UNIT 2.

CAUSES AND DETECTION OF

DAMAGES

CAUSES OF DAMAGES:-
1.Distress :-Distress in Structure Over the period with
aging, distress is a natural phenomenon and would
appear in structures due to wear and tear.
Distress happens due to factors:- such as poor
workmanship. lack of maintenance, atmospheric
effects, abuses, accidents, natural calamities, chemical
reactions etc.
Further, the old structures which were conducted are
non-aggressive to environmental as a result they are
very badly affected due to gradual deterioration.
Therefore, such structures are undergoing rapid
metamorphosis and showing sign of distress.
the construction itself involves human factor at every
stage and structure would remain in service for long
period during which additions, alterations, overloading
etc. of any component of structure causing unforeseen
stresses which are referred as distress in structure.
Hence, distress is nothing but unwanted stresses
produced in the structure due to change in functional
use of structure, lock of quality in construction etc.
Determining the cause and extent of damages or
distress along with their classification is the basic
principle of investigation.
The causes of distress:- corrosion, environmental
effects, poor quality material used, poor supervision,
design and construction flows, low quality of
maintenance, non-standard repair skill etc. In all, the
above mentioned causes, methodology to be applied
depends on the type of distress and its magnitude
2.Earthquake:- Earthquake is a natural phenomenon
that causes shaking of ground by sudden release of
from earth crust due to dislocation of crust, movement
of earth, volcanic eruption or even man-made
explosion.
i. The recent past devastation due to earthquake or
ground shaking around the world have underlined
the tremendous importance.
ii. This unpredictable disaster not only cause great
distortion of property but also lives and damages
caused by the earthquake are almost associated
with man-made structures such as buildings, dams,
bridges etc. energy
Earthquake causes:- shaking of the ground and
structures which is resting on the ground will subjected
to motion at base. Thus, the base of structure moves
but structure has tendency to stay in its original
position due to inertia. When the shaking of ground
having grater magnitude than the possibility of
devastation.
properties for better seismic performance as :-
1.Good structural configuration 2.Lateral strength
enough 3.More ductility 4. Good deformability 5.
Having better damageability
3.WIND :-Wind can cause major damages to the
structures and other properties based on sheer or basic
wind velocity.
i. Wind damages basically come into two distinct
forms, that is, damages caused by the wind and
damages caused by tornadoes.
ii. Normal wind does not always, reach high enough
velocity to cause damages but can produce gusts
that may be enough to knock over trees or blow
down fences.
iii. A heavy wind in which basic wind pressure is high
may damage trees, power lines and small
structures.
4. FLOOD :-Flood When rivers overflow their banks
which cause flooding, This flooding may happen when
more water on upstream than usual and it flows
downstream to the adjacent low-laying area and (flood
plain) finally water gets into land. A flood is a body of
water that covers land which is normally dry may cause
natural disasters that can affect millions of peoples
around the world.
The effect of flood :-the damage of power
transmission, loss of power, loss of lives, property
damages, crop destruction, deterioration of health
conditions owing to water borne diseases resulting to
need of maintenance and repairs.
Flooding causes :-most commonly from heavy rainfall
when natural water-course does not have the capacity
to carry excess water. However, flood does not always
caused by heavy rainfall but factors can contribute to
flooding such as volume, spatial distribution, intensity
and rainfall duration over a catchment.
5. Dampness:- Dampness The capillary penetration
form the ground up through the concrete or masonry is
referred as rising dampness. Due to this dampness,
moisture travels through walls and ceiling which creates
unsightly patches and effects on aesthetic of building.
Dampness produces the failure of roofing material,
defective rain water goods, degrading the detailing,
plumbing problems etc.
I. Dampness tends to cause, secondary damage to a
structure and unwanted moisture enables the
growth of various fungi and moist environmental
issues that leads to maintenance and repairs.
 II. There are many ways by which dampness may
occur in particular as many of the materials are
water absorbent may case dampness.
III. The source and root of water in structure or
building elements must be identified accurately for
the effective planning of repair and maintenance.
IV. There are various causes, due to which dampness
may be due to construction water, intruding water,
water condensation, occupational water etc.

