuration:
v Consists of one or more UPS modules operating in
parallel with a bypass circuit transfer switch and a
battery.
v The rating and number of UPS modules are chosen to
supply the critical load with no intentional excess
capacity.
v Upon the failure of any UPS module, the bypass
circuit automatically transfers the critical load to the
bypass source without an interruption.
v The solid-state electronic UPS configuration relies
upon a static transfer switch for transfer within 4.17
milliseconds (ms).

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 Types of Uninterrupted Supply
Parallel redundant UPS configuration:
v Consists of two or more UPS modules with
static inverter turnoff(s), a system control
cabinet, and either individual module batteries
or a common battery
v The UPS modules operate in parallel and
normally share the load, and the system is
capable of supplying the rated critical load
upon failure of any one UPS module.
v A static interrupter will disconnect the failed
UPS module from the other UPS modules
without an interruption to the critical load.
v A system bypass is usually included to permit
system maintenance.

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 Types of Uninterrupted Supply
Isolated redundant UPS configuration:
v Uses a combination of automatic transfer switches
and a reserve system to serve as the bypass source for
any of the active systems (in this case, a system
consists of a single module with its own system
switchgear).
v The use of this configuration requires each active
system to serve an isolated/independent load.
v The advantage of this type of configuration minimizes
single-point failure modes (i.e., systems do not
communicate via logic connections with each other;
the systems operate independently of one another).
v The disadvantage of this type of system is that each
system requires its own separate feeder to its
dedicated load.
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 Types of Uninterrupted Supply: Offline

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 Uninterrupted Supply: Online

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 Online Vs Offline UPS
Online Offline
Operating It supplies power continuously to It supplies battery power to connected load
Mode loads 24 hours a day only during supply off
Cost Most expensive and heavy in size It is least expensive.
Switching Its switching time is generally Its switching time is generally 5msec
Time 0msec
Waveform It gives sine wave output It gives square or sine wave output.
Uses It is used for network environments It is used for PC.
e.g. Servers
Performance Voltage distortion does not reduce The more the voltage fluctuations, the more
the performance. the offline UPS is used. A frequent switch
could lead to switching delays or could
ultimately reduce its performance.
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 Online Vs Offline UPS

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 UPS Vs Inverter

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 UPS Types Based on Input and Output

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 Sizing of UPS

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 Sizing of UPS: Need of Load

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 Sizing of UPS : Configuration

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 Sizing of UPS: Selecting the required UPS capacity

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 Thank You
???
References
1. Robert B. Hickey, “Electrical Engineer’s Portable Handbook”
2. John P. Nelson, “Basics and Advances in Battery Systems”, IEEE
3. https://www.engineering.com/story/battery-management-systemspart-3-battery-charging-
methods
4. https://circuitglobe.com/lead-acid-battery-charging-methods.html
5. https://www.heliosps.com/knowledgebase/battery-charging-methods-
terminology/#:~:text=There%20are%20three%20common%20methods,without%20a%20sm
art%20charging%20circuit.
6. https://engineering.electrical-equipment.org/safety/emergency-electrical-systems-
facilities.html
References
7. https://www.india.fujielectric.com/resources/technical-guide/ups-sizing-calculation/
8. https://www.solarbaba.net/standby-power-offline-ups-online-ups-and-line-interactive-ups/
 Student Work
v Compare Online Vs Offline UPS.
v What are the indicators which gives information of battery fully charged or
discharged.

2/13/22 10:29 AM SK, Pulchowk Campus 87

Namaste
Industrial Power Distribution
and Illumination
Asst. Prof. Shahabuddin Khan
Pulchowk Campus
sk@pcampus.edu.np
 Chapter - 10
Electrical Energy Audit in Industry(6 hours)

Shahabuddin Khan
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
Pulchowk Campus, IOE
sk@pcampus.edu.np
 Syllabus
Electrical Energy Audit in Industry(6 hours)
1. Introduction
2. Energy Audit Technique
3. Electricity Conservation Program
4. Distribution system
5. Load Management
6. Energy efficient motors
7. Energy efficient lighting system
8. Energy Saving Opportunity

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 Introduction
v Three top operating expenses are energy (both electrical and thermal), labour and
materials.
v Energy is the foremost entity having the highest cost-reduction Potential.

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 Energy Audit: Definition
In the Indian Energy Conservation Act of 2001 (BEE 2008),
An energy audit is defined as: "The verification, monitoring and analysis of the use of
energy and submission of technical report containing recommendations for improving
energy efficiency with cost-benefit analysis and an action plan to reduce energy
consumption."

It should be noted that the term “energy assessment” is sometimes used interchangeably
with “energy audit” in some countries like the U.S.

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 Objective of Energy Audit
v The objectives of an energy audit can vary from one plant to another.
v However, an energy audit is usually conducted to understand how energy is used
within the plant and to find opportunities for improvement and energy saving.
v Sometimes, energy audits are conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of an energy
efficiency project or program.

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 Industry: A Complex Structure

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 Steps to be followed before performing Energy Audit
1. Define the boundary of the applicant (company, building, or plant).
2. Select the convenient unit of energy measurement. As different types of energy flows
will be involved, select one common unit which makes energy balance easier, e.g., kWh
or MJ.
3. Identify streams crossing the boundary, e.g., hot water supplied to the plant or chilled
air coming out of the plant, etc.
4. Identify energy conversion within and across the boundary.

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 Types of Energy Audit
v Type of energy audit chosen depends on
Ø Function and type of industry
Ø Depth to which final audit is needed
Ø Potential and magnitude of cost reduction desired
v They are classified as:
Ø Preliminary energy audit
Ø Detailed energy audit

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 Preliminary Energy Audit
v In a preliminary energy audit, easily-available data are mostly used for a simple analysis
of energy use and performance of the plant.
v This type of audit does not require a lot of measurement and data collection.
v These audits take a relatively short time and the results are more general, providing
common opportunities for energy efficiency.
v The economic analysis is typically limited to calculation of the simple payback period, or
the time required paying back the initial capital investment through realized energy
savings.

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 Detailed Energy Audit
v For detailed (or diagnostic) energy audits, more detailed data and information are
required.
v Measurements and a data inventory are usually conducted and different energy systems
(pump, fan, compressed air, steam, process heating, etc.) are assessed in detail.
v Hence, the time required for this type of audit is longer than that of preliminary audits.
v The results of these audits are more comprehensive and useful since they give a more
accurate picture of the energy performance of the plant and more specific recommendation
for improvements.
v The economic analysis conducted for the efficiency measures recommended typically go
beyond the simple payback period and usually include the calculation of an internal rate of
return (IRR), net present value (NPV), and often also life cycle cost (LCC).

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 Comparison

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References: Sonal Desai , “Handbook of Energy Audit”, McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited NEW DELHI
 Detailed Energy Audit Procedure

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 Phase I Audit Preparation
Step 1: Defining Criteria for Performing Audit
v Define the objective of performing the audit like reducing energy consumption, specific
fuel consumption, maximum demand, etc. Is future expansion plan or future increase in
load assessment part of the audit?
v Outline the type and methodology to be used.
v Prepare the audit team and company staff (both technical and clerical).
v Clarify the need for any sort of external support from consultants, utilities, government
organizations, contractors, etc.
v Define the boundary of the company
v Decide the timeline, i.e., date by which preliminary data findings will be performed and
the completion date.
v Check for breakdowns, maintenance practices, lack of capacity, etc.
v Check for other requirements, if any.

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 Phase I Audit Preparation
Step 2: Scope of Audit

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 Phase I Audit Preparation
The scope of audit includes following points:
v Define the boundary of the plant and systems within the boundary. (Building,
department, processing unit, etc., define the boundary of the plant; and boiler, steam-
distribution network, refrigeration plant, HVAC, etc., define systems under the boundary.)
v Outline the type of energy input and output for all flows including direct, indirect,
measurable, and non-measurable. Electricity, gas, steam, and water are direct and
measurable energy flows. Drain water, vented air, and flue gas are indirect and
measurable energy flows. Heat loss from a building and energy in products are indirect
and non-measurable energy flows. It includes electricity bills, fuel bills, production and
process data, etc.
v Identify and define subsystems.

