BCME UNIT-III NOTES

POWER PLANTS: Working principle of Steam, Diesel, Hydro, Nuclear power plant
INTRODUCTION
Power plants are used for the generation of electric power. To improve the standard ofliving, rapid
industrialization is necessary for which adequate electrical power is essential. In India, there has been
considerable increase in power development.

CLASSIFICATION OF POWER PLANTS:

Power plants can be mainly classified as follows:

1. Steam power plant
2. Nuclear power plant
3. Gas-turbine power plant
4. Diesel power plant
5. Hydroelectric power plant
6. Power from alternate sources of energy

(a) STEAM POWER PLANTS:

The layout of a steam power plant is given in Fig. (1). Steam from the boiler is takento the turbine through the steam pipe
fitted with an expansion joint. The joint provides aflexible connection to prevent any crack in the steam pipe which is
subjected to expansionand contraction due to the variation of temperature. From the turbine, the steam entersa condenser,
details of which are shown in Fig. (2). In the condenser, the exhaust steamfrom the turbine is condensed due to which a
high vacuum is produced. Due to the vacuum,the power output and the thermal efficiency of the turbine are considerably
increased. Also, thecondensed water can be recirculated in the system. In the condenser, cooling water is circulatedby a
pump through the water tubes to condense the exhaust steam. The cooling water atthe outlet becomes

Fig. (1).Layout of a steam power plant

 Fig. (2). 2-Pass steam condenser

hot and it is taken to a cooling pondor a cooling tower to cool andto recirculate the same water if thepower plant
is not located on the bank of a river or alake.
The condensate from the condenser before entering the boiler is subjected to thefollowing treatments.
1. Removal of air and oxygen.
2. Preheating the feed water in different stages using a low-pressure heater (LPH), adeaerator and a high-
pressure heater (HPH).

Air and oxygen are removed at the air ejector and the deaerator. In case air and oxygen are notremoved from the
feed water, the vacuum cannot be maintained in the condenser, resulting
in loss of power and thermal efficiency.

Factors to be Considered in the selection of a site for a steam Power Plant:

1. The location of the plant should be at a minimum distance from the load centre(consumer) to avoid
transmission losses.
2. Availability of water is a desirable factor.
3. The water should be preferably free from salt to reduce the cost for watertreatment.
4. The soil should be satisfactory for a strong foundation.
5. The site should be away from thickly populated areas to reduce the effect ofpollution.
6. Adequate transport facility is desirable.
7. Space should be available to store coal and ash.

Uses of Steam Power Plant:

 It generates electricity from steam.

 It can be used in the automotive industry.

Advantages of Steam Power Plant:

 The coal for the combustion is to be transported via railways and roadways.
 The fuel used is quite cheaper compared to other modes of power generation processes.
 The setup cost is also very low compared to others.
 Space accommodation is less compared to the hydropower plant.
Disadvantages of Steam Power Plant:

 The steam power plant produces smoke and fumes at the end of the combustion process which can
pollute the environment.
 Time Consumption is more for those power plants which are away from the Coalfield.

(b) DIESEL POWER PLANTS:

The layout of a diesel power plant is given in Fig. (3). Normally, multicylinder2-stroketurbochargeddiesel
engines are used in power plants (for the principle of working ofa diesel engine, please refer tochapter on IC
Engine). In a turbocharged engine, theatmospheric air is compressed by a compressor run by an exhaust-driven
gas turbine andthe compressed air is taken inside the cylinder. Due to this, mass of air intake and amountof fuel
burnt will be considerably increased giving rise to increased outputpower andhigher thermal efficiency.

Fig. (3). Layout of diesel power plant

Due to turbocharging, the operating temperature of the engine is increased. So, thelubricating oil coming out of
the engine should be cooled in an oil cooler. The coolingwater from the engines is normally cooled in a spray
tank and recirculated. Due to highcapacity, the engine is started by using compressed air.

Advantages of Diesel Power Plant:

1. Plant layout is simple.

2. Easy to install and commission the plant, in comparison with the steam powerplant or hydroplant.
3. Quick starting and easy pick-up of loads are possible in a very short time.
4. Power plant can be located near the load centre.
5. The load operation is easy and requires minimum technical staff.
6. Efficiency at part loads does not fall low.
7. Fuel handling is easier and no problem of ash disposal exists.
Disadvantages of Diesel Power Plant:
1. Maximum capacity of the plant is limited to about 50 MW of power.
2. Diesel fuel is much more expensive than coal.
3. Cost of maintenance and lubrication is high.
4. Overload running may not be possible.