6.corrosion:- The corrosion is a natural process and its

effects are obvious after long period of exposure is the
formation of rust or iron oxide. Corrosion is the gradual
destruction of materials usually metals by electro-
chemical reaction with their environment. The
construction industry is trying for a low cost with easy
way to fight problem of corrosion in reinforcing steed in
a concrete as a result possibility of steel bars in
concrete get corroded and then bonding loses which
leads to damage of building or parts of a building.
i. On the surface metals containing iron when they
are come in contact with the oxygen and also when
metals are placed under too much stress then
metals begins to cracks which are also referred as
corrosion.
ii. The exposure to chloride ions from water that leaks
to the concrete can cause pitting corrosion and
deterioration.
The deterioration occurs due to corrosion such as-
spalling of concrete cover cracks parallel to the
reinforcements, saplling of edges, swelling of concrete,
dislocation, internal cracking and reduction in area of
steel reinforcement etc.

7.Fire- When the fire is not under controlled then it can

be hazardous to both the building and occupants
resulting to directly burn wholly or partially or losing
same of its properties in particular structural strength
and its aesthetic appeal. Further, heat of fire along with
water used can lead to swelling, distortion, spalling and
cracking of nearby material and its components.
i. A fire spread to the whole structure can cause the
unexpected damages to the structural elements.
ii. However for steel structure fire may cause
degradation of the structural materials, thermal
buckling and material yielding under small stresses.
iii. According to the National Fire Protection
Association （NFPA) most common causes of fire
are cooking equipment's, heating equipment's,
electrical, smoking materials and internal fire
setting.
iv. Fire safety is the set of practices intended to
reduce the destruction caused by the fire and its
effect after it starts.
8. Dilapidation -Dilapidation is the term used to denote
the decay and damage of a structure due to continuous
neglect in maintenance and repairs willingly.
i. A building is dilapidated when it has underscore
severe damage due to decay of different members
causing serious imbalance in load transfer system
as a result extremely appearance of the structure
becomes unpleasant ugly looks.
ii. dilapidated building in which load bearing walls and
structural members took to collapse.
iii. This may occur due to various reasons such as
natural decay of members and due to materials
aging as a natural phenomenon.
9.Termlte
Termites are small pale soft body's insects that feed on
wood and mostly found in places that are damp.
i. During monsoon season dampness in the walls can
cause termite attacks which affect the furniture.
ii. If furniture is of wooden then wax regularly so that
it absorbs the moisture and prevent termite attack.
iii. These termites create holes through walls, crawling
through cracks in the foundation and climbing
through roof.
iv. Termite infestation can cause damage over a short
period of time.
v. The preventive measures against termites control
are generally adopted to the existing structure such
as foundation, soil under floor, voids in masonry
contact points with woodwork, woodwork
treatment etc.

10. Systematic Approach of Damage Detection-

The primary step in the direction of systematic
approach for damage detection is to ascertain the
extent of damages and also items of damages or decay.
The primary aim of damage detection is to know the
extent and type of damages assess the root cause of
damages and remedial measures.
i. therefore repair work started it is essential to carry
out the investigation to identity and assess the
exact cause of deterioration.
ii. It is observed that damaged structure developed
cracks of different pattern and sizes lends to
peeling or falling of plaster, spalling of conceited
and other surface finishes.
iii. A systematic study of the defects is necessary to
overcome the deficiencies arising out of,
specification construction and other consideration.
iv. The inspection of structure may be different in
nature depending upon the different causes and
purposes.
v. The purpose of damage defection or investigation
is necessary to undertake the damage detection for
assessing the cause of deterioration in addition to
the legal procedure insurance survey, structure
safety, planning the maintenance and repair work
etc.
vi. Further the damage detection depends on the
amount of energy and efforts spent on it in
addition to nature of defect.
To investigate the damage defection in a systematic
approach, various steps are involved before repairs or
maintenance are undertaken as
（1)Preliminary investigation.

（2)Physical inspection.

（3)Material testing.

（4)Non-destructive test

（5)Detailed investigation
（6) Study of available documents.

（7)Estimation of actual loads and environmental

effects.
（8)Errors in design and construction

（9) Retrospective analysis.

（10)Strengthening requirements.

（11)Relevant approaches to repair.