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 Phase I Audit Preparation
Step 3: Selection of Audit Team
v Depending on the end user, the audit team can be internal or external.
v In case of an external team, the consultant (who is the accredited energy auditor/agency)
decides team members who are external to the plant and may involve some staff within the
plant.
v In case of a large company, internal staff is appointed as a part of the audit team who will
perform energy audit.
v There can be separate electrical and thermal energy audit members in both the cases.
v The audit-team leader decides and distributes the roles and responsibilities of each team
member.

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 Phase I Audit Preparation
Step 4: Audit Plan
v It defines the audit procedure and execution.
v It helps the auditor check the consistency, completeness, and schedule of the audit process
and ensures that no event is left out.
v It includes the following:
ü Timeline and schedule of each event
ü High-priority events
ü Tasks assigned and responsibilities of each team member
ü Outline and format of the audit report

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 Phase I Audit Preparation
Step 5: Audit Checklist
Prior to performing the audit, a systematically prepared checklist helps an auditor conduct the
audit in a systematic and timely manner.
A checklist includes:
v List of information collected by the audit team
v List of measuring equipment required, installed and to be carried at the time of audit
v Required measurement and proposed observation tables
v List of systems and subsystems to be assessed during audit
v Historical data and reports

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 Phase I Audit Preparation
Step 6: Initial Walkthrough Audit
v The initial walkthrough audit is very important if an external team is performing the
audit.
v The team gets acquainted with the process and plant in a plant visit prior to
performing the audit.
v Experts say that 80% of an audit task is identified in the first walkthrough audit.
v During the initial tour, the team will observe existing measuring instruments, leaks,
waste, etc.
v The team may interact with plant employees and receive initial information about the
plant.

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 Phase I Audit Preparation
Step 7: Collecting Energy Bills and Data
Before starting the audit, all types of energy bills and production-rate data are required for
present and previous years. Historic data helps an auditor compare plant and system
performances. Year-round data helps an auditor understand the effect of weather on energy
bills and rate of production. Data collection includes the following:
v Monthly and yearly energy bills and invoices
v Monthly and yearly production data
v Weather information
v Parameters measured by presently installed measuring instruments
v Plan and process layouts
v General information like year of installation, renovation, expansion, modification, types of
products, batch or shift details, maintenance schedules, breakdown if any, etc.

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 Phase I Audit Preparation
Step 8: Conducting Preliminary Analysis
v A preliminary analysis is a tentative planning of the actual audit process.
v A preliminary analysis identifies energy in and out, process or equipment energy utilization,
material in and out, source of energy and material waste, etc.
v A simple but informative flow chart is prepared prior starting the actual audit process.
v An auditor has to identify different inputs and outputs at each process step and sources of
waste heat/energy generation.

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 Phase II Execution
Step 1: Data Inventory and Measurement
v Balancing the energy in and out of the system is the main
activity of energy auditing.
v A Sankey diagram is a convenient tool to indicate the
magnitudes of energy input and output.
v To successfully conduct an energy audit, it is important to
collect all necessary data related to energy use.
v While auditing a plant, some data will be readily
available, some needs to be measured from installed
measuring devices, and the rest will be measured by
external energy-audit equipment.
v It is a must that all data collected are realistic and have
minimum assumptions.

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 Phase II Execution

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 Phase II Execution
Step 2: Analyzing Energy-use Patterns
v Graphical representation of energy-use patterns on hourly, daily, monthly, or yearly basis
helps to the audit team understand energy-use very well.
v Sudden changes or spikes in energy-use graphs shows abnormality and locations of energy
savings.
v An auditor has to calculate the Energy Intensity (EI), which is the energy used per unit
production.
v It can be calculated per hour, per month, or per year based on the type of energy used.
Energy consumed (kW)
Energy intensity (kW per ton) =
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑇𝑜𝑛)

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 Phase II Execution
Step 3: Benchmarking and Comparative Analysis
v In this step, comparative analysis is prepared for current and past energy
consumption of a process or a building.
v Policymakers use benchmarking to declare energy saving and design policies to reduce
greenhouse-gas emissions.
v Benchmarking energy performance enables auditors identify possible energy-conservation
areas.
v As an outcome, high-performing systems or buildings (those who consume less compared
to previous years) are rewarded and poor performers are targeted for immediate actions.

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 Phase II Execution
Benchmarking and comparing analysis is performed in several ways like the following:
v Comparing the company's historical performance with the present one.
v In case of multi-unit premises or buildings, the comparison is made between two similar
processes or buildings.
v Comparing with a peer company producing the same products, e.g., comparing electricity
consumption of two similar textile machinery plants having same production rates.
v Calculating specific energy consumption, e.g., electricity used to produce unit mass of
finished products.
v Comparing for best in industry, based on energy consumption as well as quality of product.
v Benchmarking is carried out for a common unit of production, e.g., fineness of cement, type
of yarn, GSM quality of paper, iron ore produced, tonnage capacity of cold storage, ice
plant or air-conditioning unit, etc.

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 Phase II Execution
Step 4: Identifying Energy-saving Potential
v Based on the result of in-site survey and analysis performed in earlier steps, an auditor has
to identify energy conservation possibilities.
v Energy Conservation Methods (ECM) suggested by the auditor are based on technical
analysis, commercial analysis, operational feasibility, environmental impact, etc.
v More detailing on financial analysis will help the owner understand and implement ECM.
v Preferably, the report should include existing financial policy, possibility of financial
support for proposed change in technology, available funding agencies, loan availability,
and rate of interest of loans.

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 Phase II Execution
The following guidelines are given to suggest ECM in an energy-audit report:
v Include the fuel quantity saved annually in terms of physical quantity and heat content.
Also, mention annual electricity saving due to adoption of new technology and summarize
annual rupee saving due to suggested changes. In addition, if any change in load pattern or
reduction in peak-hour energy consumption is likely to occur, mention its effects.
v Estimate the annual reduction in pollutants due to suggested change in technology. If
possible, suggest the approximate value of reduction in each constituent like NON, SOx,
CO, CO2, etc. Also, calculate and suggest proposed Carbon Credits (CC) earned by
implementing the project, if any, and reduction in carbon footprint.
v Technical and operational details should include operational reliability and feasibility of
the proposed retrofit. How adoptable the new technology is and what change in existing
manpower is required should be discussed in the suggested ECM. Proposed maintenance
and repair schedules and cost involvement should also be included.
v Financial criteria should cover capital cost of project, annual profit, possible funding
support, etc.
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 Phase II Execution
The following guidelines are given to suggest ECM in an energy-audit report:
v Include the fuel quantity saved annually in terms of physical quantity and heat content.
Also, mention annual electricity saving due to adoption of new technology and summarize
annual rupee saving due to suggested changes. In addition, if any change in load pattern or
reduction in peak-hour energy consumption is likely to occur, mention its effects.
v Estimate the annual reduction in pollutants due to suggested change in technology. If
possible, suggest the approximate value of reduction in each constituent like NON, SOx,
CO, CO2, etc. Also, calculate and suggest proposed Carbon Credits (CC) earned by
implementing the project, if any, and reduction in carbon footprint.
v Technical and operational details should include operational reliability and feasibility of
the proposed retrofit. How adoptable the new technology is and what change in existing
manpower is required should be discussed in the suggested ECM. Proposed maintenance
and repair schedules and cost involvement should also be included.
v Financial criteria should cover capital cost of project, annual profit, possible funding
support, etc.
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 Phase II Execution
Step 5: Cost-benefit Analysis
v An auditor will be asked certain questions related to the suggested ECM like,
Ø Is the project worth adopting financially?
Ø In any case, do the proposed savings exceed the project cost?
Ø Is there any temporary solution instead of going for a high-investment project?
Ø In case of no investment or low investment-conditions, which project should be
prioritized?
v An efficient auditor not only suggests good ECMs but also suggests them in the most
convincing ways in term of financial indicators like IRR, NPV etc

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 Phase III Reporting
Step 1: Preparing Audit Report with Recommendations
v As energy audit is a tailor-made process to suit the type of organization, the report prepared
does not have a standard format.
v Based on the type of organization, size, depth of audit, etc., the report is prepared and
presented to the authority.
v It is seen that once submitted, audit reports gather dust on the shelf.
v To avoid this situation, some tips for good report writing are discussed here:
Ø A report should be written, targeting the audience to comprehend. The report reader can be a
CEO or a shift supervisor. Hence, a report must include a summary which gives highlights
of the report to senior and busy persons; and at the same time, technical reasoning must be
provided for end persons who are going to implement the suggestions.

