Chapter 7

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Technology

Asst. Prof. Bijaya Shrestha

Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
nec
CDMA
CDMA is a technique that allows users to share the same
frequency at the same time through the use of unique
orthogonal codes for different users.
Let us consider that a transmitter needs to send signal s0
for user u0 and signal s1 for user u1.
Let us assign codes: c0 = [1, 1, 1, 1] for u0 and
c1 = [1, -1, -1, 1] for u1.
If the transmitter sends signals after multiplying with the
corresponding codes, then the signal for
user u0 : [s0, s0, s0, s0]
user u1 : [s1, -s1, -s1, s1]

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CDMA
And, the net signal transmitted is
s = [(s0 + s1), (s0 - s1), (s0 - s1), (s0 + s1)]
At user u0 , if the received signal is cross-correlated
with code c0, then the resulting signal will be
= (s0 + s1) + (s0 - s1) + (s0 - s1) + (s0 + s1)
= 4s0
which is the scaled version of the signal transmitted
for user u0 .
Similarly, at user u1 , the cross-correlation of the
received signal with code c1 gives the desired result 4s1.

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CDMA
This result is due to the fact that the two codes c0 and
c1 are orthogonal to one another.
In this example, one symbol has been split into four
symbols before transmission.
The symbols in the code are referred to as the chips.
For a user, let
symbol rate, Rs = 1 kbps
symbol duration, Ts = 1/Rs = 1 ms
then, the required transmission bandwidth,
B = 1/Ts = 1 kHz

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CDMA
After splitting the message symbol into four symbols
(chips), for keeping the data rate constant, the
chip duration, Tc = Ts/4 = 0.25 ms
and, required transmission bandwidth,
B = 1/Tc = 4 kHz
Here, the transmission bandwidth has been spread by
the code.
Therefore, CDMA technology is also known as the
spread spectrum technology and the codes being
referred to as spreading sequences.

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CDMA
The code spreads the bandwidth by a factor equal to
the length of the spreading sequence.
The factor is known as the spreading factor (or
spreading gain). Here, the factor N = 4.
For N = 4, there are only 4 orthogonal codes:
c0 = [1, 1, 1, 1]
c1 = [1, -1, -1, 1]
c2 = [1, -1, 1, -1]
c3 = [1, 1, -1, -1]

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CDMA
Hence, the number of users that can access the
common channel is N.
For serving large number of users using CDMA
technology, we should have a large number of
orthogonal codes which demand longer spreading
sequences.
Despite of being deterministic, the spreading
sequence has many characteristics similar to those of
noise. Therefore, it is also known as the pseudo-noise
sequence or PN sequence.

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Generation of PN Sequence
One method to generate a PN sequence is by using
Linear Feedback Shift Register (LFSR).
Consider an example with three registers.
xi-1 xi-2 xi-3 xi
1 1 1 0
0 1 1 0
0 0 1 1
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
Here, the first PN sequence is 1 1 1 0

[1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0] having length 2m – 1 = 23 – 1 = 7, where

m is the number of shift registers.

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IS-95
A US digital cellular system based on CDMA was
standardized as Interim Standard 95 (IS-95) by the US
Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA).
IS-95 allows each user within a cell to use the same
radio channel, and users in adjacent cells also use the
same radio channel, since this is a direct sequence
spread spectrum (DS-SS) CDMA system.
CDMA completely eliminates the need for frequency
planning within a market.

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IS-95
IS-95 uses a different modulation and spreading technique
for the forward and reverse links.
On the forward link, the base station simultaneously
transmits the user data for all mobiles in the cell by using a
different spreading sequence for each mobile.
On the reverse link, all mobiles respond in an
asynchronous fashion and have ideally a constant signal
level due to power control applied by the base station.
IS-95 uses Qualcom 9600 bps Code Excited Linear
Predictive (QCELP) speech coder.
The user data rates of 1200 bps, 2400 bps, and 4800 bps are
also used.
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Frequency Band of IS-95
The 824 – 849 MHz band is used for the reverse link.
The 869 – 894 MHz band is used for the forward link.
A forward and reverse channel pair is separated by 45
MHz.
Each IS-95 channel occupies 1.25 MHz of spectrum on
each one-way link.
IS-95 (PCS) also uses 1800 – 2000 MHz bands.