11.Physical Inspection- The physical inspections are
carried out visually and data will be collected from the
various sources such as drawings, specifications,
interaction and discussion with local citizens
i. During physical inspection more attention is given
to the correctness of material detailing ,design
,loading and exposure conditions.
ii. physical observation includes the identification of
visible structural and non- structural damages
,quality construction, soil condition and other non-
structural elements.
iii. physical inspection is also useful for preparation of
causes and documenting the damages collecting
few samples for laboratory testing and analysis.
iv. planning for in-situ testing special environmental
effects which have not been considered at the
 design stage and loading information on the
existing structure at the time of damage.
12. Material Testing- Quality of material to be used in
construction should be ensured by means of various
tests as specified in IS codes.
i. Under material testing the damaged or undamaged
material condition shall be evaluated by physical,
chemical and other testing techniques.
ii. It is necessary to test the correct strength of
concrete and steel material in the damaged portion
of structure.
iii. the construction materials such as bricks, building
elements, metals etc. must re-evaluated for strength
and other essential engineering properties.
13.Non-destructive Test- After identification of weak
zones in structure the various tests for detailed
assessment at in-situ material quality are to be done. A
number of tests have been developed and standardized
for the different properties of concrete then suitable
tests are to be selected based on the aim of testing
material properties.
i. Non-destructive test(NDT)is a wide group of
analysis techniques used to evaluate the properties
of concrete or strength of damaged concrete. So
instead of absolute values an estimate of strength,
durability and elastic parameters are obtained.
ii. Non-destructive techniques are generally used in
investigation for repair works in structural
components to know the concrete depth, bar
diameter, bar location, extent of steel corrosion,
chloride ions, permeability, defeats in piles, defeats
in metals etc.
iii. The Non-destructive tests are mainly comprise of
rebound concrete hammer test, ultrasonic pulse
velocity test, Pull-out test, Pull-off test. rebar
locator, core test etc.
Advantages
（1)Non-destructive tests have ability to minimize
the traffic restrictions related to the field data
collection.
（2)These testing methods are applicable to
improve design and asset management.
（3)As these tests are non-destructive, no wastage
of concrete takes placer
（4)As concrete member is not subjected to failure
load as a result failure of these members' does not
take place.
（5)These tests are more popular for routine
inspection of structure.
（6)These tests arc more useful in cases where data
such as drawings, concrete details etc. of structures
are not available.
Disadvantages
（1)Advanced inspection techniques can be
expensive due to need of trained technicians to
perform the non-destructive testing
（2)Analysis and interpretation of test result is not
so easy.
Importance of Non-destructive test
（1)Strength of existing concrete structure or
structural elements can also.be evaluated by these
tests.
（2)Minor cracks such as hair cracks, micro-cracks
and deep cracks in a' concrete structure can be
evaluated and assessed
（3). These tests are generally used in investigation
for the repair works of structural components.
（4)Moisture content, density, thickness, chemical
contents, pH measurement and reinforcement
status can be estimated and evaluated using these
tests.
 （5)These tests used to evaluate the strength of
construction materials without causing damage.