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 Phase III Reporting
Ø The report should be written in simple and direct language. If abbreviations are used, give
their full forms whenever used for the first time or make a special list of abbreviations, e.g.,
VSD should be mentioned as Variable Speed Drive (VSD) or VAV should be mentioned as
Variable Air Volume (VAV). Be consistent in terminologies and units. Use of Btu at one
location and Joule at another location creates confusion for the reader, so use standard units.
Sight one sample calculation in the annexure of the report.
Ø Maximize use of graphical and colorful representations instead of plain text. Use of bar
charts, fishbone diagrams, pie charts, flow charts, etc., helps the reader easily understand the
report.
Ø Recommendations mentioned should be clear and direct and, preferably, with
financial analysis. For an example, "change color shop motor" should be presented as "1
HP XYZ company-made color shop motor is required to be replaced with 1 HP ABC
company's energy-efficient motor-model no. RST."

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 Phase III Reporting
v Make a list of assumptions prior to technical and financial analyses. Technical analysis is
carried out assuming operation hours, efficiency of certain parts, manpower availability,
etc., and any change in the assumed situation will make a direct effect on the result.
Hence, all the assumptions should be clearly stated wherever applicable. Similarly,
financial-analysis assumptions like interest rates, taxes, and depreciation should be clearly
mentioned at appropriate locations of the report.
v A summary on key audit findings, recommended energy conservation measures, cost to
company, payback period, etc., must be highlighted in the report.

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 Energy Audit Report Sample

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 Energy Audit Report Sample

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 Phase III Reporting
Step 2: Preparing the Action Plan
An auditor has to prepare an action plan for implementation of each ECM. The planning
should include the following details:
v Phase-wise target to implement the project and time schedule of each phase.
v Authority and budget for implementing ECM, indicating stages of progress.
v Well-defined work progress monitoring methodology.
v In case of more than one project executed simultaneously, coordination between them has
to be properly targeted.

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 Phase III Reporting
Step 3: Implementing the Action Plan
Next to preparation of the action plan, comes execution of the action plan. Support of both
internal and external agencies is needed for this. The methodology given below is followed
in implementing the action plan.
v Provide necessary information about the proposed ECM to the plant operators.
v Conduct trainings and seminars related to the new technology adopted.
v Motivate plant operators about change in the set-up and make them understand the
benefits of the proposed ECM.
v Monitor the action plan, its purchase, installation, function, etc., on at regular intervals.
v After successful implementation, evaluate actual advantages by monitoring energy-use
patterns, product modification, flexibility, etc. This act not only helps one understand the
advantages of the present change in system but also encourages future energy audits and
energy-conservation methods.

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 Energy Conservation
v Energy conservation is the act of saving energy by reducing a service.
v In other words, to conserve energy, you need to cut back on your usage.
v Examples include driving your car fewer miles per week, turning your thermostat down
a degree or two in the wintertime and unplugging your computer or home appliances
when they are not in use.

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 Energy Efficiency
v Energy efficiency is defined as saving energy, but keeping the same level of service.
v For example, if you turn off the lights when you leave a room, you are practicing energy
conservation. If you replace an inefficient incandescent light bulb with a more efficient
compact fluorescent bulb, you are practicing energy efficiency.

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 Energy Conservation Vs Energy Efficiency

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References: Spandagos, Constantine & Baark, Erik & Ng, Tze & Yarime, Masaru. (2021). Social influence and economic intervention policies to save energy at home: Critical questions for the new decade and evidence from air-condition use. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 143. 110915. 10.1016/j.rser.2021.110915.
 Energy Conservation Measures
v Based on energy audit and analyses of the plant, a number of potential energy saving
projects may be identified.
v These may be classified into three categories:
1. Low cost - high return;
2. Medium cost - medium return;
3. High cost - high return
v Normally the low cost - high return projects receive priority.

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 Instruments for Energy Audit

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 Understanding Energy Bills
v In Nepal, electricity billing adopted for commercial sectors has two parts where a
consumer pays for two components:
Ø For the maximum demand (kVA) recorded during the billing duration; and
Ø For the energy (kWh) consumed during the billing duration.
v Maximum demand charge is related to the fixed cost of capacity blocked for serving a
consumer’s needs.
v A tri-vector meter installed at the consumer’s end records the maximum demand registered
by a consumer during billing duration, apart from other important consumption features
such as active power (kW), reactive power (kVAR), apparent power (VA) and power factor
(PF).

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 Understanding Energy Bills

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 Why Maximum Demand(MD) Charges?
v MD is the factor which is introduced in the bill to take into account the time-varying
nature of consumer loads.
v And MD charges is the fees which consumers have to pay to the supply authority for its
investment in the equipment (generating capability, distribution lines, transformers,
switchgear) which must be installed to satisfy the consumers' maximum load
requirements.
v If every consumer's load was absolutely constant there would be no need for a demand
charge, since each consumer would pay for his proportion of the equipment costs in his
bill for the electrical energy he consumes.
v But loads vary with time, much more so for some consumers than others.
v Hence, the MD charges are the way to recover the cost of required equipment while
treating each consumer fairly.

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 Electricity Conservation Program
1. Power Factor Correction
v There are two potential cost savings areas associated with power factor correction.
Ø Additional connection charges paid to the suppliers in terms of maximum demand
charges or power factor penalties
Ø Increased losses in the installation wiring and damage to switchgear and other components.

Effect of Low Power Factor on KVA Demand

Power Factor Total KVA
1 100.00
0.9 111.11
0.8 125.00
0.7 142.86
0.6 166.67

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 Electricity Conservation Program
Effect of Low Power Factor on Losses and Voltage Drop
Power Factor Current(%) Volt Drop(%) Percentage of total energy lost Loss Increase(%)
1 100 5 5 0
0.9 111.11 5.56 6.17 23.46
0.8 125.00 6.25 7.81 56.25
0.7 142.86 7.14 10.20 104.08
0.6 166.67 8.33 13.89 177.78

Losses for a 100 kW load at various power factors

Power Factor Total KVA Total Power Drawn(kW) Losses(kW)
1 100.00 105.26 5.26
0.9 111.11 106.58 6.58
0.8 125.00 108.47 8.47
0.7 142.86 111.36 11.36
0.6 166.67 116.13 16.13

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 Power Factor Correction: Sizing Capacitor

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 Connection of Capacitor

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 Where should PFC be applied?
v PF correction may be applied at two different points in the network, either the point of
connection to the grid, or the load point.
v This depends on the nature of the load and the cost savings required.

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 Centralised PFC
v This application is the one most often used to avoid penalties by correcting the overall
power factor presented to the grid connection, and compensates for the combined power
factor of all loads in the installation.
v For sites with many different loads which may be switched in and out of service,
automatic PFC equipment is required.
v This consists of banks of capacitors which are switched in and out under control of
equipment which constantly monitors the power factor at the point of connection to the
grid and attempts to maintain the power factor within required limits.
v In a applications where there is a constant steady load with a constant power factor it may
be easier to install fixed power factor correction equipment.
v Savings in this application will result from a reduction in maximum demand charges or
power factor penalties.

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 Distributed PFC
v At installations where there are many loads and long cable runs it may be worthwhile
considering installing PFC at each load.
v Low PF results in losses within the installation which can result in significant costs, as well
a affecting the performance and life time of components.
v Applying PFC at the load point also gives the same penalty reduction benefits to the overall
PFC as a centralised system.
v If a centralized system is being considered, there is a clear indicator that power factor issues
exist, and distributed PFC may be a better option.

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Does power factor improvement increase energy consumption?
v This may sound strange as most of the previous argument is based on savings in energy.
v However there is some evidence that in some cases power factor improvement may well
increase energy consumption.
v This is based on the fact the improving PF will result in a higher voltage at the load.
v For linear loads this will increase power consumption, but the effect on other loads varies.