(c) HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANTS:

In a hydroelectric power plant, the potential energy of water stored in a dam is made useof in running a water
turbine coupled to an electrical generator. It is estimated that about23 per cent of the total electric power in the
world comes from hydro power. In TamilNadu, the total generation of power from hydroelectric plants amounts
to 1950 MW andin an all-India level, it amounts to about 18000 MW.

Fig. (4). Hydroelectric Power Plant

The layout of a hydroelectric power plant is given in Fig. (4). The water from the dam isbrought to the water
turbine by a large diameter penstock pipe. The penstock pipe is madeof steel or reinforced concrete. It is
desirable to eliminate sharp bends in the penstock pipeto avoid the loss of head and special
anchoring.Depending upon the load on the turbine, the amount of water needed is controlled
automatically by a valve operated by a centrifugal governor. In case the amount of wateris suddenly reduced or
stopped by the governor mechanism, water coming down witha high velocity will produce turbulence resulting
in a water hammer in the pipe. Thepenstock pipe may be damaged due to the water hammer. To prevent this, a
surge tank isprovided. Surge tank is a large closed tank, which will get filled up with water in the eventpressure
raise in the penstock and the air inside the surge tank shall get compressed. Thiswill safeguard the turbine plant,
control valve and the penstock itself. When pressurebecomes normal, the accumulated water will flow back to
the penstock and to the turbineto produce power. From the turbine, water is allowed to pass through a draft tube
to thetail race. The tail race is the water path leading the discharge water from the turbine to theriver or canal.

(d) NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS:

A nuclear power plant is very similar to a conventional steam power plant except for thefurnace. The nuclear
reactor becomes the furnace in this case. It has been estimated thatcomplete fission of 1 kg of uranium U 235
produces heat energy equivalent to 4500 tons ofcoal or 1700 tons of oil.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory Earlier, Dalton, an English scientist, discovered that an elementis made up of
extremely small particles called atoms. An atom is the smallest particle ofan element. According to Dalton’s
theory, an atom cannot be split. But this theory is nolonger valid.

Nuclear Fission Contrary to the Dalton’s Atomic Theory, it has now been establishedthat a large amount of
heat energy is derived by fissioning of the nucleus of a fissionablematerial like uranium U 235. When a neutron
bombards the nucleus of U235, the atom splitsinto krypton and barium and releases 2.47 fast moving neutrons
and also produces a largeamount of heat energy.

As in Fig. (5) one of the neutrons released during the fission continues to fissionanother nucleus of U 235 causing
a chain reaction which produces enormous amount ofheat energy. About 0.9 neutron is captured by U235 which
gets converted into fissionablematerial PU239 and about 0.6 neutrons are partly absorbed by the moderator and a
part escape from the reactor. PU239 is a fissionable material and is called secondary nuclear fuel.

Fig. (5) Nuclear reaction

Safety Precautions for Nuclear Power Plant:

The first level of safety in nuclear reactor is the careful design of the reactor and othercomponents of the system
with a high degree of reliability, and the chances of malfunctionare very small. Apart from the controlling
devices like control rods, moderator and coolantin the reactor, some auxiliary safety devices are also provided.

When the primary protection system fails, each reactor is provided with some type ofback-up protection. One
important device is gas fuse. The gas used is boron trifluoride.This is filled in a container at high pressure and
sealed with a plug which melts when thetemperature in thereactor exceeds the safe value. If the temperature
rises above the safevalue, sufficient volume of gas enters the reactor core and reactivity decreases, due towhich
the temperature automatically comes down.

Nuclear waste disposal:

The radioactive wastes produced in different stages of nuclear fuel cycle must be disposedoff without any
hazard to human and plant life. Gaseous wastes are discharged to theatmosphere through high stacks. Moderate
liquid wastes, after a preliminary treatmentare discharged into deep pits. Active liquids are kept in concrete
tanks. These tanks areburied in the ground till their radioactivity decays up to a safe level for disposal.

Advantages of a Nuclear Power Plant:

1. Very large amount of heat is liberated by a very small quantity of fuel.
2. It is suitable for large power generation.
3. Cost of fuel transportation and storage is less.

Disadvantagesof a Nuclear Power Plant:

1. Installation cost is very high.
2. Availability of nuclear fuel is scarce and cost is high.
3. Large number of trained and qualified personnel are required to operate the plant.
4. Maintenance cost is higher.
5. Problems are involved in waste disposal and there is also a risk of radiation hazards.
Mechanical Power Transmission - Belt Drives, Chain, Rope drives, Gear Drives and their
applications.

DEFINITION: Mechanical power transmission refers to the transfer of mechanical energy (physical motion) from
one component to another in machines. Most machines need some form of mechanical power transmission. Common
examples include electric shavers, water pumps, turbines and automobiles.