14. Detailed Investigation- When the construction

drawings in which the layout structural details of
system and its foundation are not available then
detailed investigation have to be conducted about the
total structural system.
i. The correct identification of root causes requires
detailed information to be collected by the
observation of specific problem and site testing.
ii. The success of repairs is depends upon the detailed
investigation and assessment of the root cause
right choice of repair materials and quality of
workmanship during execution.
iii. The detailed investigation includes assessment of
distress nature, NDT methods exact conditions of
exposure and loadings
iv. properties of structural materials in there
preventative members will be necessary by
conducting the various tests including soil tests.
v. These details arc necessary for analyzing and
evaluating the safety of structure and to
recommend the retrofitting or strengthening
measures.
15.Study of Available Documents- The history of
structure shall be known partly or completely with the
available documents with reference to analysis design
and detailing of the structural elements.
i. The study of available documents will help in
defining the unexpected damages and crack
propagations
ii. The design documents usually provide the
information on simplifying the assumptions with
respect to the structural behavior, analysis method
and design loads etc.
iii. The construction information is useful for the
workability, cube test, concrete age or loading and
strength.
iv. When all the records and data are known as for as
possible calculation may be made as usual by a
structural engineer to ascertain the strength of
structural elements.
v. If the completion drawing is available then test
becomes easy otherwise a plan of the structural
elements will have to be prepared by the actual
measurements at the site.
16. Rebound Concrete Hammer Test - This instrument
works on the principle of action and reaction are equal
and opposite. It measures the hardness of concrete
surface by impact plunger and is calibrated for the
compressive strength of concrete.
Applications
It is a very good tool in the qualitative assessment of
concrete in old structures. It does not possess high level
of accuracy in old structures, when quantitative
assessment is carried out and only gives a range of
compressive strengths.
Can be used for compressive strength assessment for
new concretes, less then1year old, effectively.
Procedure
（1)Check the rebound hammer against the testing
anvil before commencement of test to ensure the
reliability of results.
（2)Identify the testing location for the damaged or
without damaged suructure.（3)Identify the point of
impact at least 20 mm away from the edge and mark
with marker.
（4) Remove the plaster and clean the target surface of
concrete or masonry work using appropriate technique.
（5)Keep the plunger of rebound hammer touching to
the surface in horizontal, vertical or inclined position as
per the suitability of site condition.
（6)Press the casing of hammer so that the impact
spring around the hammer will wind up around the
plunger.
（7)Release the dashpot button or release pin so that
the hammer mass attached to guide rod will impact on
the target surface.
(8) Based on the resistance offered by the surface in
terms of hardness, this mass will rebound back. Then
due to backward movement of attached mass, pointer
on graduated scale will move accordingly.
(9)Measure the reading on the graduated scale by
which the mass is rebound back which is referred as
Rebound Number(RN).
（10)Repeat the above steps at least five more times
on the same point at the same surface with same
position to get more accurate observation by taking
average of all observations.
（11)By considering the influencing factors such as
surface moisture condition, carbonation test location
test direction etc. then accordingly correct the rebound
number using graph given in
(12)Find out the compressive strength of concrete
against each rebound number using correlation graph.
Advantages
Quantitative assessment of compressive strength of
concrete up to one year age can be carried out
reasonably accurately.
Qualitative assessment of surface hardness of concrete
can be carried out very effectively, particularly for fire
damaged structures.
This instrument is handy and inexpensive for assessing
compressive strength of concrete.
Limitations
（1)The compressive strength of concrete gives an
approximate result.
（2) The result of this test are affected by the
parameters such as nature of testing surface, shape and
size of specimen, rigidity and age of specimen, moisture
condition and carbonation of concrete surface and
ingredients of concrete mix
17.Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test-Ultrasonic pulse
velocity method consists of measuring the time of
travelling by an ultrasonic pulse passing through
concrete which to be tested. The pulse generated
circuit consists of electronic circuit for generating pulses
and a transducer for transforming these electronic
pulses into mechanical energy corresponding to
vibration frequency in the range of 15 to 60 Hz. In this
method an ultrasonic pulse or wave travels through a
known distance in the concrete and is received to the
other end
Principle
 i. Voltage pulses are generated and transformed into
wave bursts of mechanical energy by the
transmitting transducer (which must be coupled to
the specimen surface through a suitable medium).
ii. A receiving transducer is coupled to the specimen
at a known distance to measure the interval
between the transmission and reception of a pulse.
iii. There are three practical arrangements form
measuring pulse velocity ,namely direct, diagonal
land surface techniques.
There are three ways of Measuring pulse velocity
through concrete
(1)Direct Transmission
(2)Indirect Transmission
(3)Surface Transmission
Procedure
（1)Identify the target concrete surface and clean it
properly then define two end points of application of
ultrasonic pulses.
（2)Apply the acoustical coupling materials to both the
points of concrete.
（3)Attach the transmitter and receiver end of the
transducer to the identified concrete surface of building
components using any one of the ways. In particular, it
is better to consider direct transmission pulse velocity
arrangement.
（4)Generate the ultrasonic pulses or waves of 50 to 60
kHz using electro-acoustical or ultrasonic pulse
generator. So that it will pass through the transmitter
end attached to concrete and will reach to receiver end
depending upon the homogeneity of concrete mass.
（5)Note down the time of travel(T)of these waves and
displayed on display unit of electronic timing device in
seconds.
(6) Calculate the ultrasonic pulse velocity (V) of
transmitted waves as V = L/T in Km/s
(7) Repeat all the above steps at other location when
defect or damage extent is more. Calculate the average
ultrasonic pulse velocity of all such observations for the
structural components under consideration.
(8) Determine the overall quality of concrete based on
calculated ultrasonic pulse velocity by using table

Advantages
•Highly accurate for the assessment of interior r of
concert member for honeycombing ,porosity voids etc.
•In expensive stand portable equipment
•Micro cracking in the concrete member can be
detected.
•Efficacy of grouting of the same can be checked.
•Efficacy of bonding be tween old and new concrete
can be assessed.