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 Electricity Conservation Program
2. Load Factor Improvement
v Load factor (expressed in terms of percentage) is a measure of the uniformity and
efficiency with which electrical energy is being used.
v A good load factor implies a more constant rate of electrical use, because kW demand is
held to a minimum relative to total overall use.
v In essence, the lower the established demand in relation to kilowatthour (kWh) use, the
better the load factor, the lower the relative cost for electric service.

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 Electricity Conservation Program:Load Factor

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑑

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑×𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
=
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑×𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

=
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑×𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
Generally, Load factor Lies between 0 to 1.
Load factor is typically calculated on a daily, monthly, seasonal, or an annual basis.
Load Factor calculated for the transformers, for the plant.
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 Electricity Conservation Program:Load Factor

Higher load factor is good.

Lower load factor not only requires high capital investments but also higher system losses and voltage drops.
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 Method to Improve Load Factor
v Arranging work schedules to reduce peak load by shifting some electrical use to other
time periods.
v Using interlocks to prevent simultaneous operation of selected equipment.
v Using heat and cool storage equipment to reduce peak load
v Staggering preheating times on process or space heating applications.
v Using demand controllers to limit kW demand in facilities where some power loads can
be deferred.
v Adding off-peak energy usage

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 Electricity Conservation Program
3. Replacement by Energy Efficient Technologies
v Energy Saving can be achieved by replacing the devices with its energy efficient
technology without loosing the actual performances.
v It do requires Some Investment and will have higher Payback Period

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 Energy Focus Area in Commercial Banks

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Energy Focus Area in High Rise Building (Shopping Mall)

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 PF
A 300h.p. 3300V, 50Hz three phase star connected induction motor has full load efficiency of
86% and p.f. 0.707 lagging. If, it is required to improve the p.f. to 0.95 lagging by a bank of
three capacitors, find out the
(i) kVAr ratings of the capacitor bank
(ii) capacitance of each unit when connected (a) in delta (b) in star
(iii) If each capacitor unit, in delta formation is built up 6 similar 5500V capacitor, determine
the capacitance of each capacitor. (1hp = 0.746kW)

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 PF

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 Efficiency
A consumer requires an induction motor of 50 hp. He is offered two motors of the following
specifications:
(a) motor A efficiency 88% and p.f. 0.9
(b) motor B efficiency 90% and p.f. 0.81
The consumer being charged on two part tariff of Rs. 190.00 per kVA of maximum demand
and Rs. 7.50 paisa per unit. The p.f. of the motor B is to be raised to 0.89 by installing shunt
capacitor. The motor B cost Rs. 15000.00 less than A. The cost of capacitor bank is Rs.
1500.00 per kVAr. Determine which motor is more economical and how much. Assume
working hours of motors as 2400 hrs. in a year

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 Efficiency

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 Efficiency

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 Re-Scheduling Example
The main load of industry are four nos. of mixtures rated 50 kW with 0.8 p.f. The auxiliary
load consumption per mixture is 20kW. The load profile of the industry on a typical day is as
follows

How the max. demand and peak hour consumption can be reduced with rearranging of loads?
Calculate cost saving per annum, if in industry installed TOD meter and tariff are:
6 AM –6 PM, Rs. 7.55
6 PM –10 PM, Rs. 8.65
10 PM –6 AM, Rs. 5.25
And kVA charge per month Rs. 216
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 Annual Cost: Before Rescheduling

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 Re-Scheduling Example

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 Re-Scheduling Example

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 Re-Scheduling Example

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 Re-Scheduling Example

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 Losses in Electrical Power Supply System
Ideal Case:
Generation(Hydropower Plants): Below 1%
Transmission: 1-2 %
Distribution: 5-10 %
Total Loss = Around 10 %.

Current Scenario:
Generation (Hydropower Plants): 1.5 %
Transmission: 5 %
Distribution: 20 %
Total Loss = Around 25 %.

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 Losses in Transmission and Distribution system
v Transmission and distribution losses has two parts technical and commercial.
v Technical losses are due to energy dissipated in the electricity conductors and equipment
used for transmission. These losses are inherent in the system and can be reduced up to
an extent with use of proper design and material.
v Commercial losses are due to pilferage, use of defective meters, wrong reading of
meters, and estimation of unmetered power supply.

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Why do technical losses occur in transmission and distribution of electricity?
1. Old, out-of-date, and non-efficient transmission and distribution systems.
2. Multifold growth of sub-transmission and distribution systems.
3. Large-scale rural-area electrification with long 11 kV and low transmission lines.
4. Many stages of transformations.
5. Poor load management.
6. Inadequate reactive compensation in grid.

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 Methods to Reduce Technical Losses
1. Identify the weak areas in the distribution system and improve them.
2. Reduce length of LT lines by relocating substations or use additional distribution
transformers.
3. Install distribution transformers at each consumer point instead of grouping them.
4. Use a shunt capacitor to improve power factor.
5. Do efficient planning of primary and secondary distribution systems.
6. Carry out detailed study to forecast load development during the next two years and
prepare a long-term plan for phased strengthening and improvement of the distribution
system.

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Why do commercial losses occur in transmission and distribution of electricity?
1. Theft and pilferage accounts for a major part of transmission and distribution loss in our
country.
2. Meters are tampered to show less electricity consumption compared to actual ones. This
is achieved by making the disc of the electromechanical meter spin slowly by using
magnets or foreign objects.
3. Burning the meter.
4. Changing the wire sequence.
5. Errors in meter reading and recording.
6. Improper testing and calibration of meters.
7. Public-utility meter reader is bribed to report a wrong reading and thereby providing
free-of-cost power to a consumers.
8. Another way to steal electricity is through excess unmetered use of electricity.

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 Methods to Reduce Commercial Losses
1. Set norms of severe penalties for tampering of meters and seals.
2. Appoint vigilance squads to periodically check and prevent theft of electricity.
3. Conduct mandatory audits for energy received and sales in each area.
4. Improve meter design to reduce chances of tampering.
5. Conduct regular meter testing and replacement of faulty meters. Practice regularly.

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 Example Distribution Transformer Losses
For a load of 1500 kVA the plant has installed three numbers of 1000 kVA transformers. The
No load loss is 2.8 kW and the full load loss is 11.88 kW.
i. Estimate the total loss with three transformers in operation
ii. Estimate the total loss with two transformers in operation
iii. Which option among (i) and (ii) is better.
Assuming 8 hours of daily operation, find the yearly electricity saved.

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 Example Distribution Transformer Losses

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 Load Management
v Industrial customers are charged according to the time
of use rates.
v The rates are as per the hour of the day and season
(kW and kWh charges are higher during peak time
and lower during off-peak time).
v A customer may schedule lower consumption during
peak time and take benefit of lower rates.
v This helps in peak saving and also encourages load
shifting from peak to off-peak hours.

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 Load Management
The benefits of a load-management system are the following:
1. Efficient use of power produced and effective distribution of electricity.
2. Additional plant is not required to meet load demand; this not only reduces cost of
electricity but also has less environmental impacts.
3. Avoids increase in transformer and cable size.
4. Due to reduced electricity cost, individual industries become more competitive.
5. It is environmentally more acceptable.

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 Load Management Techniques: Use of Storage System
v Energy cannot be stored in large extents as well as for long time.
v Anticipating its demand during peak hours, energy can be stored in batteries or in thermal
form such as steam, air, or water.
v Customers who have storage capacity will draw electricity in off-peak hours and store it
for peak hours.
v Compared to battery storage, thermal storage is more popular due to less cost involved
and ease of operation.
v Some examples of energy storage are listed here:
1. Hot water required by a process or building is generated during off-peak hours and used
during peak hours. It is common in agricultural, food-processing, and dairy industries.
2. Pumping of water in a water-distribution network is carried out during night hours to
take advantage of day-tariff time. This practice is common in townships, corporations,
and industries.
3. Chilled water or ice is produced during off-peak hours and stored in silos and later used
for air-conditioning or refrigeration applications.
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 Load Management Techniques: Change in Technology
v Existing technology can be changed to reduce consumption and demand to manage load
efficiently.
v Any new technology, which is energy efficient, will consume less power for the same
level of performance.
v For example,
1. Replacing an existing motor with an energy-efficient motor.
2. Changing a reciprocating compressor with a screw compressor.
3. Using electronic ballast, CFLs, and electronic regulators in a lighting system.
4. Using variable-speed drives for pumps, fans, blowers, etc.
5. Fuel substitution in combustion applications.
6. Use of a vapour-absorption-based refrigeration system instead of a vapour-compression
system.
7. Promoting use of alternative energy like solar, wind, biomass, etc.