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Walsh Codes in IS-95
There are 64 Walsh codes each of length 64.
They are completely orthogonal to each other.
Walsh codes channelize the users on the forward link.
The 64 × 64 Walsh function matrix (also called a
Hadamard matrix) is generated by the following
recursive procedure:
That is,

Each row in the 64 × 64 Walsh function matrix

corresponds to a channel number.

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Forward Link of IS-95
The spreading process is different for the forward and
reverse links.
On the forward link, the user data stream is encoded
using a rate ½ convolutional code, interleaved, and
spread by one of 64 orthogonal spreading sequences
(Walsh functions).
Each mobile in a given cell is assigned a different
spreading sequence (Walsh code).
A long PN sequence of length 242 -1 chips is used for
the encryption purpose.
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Forward Link of IS-95
To reduce interference between mobiles that use the
same spreading sequence in different cells, and to
provide the desired wideband characteristics, all
signals in a particular cell are scrambled using a short
PN sequence of length 215 chips.
The short PN sequence is used also for the
synchronization and base station identification.
A pilot code is also transmitted simultaneously and at
a higher power level, thereby allowing all mobiles to
use coherent carrier detection while estimating the
channel conditions.

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Reverse Link of IS-95
The reverse channel user data stream is first
convolutionally encoded with a rate 1/3 code.
After interleaving, each block of six encoded symbols
is mapped to one of the 64 orthogonal Walsh
functions, providing 64-ary orthogonal signaling.
The resulting signal is spread by user-specific (long PN
code) and base-station specific (short PN code) codes
having periods of 242 – 1 chips and 215 chips,
respectively.

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Forward CDMA (IS-95) Channel
The forward CDMA channel consists of
Pilot channel
Synchronization channel
Paging channel
Forward traffic channel
IS-95 CDMA system uses a 64 × 64 Hadamard matrix to
generate 64 Walsh codes that are orthogonal to each other.
Walsh code 0 (W0) is assigned to the pilot channel, W32 to
the synchronization channel, W1 to W7 to paging channels
and the rest to the forward traffic channels.

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Pilot Channel
The pilot channel sends all 0s at 19.2 kbps rate.
It is spread by Walsh code 0 (W0) which is also a
sequence of all 0s.
The resulting sequence (still all 0s) is then spread by a
pair of quadrature PN sequences.
The PN sequence helps to identify the particular base
station that is transmitting the pilot signal.
After PN spreading, baseband filters are used to shape
the digital pulses.

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Pilot Channel
The pilot channel is transmitted continuously by the
base station.
The pilot channel provides the mobile with timing and
phase reference which helps for coherent
demodulation.
The mobile calculates the signal-to-noise ratio of the
pilot channels from different base stations which is
used for the handoff operation.

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Pilot Channel

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Synchronization Channel
The synchronization channel operates at a fixed rate of
1200 bps.
It broadcasts synchronization messages to the mobile
station.

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Paging Channel
The paging channel operates at 9600, 4800, and 2400
bps.
It is used to send control information and paging
messages from the base station to mobiles.

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Forward Traffic Channel
The forward traffic channel (FTC) supports variable
user data rates at 9600, 4800, 2400, or 1200 bps.
It is used to transmit user data and voice.
The user data is first convolutionally coded and then
repeated a number of times to make the symbol rate
constant at 19.2 ksps.
The block interleaver is used to reduce the burst
errors.
The long PN sequence at the rate of 1.2288 Mcps is
used for the privacy purpose.
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Forward Traffic Channel
The output of block interleaver is scrampled with the
decimated long PN sequence at the rate of 19.2 ksps.
Then the signal is spread with a Walsh code at a chip
rate of 1.2288 Mcps.
The spread signal is again spread in quadrature by
short PN codes of length 215 -1 chips.
The signal is then passed through baseband filter for
pulse shaping purpose.
Finally, the signal is QPSK modulated before
transmission.
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Forward Traffic Channel
The forward traffic channel also contains multiplexed
power control bit (PCB).
The PCB commands the mobile to increase or decrease
its transmit power level by 1 dB based on the received
power level at the base station.

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Reverse CDMA (IS-95) Channel
The reverse link supports
Access channel
Traffic channel
In the reverse link, instead of Walsh codes, long PN
sequences are used to distinguish from each other.