Disadvantages/Limitations
•Not accurate for prediction of compressive strength
•Spot checking of quality & material. Tomography
machine using ultrasonic technique is available.
18.Rebar Locator Test- The term Rebar is a reinforcing
bar which is reinforced in concrete structure whereas
the term reinforcement is a process of reinforcing or
being reinforced. The rebar locator instrument is a
versatile and portable which is normally used to detect
the reinforcement on LCD display having sufficient
memory to store measured data
The rebar locator is an instrument used for detecting
location of rebar, concrete cover and rebar diameter
using respective probes or accessories
This test is the easiest and fastest way for detecting
details of reinforcing bar which is particularly used
before coring or drilling the holes to find the safe spot.
The rebar locator is based on a principle that presence
of rebar affects the electro-magnetic field.
Procedure
（1)Calibrate the rebar locator test apparatus by using
test block with known rebar details.
（2)Identify the test surface and mark the target points
on a suitable grid pattern using marker.
（3)Clean the test surface and make it smooth leveled
by removing the dust and other unwanted
projections, if any.
（4)Take the rebar locator connected with path
measuring device and spot probe then move the same
in horizontal and vertical direction.
（5)Mark the location of rebar when position of rebar
displayed on the screen distance of bar from the
surface shown by display unit.
（6)Now attach the diameter probe to the rebar
locator and keep the probe parallel to the located bar
（7)Observe an appropriate number of readings as
displayed on screen and take mean value of these
readings as diameter of rebar.
（8)Now attach the depth probe to the rebar locator
and keep it exactly over the identified bar location
（9)Note down the depth of concrete cover after
getting an audio signal i.e. beep sound and detected
concrete cover is stored in memory.
Factors affecting the test results
The following factors affects the magnetic field as a
result it influence on the test result are Arrangement of
reinforcement and metal ties
（2)Variation in the iron content of cement

（3)Use of aggregate with magnetic properties

Significance of rebar locator test
（1)Hitting a rebar or boring into the reinforced
concrete or taking a core may destroy the drilling
instrument and can weaken the concrete structure.
（2)Instrument used for bar detection that quickly and
accurately determines the location of reinforcing bar
embedded in concrete.
（3) Measurement of concrete cover, bar diameter and
bar position is very important particularly cover depth is
of great significance for interpreting chloride contents
and carbonation depth in the concrete.
（4)Cover depth is an important to implement the
durability standards to the structure under
consideration.
（5)Knowledge about reinforcement detailing in
concrete is essential, as it offer ductility and tensile
strength to the concrete.
19.Crack detection micro-scope test- Crack detection is
the process of detecting the cracks with their width and
depth produced in the structure or structural elements
using any of the processing techniques.
i. Crack detection micro-scope is used to measure
the crack width in the concrete structures. The eye
piece scale can be turned through 360° to align
with the direction of crack under consideration.
ii. Recent now one of the high quality crack detection
depth microscope and is also used for measuring
the crack width in the concrete elements.
The following advantages of using crack detection
microscope are
（1)Easy operation and low maintenance