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Load Management Techniques: Decentralized Power Generation
v Generation of electricity on the location of use is known as decentralized power
generation.
v Though involving high investment, it offers great long-term benefits and operational
ease.
v Different parameters affects the decision of erecting decentralized power generation like
location, space, type and availability of fuel, disposal of waste, environment impact,
noise and vibration, etc.
v Cogeneration of power and heat is also a viable option where both heat and electricity
are required simultaneously.

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 Load Management Techniques: Reduce Electricity Use
v During Peak Hours Employees are educated about tariff structures and motivated to
reduce electricity use during peak hours.
v Electricity consumption can be programmed with controllers, which slashes undue
consumption.
v Examples are shifting hot-water production to non-peak hours or switching off air-
conditioning and ventilation systems for a few minutes, avoiding overlapping of two
processes during peak hours, etc.
v An electricity-saving programmer shifts some of the activities to off-peak hours or
reduces the rate of consumption if it cannot be totally stopped.
v It will postpone or delay some activities, which are not on the priority list.
v If possible, products are half finished and stored during off-peak hours and processed
further during peak hours without changing production rate or adding financial liabilities

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Load Management Techniques: Use of Demand Controllers
v Demand controllers set the limit for maximum load and disconnect the load from the
grid when the limit is crossed.
v According to the priority list, the controller switches off the loads when the limit of
maximum load exceeds and it is switched on when the load is within limits.
v It consists of the following:
1. An input device to do programming of load.
2. A display unit to view programmed parameters like set point, rate period, on or off
status.
3. A microprocessor unit to compare demand with set point and to take necessary actions.
4. Input and output channels for load detection.
5. Interface with a computer and printer.

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Load Management Techniques: Use of Demand Controllers

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References: Sonal Desai, “Handbook on Enegry Audit”, McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited NEW DELHI
 Motors in Industry

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 Losses in Motor

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 Energy efficient Motors
v Energy-efficient motors reduce energy losses through improved design, better materials,
tighter tolerances, and improved manufacturing techniques.
v With proper installation, energy efficient motors can also stay cooler, may help reduce
facility heating loads, and have higher service factors, longer bearing life, longer
insulation life, and less vibration.
v The choice of installing a premium efficiency motor strongly depends on motor operating
conditions and the life cycle costs associated with the investment.
v In general, premium efficiency motors are most economically attractive when replacing
motors with annual operation exceeding 2,000 hours/year.
v Sometimes, even replacing an operating motor with a premium efficiency model may
have a low payback period.

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 Energy efficient Motors

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 Economics of Energy efficient Motors

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 Economics of Energy efficient Motors

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 Advantages of Energy efficient Motors
Apart from saving electricity, energy-efficient motors provide the following advantages:
1. Energy-efficient motors have increased reliability and longer manufacturer warranty;
hence, downtime is reduced.
2. It has reduced replacement and maintenance costs.
3. When used on large scale, an energy-efficient motor requires less electricity and,
hence, power-plant size also reduces.
4. Lower power-factor correction is required at lower operating temperature.
5. Reduced losses of energy-efficient motors add less heat to the environment and,
thereby, reduce power consumption of the air-conditioning system.
6. Energy-efficient motors have longer insulation and bearing life, and quieter operation.

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 Example
Determine the simple payback realized by replacing the following motor with an energy
efficient one. The motor load factor is 0.70.

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 Example

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 Example

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 Example

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 Example
If the existing motor is burned out, then the payback would reflect the difference in cost
between the two motors, or

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 Energy-efficiency improvement opportunities in electric motor
Motor System Maintenance
v It is vital to ensure that equipment driven by electric motors is kept clean, lubricated
and correctly aligned, paying particular attention to drive couplings and gear or belt
systems where small changes in shaft alignment can result in excessive wear and
energy loss, vibration and premature failure.
v Motors should also be maintained regularly including cleaning of ventilation grills
and fans to ensure that they do not overheat.
v As the temperature of the motor conductors rise, the resistance increases and the
electrical heating losses increase, leading to a lower efficiency and shorter equipment
life

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 Energy-efficiency improvement opportunities in electric motor
2. Maintain supply voltage close to rated specification
v Efficiency of an electric motor reduces by approximately 2 to 4 points when operating at
less than 95 % of design voltage and the service temperatures increase up to 20 ºF
greatly reducing life of insulation.
v Running a motor above its design voltage also reduces power factor and efficiency.
v Similarly running a motor with unbalanced supply voltage also reduces motor
performance.

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 Energy-efficiency improvement opportunities in electric motor
3. Rewinding of Motor
v During a motor failure due to stripping of the winding from the stator core prior to
rewinding, heating involved causes exposure to high temperatures.
v These temperatures can, in many cases, affect the electrical characteristics of the stator
core steel and result in increased iron losses and lower motor efficiency.
v In some cases, it may be cost-effective to rewind an existing energy-efficient motor,
instead of purchasing a new motor.
v As a rule of thumb, when rewinding costs exceed 60% of the costs of a new motor,
purchasing the new motor may be a better choice (CEE, 2007).
v Rewinding can thus reduce motor efficiency and reliability.
v It is always advisable to keep record of no load electrical parameters of any given motor
when purchased to compare it later when rewinding or over hauling is done.

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 Energy-efficiency improvement opportunities in electric motor
4. Optimize transmission efficiency by use of efficient belts and gears
v Power transmission equipment plays a crucial role in energy consumption by the electric
motor.
v Motor power transmission equipment, including shafts, belts, chains, and gears, should
be properly installed and maintained.
v Use of flat belts in place of V-belts improves transmission efficiency.

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 Energy-efficiency improvement opportunities in electric motor
5. Propor Motor Sizing
It is a persistent myth that oversized motors, especially motors operating below 50% of rated
load, are not efficient and should be immediately replaced with appropriately sized energy
efficient units.

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 Energy-efficiency improvement opportunities in electric motor
6.Adjustable speed drives (ASDs)
v Adjustable-speed drives better match speed to load requirements for motor operations,
and therefore ensure that motor energy use is optimized to a given application.
v As the energy use of motors is approximately proportional to the cube of the flow rate ,
relatively small reductions in flow, which are proportional to pump speed, already yield
significant energy savings.
v Adjustable-speed drive systems are offered by many suppliers and are available
worldwide.
v Worrell et al. (1997) provides an overview of savings achieved with ASDs in a wide
array of applications; typical energy savings were shown to vary between 7% and 60%
with estimated simple payback periods for ranging from 0.8 to 2.8 years (Hackett et al.,
2005)

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 Energy-efficiency improvement opportunities in electric motor
7. Power factor correction
v Power factor is the ratio of working power to apparent power.
v It measures how effectively electrical power is being used.
v A high power factor signals efficient utilization of electrical power, while a low power
factor indicates poor utilization of electrical power.
v Inductive loads like transformers, electric motors, and HID lighting may cause a low
power factor.
v The power factor can be corrected by minimizing idling of electric motors (a motor that
is turned off consumes no energy), replacing motors with premium-efficient motors, and
installing capacitors in the AC circuit to reduce the magnitude of reactive power in the
system

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 Energy-efficiency improvement opportunities in electric motor
8. Energy Efficient Motors
v Energy-efficient motors reduce energy losses through improved design, better materials,
tighter tolerances, and improved manufacturing techniques.
v With proper installation, energy efficient motors can also stay cooler, may help reduce
facility heating loads, and have higher service factors, longer bearing life, longer
insulation life, and less vibration.
v The choice of installing a premium efficiency motor strongly depends on motor operating
conditions and the life cycle costs associated with the investment.
v In general, premium efficiency motors are most economically attractive when replacing
motors with annual operation exceeding 2,000 hours/year.
v Sometimes, even replacing an operating motor with a premium efficiency model may
have a low payback period.