In most cases, the rotational movement of the prime mover is converted into the rotational movement of the driven
machinery. However, the speed, torque and direction may change.

Occasionally, they may convert rotational motion into translational motion (back and forth movement) depending on
the application’s functional requirements. Such change may be carried out using linkages or other machine elements.

Types of Mechanical Power Transmission:

Different machine elements can transmit power between shafts in machinery. The most common mechanical power
transmission methods in use in the engineering industry today are:

 Chain drives
 Rope Drives
 Gear drives
 Belt drives

CHAIN DRIVE ROPE DRIVE

GEAR DRIVE BELT DRIVE

BELT DRIVE:

A belt drive is a frictional drive that transmits power between two or more shafts using pulleys and an elastic belt. In
most cases, it is powered by friction but it may also be a positive drive. It can operate at wide ranges of speed and
power requirements. It is also highly efficient.

When it comes to cost, a belt drive is considerably cheaper than gear and chain drives. It costs less to install as well as
maintain. Belt drive sheaves or pulleys undergo little wear compared to chain drive sprockets over extended periods
of use.

Contrary to most chain and gear drives, a belt drive can handle some degree of misalignment. Correct alignment,
however, increases service life. Excessive misalignment is responsible for issues such as improper belt tracking,
uneven pulley wear, noisy operation and belt edge wear. The intensity of these issues is directly proportional to the
belt’s width.

Advantages
 Belt drives are quite affordable thanks to low component cost and high
efficiency
 They can transmit power over long distances, contrary to gears, couplings
and lead screws
 Compared to chain drives, they operate smoother and more quietly
 They can absorb shock and vibrations
 Overload protection through the slipping of the belt
 Lightweight and relatively durable
 Low maintenance costs

Disadvantages
 Belt slippage can vary the velocity ratio
 They apply a heavy load on the bearings and shafts
 Finite speed range
 Short service life if not maintained well
 They need an idler pulley or some adjustment of center distance to compensate
for belt stretching and wear

Applications of Belt-drive
 The belt drive is used in the Mill industry.
 The belt drive is used in Conveyor.
 Power transmission in industrial machinery and equipment.
 Automotive applications, in different types of engines and transmissions.

ROPE DRIVE: The rope drive is widely used where a large amount of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley
to another, over a considerable distance. Rope drives use a number of circular section ropes, rather than a single flat or
vee belt. It may be noted that the use of flat belts is limited for the transmission of moderate power from one pulley to
another when the two pulleys is not more than 8 metres apart.

Advantages:
 Appreciable power transmission.
 Used for long-distance power transitions.
 Strong and flexible ropes.
 Smooth and noise resistant.
 Runs in any direction.
 Low-cost and economical.
 Precise alignment of the shaft is not needed.
Dis-Advantages:
 Failure of rope does not have any sign, so it often gets unnoticed.
 Wire rope gets corroded.

Applications:

 Rope drives are used to drive systems which are more than 8 meters in distance using a distance power
transmission system. There are two types of rope drives based on the rope material namely: fibre rope and metal
rope.

 Fibre ropes are used for distances up to sixty meters. It is commonly seen in wells.

 Metal ropes are used for distances beyond sixty meters. It is commonly seen in elevators and cranes.
CHAIN DRIVE:Slipping occurs in belt and rope drives. In order to avoid these slipping phenomenon chain
drives are used. A chain drive consists of three elements

1. Driving sprocket
2. Driven sprocket
3. An endless chain which is wrapped around two sprockets

Advantages of Chain Drive

 It provides a positive transmission and no chances of slip are there.
 It gives a constant velocity ratio

Applications of Chain Drive

 It is used in bicycle, motorcycles, agricultural machinery and textile machinery, material handling
equipment
etc.

Types of Chain
1. Hoisting and Hauling chains
2. Conveyor chains
3. Power transmission chains
GEAR DRIVE:
 A gear is a rotating machine part having cut teeth, or cogs, which mesh with another toothed part in
order totransmit torque and power.
 In order to transmit a definite power from one shaft to another shaft to the projection on one disc and
recesseson another disc can be made which can mesh with each other.
 In the early days, friction discs as shown in the figure were used for transmitting the power from one
shaft to another shaft. In such a case, the power transmission capacity depends on the friction between surfaces
of two discs. Therefore, this method is not suitable for transmitting higher power as a slip occurs between the
discs.

Advantages of Gear drive

 It is a positive drive (no slip) i.e. it transmits exact velocity ratio from one shaft to another shaft.
 It can transmit very large power.
 High transmission efficiency.
 It requires less space.
 This drive is more reliable.