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Access Channel (AC)
The access channel is used by the mobile to initiate
communication with the base station and to respond
to paging channel messages.
The baseband data rate of the access channel is fixed
at 4800 bps.
The baseband signal is first convolutionally coded and
repeated once to make the symbol rate 28.8 ksps.
The signal is then block interleaved to reduce burst
errors.
The data is then coded by a 64-ary orthogonal
modulator using 64 Walsh codes.
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Access Channel (AC)
A group of six symbols is represented by a unique
Walsh code.
The receiver decides which Walsh code is sent by
correlating the received sequence with a set of 64
known Walsh codes.

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Access Channel (AC)

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Reverse Traffic Channel (RTC)
The reverse traffic channel is used to transmit user
data and voice.
The structure of the reverse traffic channel is similar to
that of the access channel.
The reverse traffic channel supports variable data
rates: 9600, 4800, 2400, and 1200 bps.
The reverse traffic channel contains also a data burst
randomizer.
The data burst randomizer is used to transmit certain
bits while turning the transmitter off at other times.
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Reverse Traffic Channel (RTC)
When the data rate is 9600 bps, all interleaver output
bits are transmitted.
When the data rate is 4800 bps, half of the interleaver
output bits are transmitted, and the mobile unit does
not transmit 50 % of the time, and so forth.
The reverse traffic channel is spread by the long PN
code at a rate of 1.2288 Mcps.
Prior to transmission, the reverse traffic channel is
spread by I and Q channel pilot PN sequences which
are identical to those used in the forward CDMA
channel process.
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Reverse Traffic Channel (RTC)
The reverse link modulation is offset quadrature phase
shift keying (OQPSK).

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Near-Far Problem
In CDMA, since all the users share the same
transmission frequency and time, each user behaves as
a noise source for another user.
If all the mobile users transmit the same amount of
power, the base station recieves strong signal from the
nearby users and weak signal from the far users.
This may create difficulty for a base station to detect
the signal coming from far users.
This is known as near-far problem.

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Near-Far Problem
The near-far problem can be eliminated by adopting a
proper power control mechanism.
Based on the power level received from each user, the
base station commands the mobile stations to increase
or decrease the transmit power such that the base
station receives the same power level from all the
users.

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Soft Handoff
Soft handoff is the feature of CDMA.
This is also known as “make before break” handoff.
During handoff in CDMA, the MS communicates with
more than one BS.
When it’s time to move from the weaker BS to the
stronger BS, the MS is already communicating with
the stronger one.
Such handoff is known as the soft handoff.

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Wideband CDMA (W-CDMA)
W-CDMA is the most commonly used technique of the
Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS).
It is the 3G technology proposed by ETSI for IMT-2000.
It was developed to offer higher data rates.
The channel bandwidth is 5 MHz.
The chip rate is 3.84 Mcps.
The uplink frequency band is: 1920 – 1980 MHz.
The downlink frequency band is: 2110 – 2170 MHz.
W-CDMA uses QPSK modulation technique.

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Multicarrier CDMA (MC-CDMA)
Multicarrier CDMA (MC-CDMA) is a technique
developed by combining OFDM and CDMA
techniques.
MC-CDMA is aimed to support high data rates in
highly hostile radio channels.
The transmitter spreads the serial-to-parallel (S/P)
converted data streams using a given spreading code,
and then modulates a different subcarrier with each of
the data stream, similar to a normal DS-CDMA
scheme.

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Multicarrier CDMA (MC-CDMA)

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Multicarrier CDMA (MC-CDMA)

At the receiver, the subcarrier modulated signals are down-

converted with the corresponding subcarrier frequencies.
The signal in each branch is then despread with the same
spreading code used in the transmitter.
The original bit stream is obtained after passing the
detected bits of all the parallel branches through the
parallel-to-serial converter (P/S).

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Multicarrier CDMA (MC-CDMA)

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References
1. Theodore S. Rappaport, Wireless Communications,
second edition, Prentice Hall, 2012.
2. Aditya K. Jagannatham, “Introduction to CDMA,
Spread Spectrum and LFSR”, video lecture, IIT
Kanpur.
3. William C. Y. Lee, Mobile Cellular
Telecommunications, second edition, McGraw Hill.
4. Shinsuke Hara and Ramjee Prasad, “Overview of
Multicarrier CDMA”, IEEE Communications
Magazine, December 1997.
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