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 Energy-efficiency improvement opportunities in electric motor
9. Minimizing voltage unbalances
v A voltage unbalance degrades the performance and shortens the life of three-phase
motors.
v A voltage unbalance causes a current unbalance, which will result in torque pulsations,
increased vibration and mechanical stress, increased losses, and motor overheating,
which can reduce the life of a motor’s winding insulation.
v Voltage unbalances may be caused by faulty operation of power factor correction
equipment, an unbalanced transformer bank, or an open circuit.
v A rule of thumb is that the voltage unbalance at the motor terminals should not exceed
1% although even a 1% unbalance will reduce motor efficiency at part load operation.
v A 2.5% unbalance will reduce motor efficiency at full load operation.

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 Energy-efficient lighting system
v The energy efficiency in the lighting sector gives the required illumination level of the
lighting scheme for the application it has been designed for, while consuming the least
amount of energy.
v Simply, energy efficient lighting can save the electricity while maintaining good quality
and quantity of the light.
v Energy efficient lighting involves in replacement (or re-lamping) of traditional lamps (such
as incandescent lamps) with that of energy efficient such as fluorescent lamps, CFL lamps
and LED lamps. It also incorporates proper lighting controls such as timer controls, PIR
and ultrasonic sensors based controls, etc.
v It includes the turning off lights automatically when they are not in use, especially during
daylight.

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 Energy-efficiency improvement opportunities in lighting system
Lighting controls
v Lights can be shut off during non-working hours by automatic controls, such as
occupancy sensors which turn off lights when a space becomes unoccupied.
v Manual controls can also be used in addition to automatic controls to save additional
energy in smaller areas.
v The payback period for lighting control systems is generally less than 2 years (Worrell
and Galitsky, 2004).

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 Energy-efficiency improvement opportunities in lighting system
Replace T-12 tubes by T-8 tubes
v In industry, typically T-12 tubes have been used. T-12 refers to the diameter in 1/8 inch
increments (T-12 means 12/8 inch or 3.8 cm diameter tubes).
v The initial output for these lights is high, but energy consumption is also high.
v They also have extremely poor efficiency, lamp life, lumen depreciation, and color
rendering index.
v Because of this, maintenance and energy costs are high. Replacing T-12 lamps with T-8
lamps approximately doubles the efficacy of the former, thereby saves electricity
(Worrell and Galitsky, 2004).

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 Energy-efficiency improvement opportunities in lighting system
Replace with energy efficient lights
v Where color rendition is critical, metal halide lamps can replace mercury or fluorescent
lamps with an energy savings of 50%.
v Where color rendition is not critical, high pressure sodium lamps offer energy savings of
50 to 60% compared to mercury lamps (Worrell and Galitsky, 2004).
v Installation of energy efficient LED lamps in place of “Conventional” lamps

Replace magnetic ballasts with electronic ballasts

v A ballast is a mechanism that regulates the amount of electricity required to start a
lighting fixture and maintain a steady output of light.
v Electronic ballasts save 12 – 25% of electricity use compared to magnetic ballast
(Worrell and Galitsky, 2004).

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 Energy-efficiency improvement opportunities in lighting system
Optimum use of natural sunlight
v Many plants do not use natural sunlight to an optimum level.
v In addition to optimizing the size of the windows, transparent sheets can be installed at
the roof in order to allow more sunlight to penetrate into the production area.
v This can reduce the need for lighting during the day.

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 Energy-efficiency improvement opportunities in lighting system
Optimization of plant lighting (lux )
v In many plants the lighting system is not specifically designed for the process. There are
lux standards for each type of textile process.
v For instance, the required lux for weaving is usually higher than that of wet-processing.
v Even within just one production process, the required lux varies by the process step.
v For example, in a cotton spinning process, the required lux in the blow room should be
much lower than that of ring frame section.
v If the lighting provided is higher than the standard (required lux) for any part of the
production, this results in a waste of electricity.
v Therefore, the plant engineers should optimize the lighting system based on the standard
lux specific for each process step.

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 Lighting Energy Audit

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 Lighting Energy Audit

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 Lighting Energy Audit

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 Lighting Energy Audit

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 Lighting Energy Audit

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 Lighting Energy Audit

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 Thank You
???
References
1. Mike Rycroft, Energy and cost savings with power factor correction, EE Publishers
2. Improving Load Factor and Power Factor to Reduce Demand, ELECTRICAL ENERGY
MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES SERIES NO. 102
3. Sonal Desai, “Handbook on Enegry Audit”, McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited
NEW DELHI
 Student Work
v Explain about energy saving opportunities in Industry

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 Student Work
v Compare Online Vs Offline UPS.

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Example:
10.1 For a load of 2000 kVA the plant has installed three numbers of 1000 kVA
transformers. The no load loss is 2.8 kW and the full load loss 11.88 kW. Estimate the total
loss with three transformers in operation and two transformers in operation.
Two transformers in operation:
No load loss = 2 x 2.8 = 5.6
(750)2
load loss = 2 x ------- x 11.88 = 13.36 kW
(1000)2
Total loss = 56 + 13.36 = 18.96 kW
Three Transformers in operation:
No load loss = 3 x 2.8 = 8.4 kW
(500)2
Load loss = 3 x -------- x 11.88 = 8.91 kW
(1000)2
Total loss = 17.31 kW
10.2 The 750 KVA transformer (iron loss 1415W and copper loss 10886W ) is estimated to
cost approximately Rs. 601,109. An equivalent transformer of another manufacturer is
quoted at Rs 692109. The iron losses of the second transformer are 1365 W and the copper
losses are 7400 W. Is it worth considering the purchase of the second transformer instead?
Assumption
transformer operates 8000 hr./yr. at average 75% load average electricity cost is
Rs. 4.40/ kWh
Cost Saving:
(1415 + 10886) – (1365 + 7400) = 3536 W
3536 W x 8000 hr./yr.
-------------------------------- x Rs.4.40/kWh x 0.75
1000
= Rs. 93,350 /yr.
POWER FACTOR
Definition of Power Factor
In a system of alternating voltages and currents, power factor is defined as the 'cosine' of the
phase angle that exists between the voltage applied to a circuit and the current that flows
through that circuit. Power factor is always lies between zero to plus or minus one. The
relationship between the voltage and current of any specified load can also be expressed as
the following ratio.

9
Load Factor
It is useful parameter to determine the relative effect of maximum demand on the electric bill
and to help evaluate the opportunity for reduction of demand is the plant load factor. Load
factor is defined as the ratio of actual electrical consumption to electrical consumption at
maximum (or billing) demand. The load factor can be calculated from each monthly
electricity bill or by averaging over a year. The billing period load factor is given by:
Load Factor  Numberof kWh consumed inbilling period
MaximumDemandhoursinbilling period
Variation in Average Energy Price with Load Factor
Energy Average
Plant Max.Dem. Load
Consumed Charge
operation (kVA) Factor
kWh/month Rs/kWh
1650 118800 10.14 0.10
First Shift 1150 118800 9.34 0.14
825 118800 8.82 0.20
1467 316800 8.38 0.30
Second
1100 316800 8.16 0.40
Shift
733 316800 7.94 0.60
1257 633600 7.88 0.70
Third Shift 1100 633600 7.83 0.80
978 633600 7.79 0.90
Hours in the billing period: 720
Energy Charge Rs. 7.50 and Dem. Charge Rs. 190/kVA/month.
Max. Demand saving by load rescheduling
Example 1:
At present the various production departments operate on the following schedule at 0.95 p.f.
Present Condition Proposed Condition
Block Hrs/yr Shift Operating days Actual kW Shift Operating days
A 6912 3 Mon. - Sat. 1919 3 Mon. - Sat.
B 4608 3 Mon. - Sat. 832 3 Mon. - Thurs.
C 2304 1 Mon. - Sat. 380 3 Fri – Sat
D 6912 3 Mon. - Sat. 107 3 Mon. - Sat.
E 6912 3 Mon. - Sat. 545 3 Mon. - Sat.
F 6912 3 Mon. - Sat. 855 3 Mon. - Sat.
The peak demand occurs when all departments are operating simultaneously. By
rescheduling reduction of peak demand is 380kW, which is 400kVA. If the kVA charge is
Rs. 200/kVA then, cost saving = Rs. 960,000/-

15
Ex. A consumer requires an induction motor of 50 hp. He is offered two motors of the following
specifications:
(a) motor A efficiency 88% and p.f. 0.9
(b) motor B efficiency 90% and p.f. 0.81
The consumer being charged on two part tariff of Rs. 190:00 per kVA of maximum demand and
Rs. 7:50 paisa per unit. The p.f. of the motor B is to be raised to 0.89 by installing shunt
capacitor. The motor B cost Rs. 15000:00 less than A.