（2)It gives accurate and specific result

（3)Due to presence of an adjustable light source and

adjustable focus this microscope has better and clear
view for the cracks.
（4)Generally microscope have measuring range of O
to 4 mm with small division of 0. 02 mm which gives a
very accurate crack width of concrete.
 （5)Generally magnification factor of the microscope is
of 50.
（6)The microscope is work generally with batteries.
18.Chloride test- Chloride test is used to know the
chloride content in concrete which becomes very
significant as when chloride is present in reinforced
concrete it cause severe corrosion of steel
reinforcements.
i. On site testing of chloride content in concrete is
easily done with the chloride test apparatus
ii. The chloride can originate from the two main
sources that are internal chloride and external
chloride
iii. The internal chloride in which when chloride is
added to the concrete at the time of mixing to
accelerating admixtures contamination of
aggregates and use of sea water or other saline
contaminated water.
iv. The external chloride in which chloride ingressing
into the concrete during post hardening.
v. It is observed that concrete provides a physical
barriers or hurdles to the corrosion promoting
elements such as air, moisture, chloride and other
atmospheric or industrial pollutants.
 vi. Due to marine spray fog or mist etc. the salty water
condenses on concrete surface and becomes a
source of chloride entry and other sources are
chloride in aggregates mixing water etc.
vii. Further chlorides are found in both old and new
concrete.
viii. In old concrete the source may have been calcium
chloride used as an accelerator or marine sand
aggregate or marine water spray.
ix. In new concrete the chloride develops from the use
of de-icing salts, marine exposes or use of marine
aggregates.
x. Chloride penetrates into the hardened concrete
during service due to repeated applications of
deicing salt or exposure to marine spray.
xi. When chloride reaches to rebar level then corrosion
occurs with a progressive accumulation of rust
around rebar as a result increase in volume takes
place which leads to the development of tension
cracks in the concrete thus permitting further
ingress of chloride.
xii. This causes the further acceleration of corrosion
process and subsequently damages to the concrete.
It is observed that total chloride content in concrete
mix arising from all sources should not exceed 0.
35%by weight of cement in the mix for 95%of test
result.
the chloride content in hardened concrete are of two
methods as
（1) Volhard volumetric titration test method

（2)"Quantab" chloride tritrator test method

The second "Quantab" chloride tritrator test strip
method is simple and used in practice to know chloride
content in concrete. In this method an acid extraction
followed by the use of "Quantab" chloride tritrator test
strip which measures the total chloride content in
concrete.
Chloride test apparatus include the followings-
（1)Chloride and temperature combination electrode
with cables and connectors.
（2)Electronic meter with circuit for direct conversion
to percentage chloride.
（3)120 pre-filled extraction liquid jar and 5 calibration
solution in plastic jar.
（4)Accessory pack include spray bottle of distilled
water, electrode wetting solution, dust collation pan,
clamp, anchors, drill bit, scales, instruction and
briefcase.
This method includes portable equipment which have
currently available for conducting rapid test on site for
the measurement of chloride content of concrete as
（1)A concrete dust sample is collected using rotary
drill
（2)The chloride is extracted by a special acid

（3)Amount of acid soluble chloride is determined by a

chloride sensitive electrode connected o an
electrometer.
（4)If different samples are obtained from concrete at
different depths then it can be established that there is
diffusion of chloride into concrete from the
environment.
（5)The electrode measures the potential of acid
soluble chloride solution and using correlation graph,
chloride content will be known at different depths
19 .Sulphate Attack- Sulphate attack is the most
common form of chemical attack in which reaction
between sulphate ions in the pore solution of concrete
and ingredients of concrete.
i. Sulphate attack is a naturally occurring sulphate of
sodium, potassium, calcium or magnesium which
are sometimes found in soil or dissolved in ground
water.
ii. Sulphate can attack on concrete by reacting with
hydrated compounds in the hydrated cement.
iii. This reaction can induce sufficient pressure to
disturb the cement paste resulting in loss of
cohesion and strength.
iv. The sulphate attack can cause the expansion,
cracking, strength loss, spalling and disintegration
of concrete then use of fly ash, slag cement, silica
fume and metakolin can reduce the expansion and
damages due to sulphate attack.

Remedies against sulphate attack

（1)Protection against sulphate attack can be achieved
by using concrete with low permeability, cement with
low C3A content and blends of PC with pozzolana so
that preventing sulphate from penetration into
concrete.
（2)Consuming Ca(OH)2 as much as possible in
hydrated cement matrix through the use of pozzolana
（3)Using cement with low calcium aluminate.