Disadvantages of Gear drive

 Manufacturing cost is high.
 Maintenance cost is also high due to lubrication requirements.
 The error in cutting teeth may cause vibrations and noise during operation.It requires precise alignment
of shafts.
Types of gears
1. Spur gear
2. Helical gear
3. Rack and Pinion gear
4. Bevel gear
5. Worm and worm wheel
6. Spiral gear
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BELT, CHAIN AND GEAR DRIVES:
The major difference between Belt drive and Chain drive is that the Belt drive is one friction
drive, and Chain drive is one engagement drive. Both a chain drive and a belt drive allow locomotion and
transfer the power within a particular piece of machinery. Chain drives and Belt drives used in bicycles,
motorcycles, and automobiles.

Belt drive Chain drive Gear drive

Main element Pulleys, belt Main element Sprockets, chain Main element Gears
Slip may occur No-slip No-slip
Suitability For the large center Suitability For the moderate Suitability For the short center
distance center distance
distance
Large Space requires Moderate Space requires Less Space requires
Simplest Design, manufacturing, Simplest Design, Complicated Design, manufacturing,
complexity manufacturing, complexity
complexity
Failure of the belt does not Failure of a chain may not Failure of gear may
cause the further seriously damage the cause serious break
damage of machine machine. down in the
machine.
Less Life Moderate Life Long Life
Lubrication Not required Lubrication required Requires proper
lubrication
Less Installation cost Moderate Installation cost More Installation cost
Used For low-velocity ratio Used For moderate velocity Used For high velocity
ratio ratio
Introduction to Robotics: Joints and links, configurations and applications of robotics

INTRODUCTION:
Robot, any automatically operated machine that replaces human effort, though it may not resemble human
beings in appearance or perform functions in a humanlike manner. By extension, robotics is
the engineering discipline dealing with the design, construction, and operation of robots.
The concept of artificial humans predates recorded history (see automaton), but the modern term robot derives
from the Czech word robota (“forced labour” or “serf”), used in Karel Čapek’s play Rossum’s Universal
RobotsR.U.R. (1920). The play’s robots were manufactured humans, heartlessly exploited by factory owners
until they revolted and ultimately destroyed humanity. Whether they were biological, like the monster in Mary
Shelley’s Frankenstein (1818), or mechanical was not specified, but the mechanical alternative inspired
generations of inventors to build electrical humanoids.
The word robotics first appeared in Isaac Asimov’s science-fiction story Runaround (1942). Along with
Asimov’s later robot stories, it set a new standard of plausibility about the likely difficulty of developing
intelligent robots and the technical and social problems that might result. Runaround also contained Asimov’s
famous Three Laws of Robotics:

1. A robot may not injure a human being, or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm.

2. A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings except where such orders would conflict with the
First Law.

3. A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or
Second Law.
ROBOT LINKS AND JOINTS:
In a robot, the connection of different manipulator joints is known as Robot Links, and the integration of two or
more link is called as Robot Joints. A robot link will be in the form of solid material, and it can be classified
into two key types: input link and output link. The movement of the input link allows the output link to move at
various motions. An input link will be located nearer to the base.
Different types of robot joints:

The Robot Joints is the important element in a robot which helps the links to travel in different kind of
movements. There are five major types of joints such as:
 Rotational joint
 Linear joint
 Twisting joint
 Orthogonal joint
 Revolving joint

Rotational Joint:

When it comes to the rotational joints, you’ll find the use of rotational relative motions that come in handy for
robot manipulators working multiple workspaces. These movements are carried out with the axis of rotation
perpendicular to the axes of the input and output links. These rotational joints are also referred to as Type R
joints.

Linear Joint:

Linear joint can be indicated by the letter L Joint. In the linear joints, the relative motion featured by the
adjacent links is meant to be parallel. This means that the input and output links are sliding in a linear motion.
This kind of movement results in a translational motion. This kind of linear motion can be achieved in several
ways including the use of the telescoping mechanism and piston. This type of joint is also referred to as the L-
joint.

Twisting Joint:

This type of joint features rotary motion that also results in some degree of rotation when in use. The movement
in these joints is relative to the axis of rotation that is perpendicular to the axes of the input and output links.
The twisting joints are also referred to as type T joints.

Orthogonal Joint:

The orthogonal joints are also popularly referred to as the type O-joints. They feature a relative movement taken
by the input link and output link. This kind of motion involved in the Orthogonal joints is a translational sliding
motion. However unlike the linear joints arrangement, with the Orthogonal joint, the output link is
perpendicular to the input link.
Revolving Joint:

Revolving joint is generally known as V Joint. Here, the output link axis is perpendicular to the rotational axis,
and the input link is parallel to the rotational axes. As like twisting joint, the output link spins about the input
link.

ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THE COORDINATE SYSTEM

Industrial robots are available in a wide variety of sizes, shapes, and physical configurations. The vast majority
of today’s commercially available robots possess one of the basic configurations:
1. Polar configuration
2. Cylindrical configuration
3. Cartesian coordinate configurable
4. Jointed-arm configuration

1. Polar configuration: -

The polar configuration is pictured in part (a) of Fig. It uses a telescoping arm that can be raised or lowered
about a horizontal pivot the pivot is mounted on a mating base These various joints provide the robot with the
capability to move its arm within a spherical space, and hence the name “spherical coordinate” robot is
sometimes applied to this type. A number of commercial robots possess the polar configuration.

2. Cylindrical configuration: -

The cylindrical configurable, as shown in fig, uses a vertical column and a slide that can be moved up or down
along the column. The robot arm is attached to the slide so that it cm he moved radially with respect to the
column. By routing the column, the robot is capable of achieving a work space that approximation a cylinder.
3. Cartesian coordinate configuration: -

The cartesian coordinate robot, illustrated in part Cc) of Fig, uses three perpendicular slides to construct the x, y,
and z axes. Other names are sometimes applied W this configuration, including xyz robot and rectilinear robot,
by moving the three slides relative to one another, the robot is capable of operating within a rectangular work
envelope.
4. Jointed-arm configuration: -

The jointed-arm robot is pictured in Fig. Its configuration is similar to that of the human arm. It consists of two
straight components. Corresponding to the human forearm and upper arm, mounted on a vertical pedestal.
These components are connected by two rotary joints corresponding to the shoulder and elbow.

ROBOTIC APPLICATIONS:
Robotics has a wide range of applications across different industries and sectors. Some of the most notable
applications of robotics include:

1. Manufacturing: Robotics is widely used in manufacturing to automate repetitive tasks, increase

productivity and improve quality. Robots are used in assembly lines, welding, painting, and other
manufacturing processes.

2. Transportation: Self-driving cars, drones, and autonomous vehicles are examples of robotics
applications in transportation. They are being developed to improve safety, reduce traffic congestion, and
increase efficiency.

3. Healthcare: Robotics technology is increasingly being used in healthcare to assist with surgeries,
rehabilitation, and other medical procedures. Robots can also be used to help with tasks such as monitoring
patient vital signs and administering medication.

4. Agriculture: Agricultural robots are being used to plant and harvest crops, monitor crop growth, and
perform other tasks to increase efficiency and reduce labor costs.
5. Construction: Robotics technology is being used in construction to automate tasks such as bricklaying,
concrete pouring, and other labor-intensive tasks.

6. Space Exploration: Robotics technology plays an important role in space exploration as it can be used
to explore other planets, moons, and asteroids.

7. Service Industry: Robotics technology is used in the service industries such as hotels, malls, banks, etc.
to provide customer service like answering queries, providing information, and guiding customers.

8. Military and Defense: Robotics technology is being used in military and defense to perform tasks such
as surveillance, reconnaissance, and bomb disposal.
9. 9. Robotics in AI: Robotics and artificial intelligence (AI) are closely related fields, with many areas of
overlap and integration. Robotics uses AI techniques to enable robots to perceive and understand their
environment, make decisions, and carry out tasks autonomously. Some specific ways that AI is used in robotics
include:

 Computer Vision: Robotics often rely on computer vision to perceive and understand their
environment, which involves the use of cameras and image processing algorithms to extract information
from visual data.

 Natural Language Processing (NLP): Robotics uses NLP to enable robots to understand and
respond to human speech, this can be used in customer service, personal assistance, and other
applications.

 Machine Learning: Robotics uses machine learning techniques to enable robots to learn from
experience, adapt to new situations, and improve their performance over time. This can help robots to
become more autonomous, flexible, and efficient.

 Motion Planning: Robotics uses motion planning algorithms to enable robots to navigate and move
through their environment in a safe and efficient way.

 Robotics is also used in AI applications such as Robotics Process Automation (RPA) which uses
the capabilities of software robots to automate repetitive tasks.

Overall, Robotics has a wide range of applications and has been and will continue to be an important field of
technology that has the potential to significantly impact various industries and change the way we live our lives.
Advancements in Robotics technology have and will continue to lead to new opportunities, efficiencies, and
cost savings. However, the increasing use of robots also raises ethical and societal issues, such as job
displacement, which will need to be addressed in the future.