The cost of capacitor bank is Rs. 1500:00 per kVAr. Determine which motor is more
economical and how much. Assume working hours of motors as 2400 hrs. in a year.

Motor A
Poutput 37.3
Poutput  hp  0.746  50  0.746  37.3kW , Pinput    42.38 kW
 0.88
Pinput
42.38
Aparant power S input  
 47.09 kVA
Cos  0.9
kWh consumed per year  Pinput  t  42.38  2400  101712 kWh

Annual energy( kWh ) ch arg ed  101712  Rs .7 : 50  Rs .762 ,840 : 00

Max . Dem. ch arg e per annum  47.09  Rs .190  12  Rs .107 ,365 : 20
Total energy ch arg e  Rs .870 ,205 : 20

Motor B
Poutput 37.3
Poutput  hp  0.746  50  0.746  37.3kW , Pinput    41.44kW
 0.9
Pinput
41.44
Aparant power S input    46.56 kVA
Cos 0.89
kWh consumed per year  Pinput  t  41.44  2400  99456kWh
Q sup plied by C  P(tan  1  tan 2 )  41.44( 0.724  0.512 )  8.76  9

Cost of capacitor bank  9  Rs .1500 : 00  Rs . 13,500 : 00

Annual energy( kWh ) ch arg ed  99456  Rs .7 : 50  Rs .745,920 : 00
Max. Dem. ch arg e per annum 46.56  Rs .190  12  Rs .106 ,156 : 80
Total energych arg e  Rs .865,576 : 80

Motor B will be economical and annual saving  870,205  865,576  Rs .4 ,629 : 00

31
Ex. A 300h.p. 3300V, 50Hz three phase star connected induction motor has full load efficiency of
86% and p.f. 0.707 lagging. If, it is required to improve the p.f. to 0.95 lagging by a bank of
three capacitors, find out the (i) kVAr ratings of the capacitor bank
(ii) capacitance of each unit when connected (a) in delta (b) in star
If each capacitor unit, in delta formation is built up 6 similar 5500V capacitor, determine the
capacitance of each capacitor. (1hp = 0.746kW)
Soln:-
hp  0.746 300  0.746
Active input power of the motor Pin    260.23kW
 0.86

Existing p. f . :  Cos 1  0.707,  1  45O , tan 1  1

mproved p. f . :  Cos 2  0.95,  2  18 O , tan 2  0.328
i ) kVAr rating of the capacitor bank  P(tan  1  tan 2 )  260.23( 1  0.328 )  174.69kVAr .

kVAr  1000 174.69  1000

ii ) Capaci tan ce : ( a ) delta connection C d    17 F .
3VL 2f
2
3  33002  2 50
kVAr  1000 174.69  1000
( b ) star connection C s    51F .
VL2 2f 33002  2 50
In delta formation each unit has 6 similar capacitor connceted in series :
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6
        C  6 C d  6  17  102F
C d C1 C 2 C 3 C 4 C 5 C6 C

Ex. A 60 hp motor for a blower was operating continuously at a rated voltage of 400 volts.
Weekly measurements of full load current were found to vary between 74 and 77 Amperes.
When the motor burned out, it was rewound and installed again. Now full load current
measurements are between 77 and 80 Amps. The plant power factor is maintained at 0.8.
The cost of motor replacement and rewinding are as follows:
New replacement motor : Rs. 96,000/-
Rewinding costs : Rs. 30,000/-
Net additional cost for new motor : Rs. 66,000/-
Solution
Basic formula for power Calculation
P 3  Voltage  Current  Power Factor
Power consumptio n before rewinding
3  400  75  10  3  0.8  41.6kW
Power consumtiuo n after rewinding
3  400  78  10  3  0.8  43.2kW
Additional energy consumptio n
( 43.2  41.6)  8760  14016kWh / yr.

Additional Cost @ Rs. 7.50 / kWh  Rs.105,120.00

32
Ex. A 50-hp induction motor has p.f. 0.9 and efficiency 0.9 at full load, p.f. 0.6 and efficiency 0.7 at
half load. At no load, the current is 25% of the full load current p.f. 0.1. Capacitors are
installed in motor to make the line p.f. 0.8 at half-full load. With these capacitors in circuit, find
the line p.f. at (a) full load and (b) no load
Soln
Before installing capacitor in motor
hp  0.746 50  0.746
At full Load:- Active Power Pin    41.5kW
 0.9
Q 3  VISin
We know, P  3  VICos and Q  3  VISin    tan
P 3  VICos
From this relation, we can calculate QF  P tan  41.5 tan( Cos 1 0.9 )  20.09kVAr
At half load:
h. p 5.0
 0.746  0.746
Active power Pin  2  2  26.64kW
 0.7
Reactive power Q  P tan  26.64  tan( Cos 1 0.6 )  35.52kVAr
At no load
Pin 41.5 26.62
Initially, Calculate full load current I F    kAmp.
3VCos 3V  0.9 V

26.62 6.655
From question I o  0.25I F  0.25   kAmp.
V V
6.655
 PO  3VI O Cos o  3V 0.1  1.52kW ,
V
QO  PO tan( Cos 1 0.1 )  1.152  9.949  11.46 kVAr .
After installing capacitor in the motor, the p.f.of the motor is 0.8 at half load.
Q 1  P1 tan( Cos 1 0.8 )  26.64  0.75  19.98kVAr .
2
2

Q supplied by C  Q0.6  Q0.8  35.52  19.98  15.54kVAr .

Reactive power required for full load with capacitor Q  QF  Qc  20.09  15.54  4.55kVAr
Q 4.55
We know tan    0.109 or i ) p. f .  Cos(tan 1 0.109 )  0.994
P 41.5
Similarly, QO  Q1O  QC  11.46  15.54  4.08kVAr
 4.08
tan O   3.54 or ii )p. f .  Cos(tan 1 ( 3.54 ))  0.271 leading
1.152

33
Ex. A single pase motor takes a current of 10A at p.f. of 0.8 lagging from a 230V, 50Hz
supply. Find out the reactive power and the capacitance of the capacitor to improve the p.f.
to 0.95 lagging when connected across the load.
Sol. Before improving the p.f.
Iw
 1  cos 1 0.8  36.86  37 o , I1 = 10A 2
Useful current I w1  I 1Cos 1  10  0.8  8 A 1
I2
Magnetizing current I  I Sin  10  0.6  6 A I2
1 1 1

After improving the p.f.

I2
 2  Cos 1 0.95  18.19 o I1
P
I  2  I 2 Sin 2 , Where I 2  and P  VI 1Cos 1  230  10  0.8  1840W .
V  Cos 2
1840
I2   8.42 A
230  0.95
I2  8.42  0.312  2.628 A and I C  I  1  I  2  6  2.628  3.37 A
V 3.37
We know IC   V 2fC  3.37 or C  46.65F
Xc 230  2f

Re active Power Q  P(tan  1  tan 2 )  1840(tan 36.86 O  tan 18.19O )  781.9Var .