（4)For concrete structures which are in contact with

sulphate bearing soils then protective linings of coatings
should be applied
20.PH Measurement -Although concrete typically
begins its life at highly pH of about 13 but when it is
exposed get fall as reaction occur between carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere and alkalis in the
concrete, this process known as carbonation and over
the period pH value of about 8. 5.
i. The pH measurement test is an important
parameter to indicate the alkalinity level of
concrete.
ii. The most severe concrete damages are caused by
dropping of alkalinity level and consequently
decreases the pH value of concrete.
iii. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14 and a pH of 7is
considered as neutral further the substances with a
pH less than 7 are acidic whereas substances with a
pH greater than 7 are alkaline.
iv. When concrete exposed to air will release its free
water content and most of this free water or pore
water is not lost from the surface layers of
concrete.
v. When this pore water of concrete evaporate and
replaced by air the air content carbon dioxide and
other acidic gases can react with alkaline
ingredients of concrete.
The assessment of test standards and methods include
the pH strips pH pencils and digital meters. The
recommended test procedure of field test for pH
measurement of a concrete surface as
（1)Clean the surface using a wire brush and be sure to
remove dirt, concrete sealer, old adhesive residue etc.
（2)Collect the 0. 5g of concrete powder by hand
sanding or make smooth by sand paper over an
approximately 50x50 mm area with 50-grit general-
purpose sandpaper.
（3)Thoroughly mix the concrete powder with 10 to 12
drops of fresh distilled water with a small and flat
plastic stirrer. Let stand for 60 seconds.
（4)Insert a pH strip into the mixture and compare the
strip to the color chart to determine the pH .
（5)Note the temperature of concrete surface.
In addition to the above mentioned field test,
laboratory test for pH measurement of concrete also
recommend as
（1)Calibrate the pH probe and meter using
manufacturer's directions and appropriate buffer
solution.
（2)Collect 5 g of concrete powder at the required
depth using drill.
（3)Use a plastic stirrer to mix the concrete powder
with 10 ml of fresh distilled water at a temperature of
22±1˚C.
（4)Filter the mixture using No. 40 filter paper.

（5)Inert the pH probe into the mixture and read the

pH to one decimal place.
（6)Note the temperature of mixture.
From the recent past study following observations are
recommended by the researchers as
(1 )High pH value greater than 11. 50 and very low
chloride content then no corrosion is occurred.
（2) High pH value and high chloride content (greater
than 0. 4 %to 0. 6 % by eight of cement) then corrosion
prone.
（3)Low pH value and high chloride content (greater
than 0. 6 %by weight of cement) then highly corrosion
prone.
21 Half-cell Potential Meter- Half-cell potential meter
test is an important technique used for the
measurement of electric potential in the reinforcement
embedded in the concrete.
 i. A half-cell potential test provides an indicator of
corrosion level or corrosive potential within the
concrete. This method is employed for corrosion
monitoring technique standardized by the ASTM
and is used to determine the probability of
corrosion within rebar in reinforced concrete
structures.
ii. The name half-cell derives from the fact that one
half of the battery cell is considered to be the
reinforcing bar and surrounding concrete.
iii. The electrical potential of a point on the surface of
steel reinforcing bar can be measured by
comparing its potential with that of known copper-
copper sulphate reference electrode on the
surface.
iv. Practically this is achieved by connecting wire from
one terminal of voltmeter to the rebar or
reinforcement
v. The electrode potential value of steel in concrete is
an indicator of corrosion activity.
vi. The electrical activity of reinforcement and
concrete leads them to be considered as one half
weak battery cells with the steel acting as one
electrode and concrete as another electrode.
vii. The risk of corrosion of reinforcement steel is
determined by using half-cell potential
 measurement which is considered to be an average
potential measurement of the surrounding.
viii. The corrosion potential technique output is
qualitative as it provides information only on the
corrosion activity but not on quantitative
information such as rate at which bar is corroding.

Procedure
（1)Identify the rebar location

（2)Make a connection with reinforcement or can be

required more than one connection, it there is a
discontinuity between reinforcements.
（3)Prepare the concrete surface wet in condition.

（4)Measure the potential difference at regular

intervals on different points along the length of bar.
（5)Draw the graph of potential verses location.

（6)The graph itself gives the idea of corrosion and its

location also.
The risk of corrosion is evaluated by means of potential
gradient obtained. It is observed that higher the
gradient more will be
Advantage
（1)This method is suitable for in-situ evaluation
research and development work.
（2)This method is applicable to members irrespective
of their age or depth of concrete cover over
reinforcements.
（3)Half-cell potential may be used at any time during
the life of structure.
（4)The half-cell potential test is inexpensive and
simple to perform.
(5）With the help of this test whole structure is
quickly surveyed and data analysis is simple.

Disadvantages
（1)The result obtained by this test method shall not be
considered as a means for estimate the structural
properties of steel or reinforced concrete structure.
（2)For the potential measurement and its
interpretation an experienced technical expert is
required in particular from field of concrete material
and corrosion testing.
（3)Limited potential information between 220 mv and
350 mv will be obtained from this test.
（4)No information and corrosion rate of reinforcing
bars.
（5)Half-cell potential measurements should be taken
only on a free concrete surface.