The value of capacitor can be calculated

Q 781.9
Re active Power Q  I C  VC  VC 2fC  VC C    47.04 F
V 2f 2302  2 50
C
2

Ex. Calculate the annual cost savings of a 25 hp motor operating at 90 % efficiency compared to 85
% efficiency. If the operating hours is 8000 hrs/year and energy cost is Rs. 7.50 per kWh.
Solution:
At 85% efficiency:
25  746
Input electric power =  21,941W
0.85

At 90% efficiency:
25  746
input electric power = 20,722W
0.9
input difference = 21,941 – 20,772 = 1219 W
Cost saving for 8000 hr./yr. operation at Rs. 7.5/kWh:
1219
  8000  7.5  Rs.73,140 / 
1000
Therefore, it is shown that a few percent differences in efficiency can make a significant difference
on an annual operation basis.

34
Ex:: In an industry, 40kW, 92% efficiency standard motors are used for the machine. There are
totally 13 motors. The operating efficiency of these motors could be much less than the rated
efficiency (92%), since these motors are operating as average load of 27kW. Expected operating
efficiency of standard motor at 27kW is 91%.
Calculate the energy savings, cost savings and payback period due to replacement of present
standard efficiency motor with energy efficient motor of 34kW (94.5% efficiency). The cost of new
motor is Rs. 120,000.00 and energy cost is Rs. 7.50 per kWh. Operating time of motor 8000 hrs per
year.
Calculation
Output power delivered by motor = measured input x operating efficiency
Input power of standard motor = 27 x 0.91 = 24.47kW
Losses in the motor = motor input – motor output = 27 – 24.47 = 2.43 kW
Input power required by energy efficiency motor to deliver the same output of 24.57kW
output power 24.57
Input power of EEM    26kW
efficiency of EEM 0.945
Loss in EEM  26  24.57  1.43kW
kW power saving due to EEM  Losses in SM  Losses in EEM  2.43  1.43  1kW
Annual energy saving @ 8000hrs  1  8000  8000kWh
Energy cos t saving @ Rs. 7.50 / kW  8000 7.5  Rs 60,000 / 
cos t of implementaiton 120000
Simple payback period    2 years
cos t saving per annum 60000
Energy cos t saving from 13 motors  13  60000  Rs. 780,000 / annum

Ex. Calculate the annual cost saving of a 25hp motor operating at 90% efficiency compared
to 85% efficiency. If the operating hrs is 8000 hrs/year and average energy cost is Rs.7.50
per kW.
Solution
25  0.746
At 85% efficiency : Input electric power   21.94kW
0.85
25  0.746
At 90% efficiency : Input electric power   20.72kW
0.9
Power Input difference  21.94  20.72  1.22kW
For 8000hr / yr operation at Rs.7.50 per kW
The Cost saving per Annum  1.22  8000  7.50  Rs.73,200.00

35
Ex: In a textile industry the opening roller motors of the open end machines are rated at 15kW with
89% efficiency and the loading on these motors is less than 40%. Totally, there are 22 numbers of
such motors, which are loaded in the range of 30 to 40% full load and operating at a p.f. of 0.5 to
0.6 (lag). The operating parameters of this under loaded motor connected in delta and star mode is
observed to be as follows:
Mode Volts kW p.f.
Delta mode operation 400 4.89 0.54 lag
Star mode operation 400 4.48 0.83 lag
Calculate the annual energy saving, kVA demand and cost savings release by operating these 22
numbers of under loaded motors in star mode. If, the motor operated 7700hrs per year and energy
and kVA demand cost are Rs. 7.50 per kWh and Rs 200 per kVA.
Calculation:
Power saving per motor  input power in delta mod e  input power in star mod e
 4.89  4.48  0.41kW
Annual energy saving per motor  0.41kW  7700hrs
 3157kWh
Annual energy cos t saving  3157  7.5
 Rs 23,677.50
Re duction of kVA demand  kVA in delta mod e  kVA in star mod e
 9.06  5.4  3.66kVA
Cost saving by kVA  3.66kVA  Rs 200  12
 Rs.8784 / 
Total cos t saving per annum  (23677.5  8784)  22
 Rs. 714,153 / 
Payback period is immediate.

Ex: An electric motor operates at full-load of 100 kW for 10 minutes, at ¾ full load for the next 10
minutes at ½ load for next 20 minutes no load for next 20 minutes and this cycle repeats continuously.
Find the continuous rating of the suitable motor.

1002  10  752  10  50 2  20  0  20
Size of motor required = = 61 kW.
10  10  20  20

 
According to American practice, it consider the period of rest as 20 3 minutes. In that case

1002  10  752  10  502  20  0  20

the motor size = = 66 kW.
20
10  10  20 
3

36
Ex: An electric motor has to be selected for a load which rises uniformly from zero to 200 kW in 10
minute after which it remains constant at 200 kW for the next 10 minutes followed by a no-load
period of 15 minutes before the cycle repeats itself. Estimate a suitable size of continuously rated
motor.

Size of motor =
200 22  10  2002  10  0  15  140kW
15
10  10 
3
Ex: A certain motor has to perform the following duty cycle:
 100 kW for 10 minutes
 No-load for 5 minutes
 50 kW for 8 minutes
 No-load for 4 minutes
The duty cycle is repeated indefinitely. Determine suitable size of continuously rated
motor.

1002  10  50 2  8
Size of motor =  66.67kW  70kW
10  5  8  4

Ex. A 1250 kVA generator set is operating at rated load with a power factor of 0.80. An
additional load of 170 kW at 0.85 power factor is to be added. What value of capacitors is
required so that the generator is not over loaded?
Solution
Original Condition :
S  1250kVA, p.f .  0.8,  P  1250  0.8  1000kW
Q  (kVA ) 2  (kW ) 2  (1250) 2  (1000) 2  750kVAr
AdditionalLoad
kW 170
P  170kW, p.f .  0.85  S    200kVA
p.f . 0.85
Q  (kVA ) 2  (kW ) 2  (200) 2  (170) 2  105kVAr
Final New Condition : P  1170kW, Q  750  105  855kVAr.
P 1170
The min .p.f .of a load of 1170kW is Cos    0.935
S 1250

Ex. An industrial plant has an incandescent lighting load of 20 kW ( 100 units of 60 W and
140 units of 100 W ). Calculate the energy savings if all the incandescent load is replaced by
fluorescent load. Lighting is required for 2500 hours/year and the cost of is 4.4/kWh:
Incandescent Light = 12 lumens/Watt
100 W lamp = 1200 lumens
60 W lamp = 720 lumens
36 W Fluorescent Lamp = 2400 lumens
Therefore, one 36 W fluorescent lamp will be required to replace each two 100 W
incandescent, and each three 60 W lamps.

37
 Solution:
Power required per unit of fluorescent lamp
Lamp + Ballat : (36 + 10) = 46 W
Number of fluorescent lamps required:
N = (0.3x100) +(0.5x140) + 190 = 100
Power required for fluorescent load : 100 x 46 W = 4.6 kW
Energy saving = (20 – 4.6) kW x 2500 = 38,500 kWh/yr.
Cost saving = 38,500 kWh/yr. x Rs 7.50/kWh = Rs 288,750/-
Replacement cost = 100 units x Rs 500/unit = Rs 50,000/-
Re placement Cost 50,000
Simple payback    2 month
Cost saving / yr 288,750
EX. A 415 V conductor cable is rated at 235 Amperes but is carrying a load of 300 A at 0.7
power factor. What kVAr of capacitors is required to reduce the current to its normal rated
value ?
Solution
kVA at current of 300A
kVA  3  415  300  10  3  215.65kVA , kW  215.65  0.7  150.95  151kW
kVA at current of 235A : kVA  3  415  235  10  3  168kVA
To correct the p.f . from 0.8 to 0.935 and 0.85 to 0.935
the correction factors are 0.371 and 0.241 respective ly.
The max . kVAr under this condition are :
Q  (1000  0.371)  (170  0.241)  412kVAr .
So the operating p.f . correspond ing to 235A
kW 151
Cos 2    0.899 or  2  Cos 1 0.899  25.97 0
kVA 168
The existing p.f Cos1  0.7 or 1  Cos 1 0.7  45.57 0
Re quired kVAr can be calculated by above formula
kVAr  kW (tan 1  tan  2 )  151(tan 45.57 0  tan 25.97 0 )
 151(1.02  0.487)  80.483  81kVAr.

38