ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUITS,

Russell M Kerchner, George F Corcoran,

Fourth Edition
Syllabus
AC Currents: General concepts and definitions, instantaneous
current, voltage and power; R, L, C, RL, RC, and RLC branches.
Effective and average value, form factor, crest factor, real and
reactive power.
AC Circuits (Steady State Analysis): Impedance in polar and
Cartesian forms. Sinusoidal single phase circuit analysis.
Impedance in series, parallel branches, series parallel circuits.
Network analysis: Thevenin’s theorem, Norton’s Theorem.
Balanced poly phase circuits: Three phase, four wire system of
generated EMFs, three phase three wire systems, balanced Y loads
and balanced delta loads. Power in balanced systems and power
factor. Balanced three phase circuit analysis and power
measurement
Instantaneous Current,Voltage, and Power CHAPTER II
CHAPTER II - Oscillating Current
An oscillating current is a current which alternately increases and
decreases in magnitude with respect to time accordingly to some
definitive law.
Periodic Current
A periodic current is an oscillating current the values of which
recur at equal interval of time. Thus,

i = I0 + I1 sin(ωt + α1 ) + I2 sin(2ωt + α2 ) + .......... (1)

where i = instantaneous value of a periodic current at a time t

I0 , I1 , α1 , α2 , = Constants (Positive negative or zero)
ω = 2π T
An alternating current is a periodic current, the average value of
which over a period is zero. The equation for an alternating current
is the same as that for a periodic current except that, I0 = 0
In Fig (a), i = 10sinωtA
◦
In Fig (b), i = 10sinωt + 4sin(ωt + 90 )A
In Fig (c), i = 10sinωt + 4sin2ωtA
Periods and Cycles
1 Smallest value of time that separate the recurring values
2 One complete set of negative and positive values.
3 ω represents the angular velocity
◦
4 One complete cycle is to extend over 360 or 2π radian
Frequency

1 Number of cycles per second

1
2 since T is the time of one cycle, f = T

Wave form
The shape of curve resulting from a part of instantaneous values of
voltage or current as ordinate against time as abscissa is its
waveform or wave shape.

Angular Velocity or Angular Frequency

ω = 2π 1
T = 2π × T = 2πf
Sine Wave
 Figure: Sine wave may be expressed as Im sin α or as Im sin ωt

The equation of sine wave is:

i = Im sinωt
Here, ωt = Time angle, expressed in radians.
i = Instantaneous value of current. Im = Maximum value of
sinusoidal variation.
Since ωt represents an angle ,
i = Im sinα,
Where α is in degrees or radians
Alternating Potential Difference
It may take the form of a generated e.m.f or the form of a
potential drop, sometimes abbreviated as p.d. Instantaneous values
of generated or induced emf’s will be designated by e, and
instantaneous values of potential drops by the symbol v . Similarly
Em and Vm will be used to distinguish a maximum value of
induced voltage from a maximum value of potential drop.
Phase
Phase is the fractional part of a period through which time or the
associated time angle t has advanced from an arbitrary reference.
In the case of a simple sinusoidal variation, the origin is usually
taken as the last previous passage through zero from the negative
to the positive direction.
In accordance with the above definition, the phase angle of a single
wave is the angle from the zero point on the wave to the value at
the point from which time is reckoned. Thus,
i = Im sin(ωt + θ)
represents a sine wave of current with a phase angle θ. The phase
of the wave from which time is reckoned (i.e., when t = 0) is
i = Im sinθ. The angle θ is the phase angle of the current with
respect to the point where i = 0 as a reference.

Figure: Phase angle θ of sine wave

Phase Difference
The phase angle is a very important device for properly locating
different alternating quantities with respect to one another. For
example, if the applied voltage is V = Vm sinωt, and it is known
from the nature and magnitude of the circuit parameters that the
current comes to a corresponding point on its wave before the
voltage wave by θ degree, the current can be expressed as,
i = Im sin(ωt + θ)

Figure: Illustrating a case where i wave leads the v wave by θ = 45o

The figure illustrating a case where the i wave leads the v wave by
◦
θ = 45
◦ ◦
Thus, if V = 100sin(ωt + 45 ) and i = 10sin(ωt − 15 ), the angle
◦ ◦ ◦
of phase difference is 45 − (−15 ) = 60 .
Inspection of the oscillogram will show that the current lags the
◦
voltage in this particular case by approximately 60

Figure: General Concept

Example-1. A voltage is described as having sinusoidal wave form,

a maximum value of 200 volts, and an angular frequency of 377
radians per second.(60 cycles per second)
 the mathematical
expression for the alternating voltage as a function of time, t, is:
v = 200sin377t volts
Example-2. A voltage is described as having sinusoidal wave form,
a maximum value of 200 volts, and an angular frequency of
◦
377 + 90 radians per second.(60 cycles per second)
the mathematical expression for the alternating voltage as a
function of time, t, is:
◦
v = 200sin(377t + 90 ) = 200cos377t volts
Problem 3
Write down the expression for V1 , V2 and V3
◦
V1 = 190sin(377t − 90 )
V2 = 150sin(377t)
◦
V3 = 100sin(377t + 90 )

• Write down the numerical expression of V1 , V2 andV3 from the

given figure
Impedance Function
Mathematically a particular type of function is required to relate
voltage and current in an a-c circuit. The one generally employed
is called the impedance function or simply the impedance of the
circuit. called the impedance function or simply the impedance of
the circuit. The impedance function must tell two important facts:
(1) The ratio of Vm to Im
(2) The phase angle between the waves of voltage and current. A
special type of notation is required to signify the two properties of
the impedance function in abbreviated form. One such type of
notation is:
Z ̸ angle
1 The above expression does not signify the multiplication of Z
and angleangle. Z is the magnitude of the impedance and in a
particular case is represented by a certain number of ohms.
2 It defines the ratio of Vm to Im . The angle associated with Z,
if it is positive, defines the lead of the voltage with respect to
the current.
 3 In accordance with the convention thus adopted a positive
angle specifies the number of degrees or radians by which the
current lags the voltage.
4 The determination of the complete impedance function for
various combinations of R, L, and C is the first step in a-c
circuit analysis.

The ’R’ Branch

Here,
v = Vm sinωt = Ri —————–(1)
i = Im sinωt = Vm sinωt
R ——————–(2)
So VImm = R

the current wave is in time phase with the voltage wave.

Impedance:
◦
ZR = R ̸ 0
Power
The instantaneous power is given by:p = vi
p = vi = Vm sinωt × Im sinωt
p = Vm Im sin2 ωt
From trigonometric formula we know, sin2 ωt = 12 - 21 cos2ωt
so, p = Vm Im 21 - Vm Im 12 cos2ωt
The ’L’ Branch

Here,
di
v = L dt = Vm sinωt —————–(1)
di = VLm sinωtdt ——————–(2)
di = VLm sinωtdt
R R

i = − VωLm cosωt + C1
◦ ◦
So i = VωLm sin(ωt − 90 ) = Im sin(ωt − 90 )... Considering C1 = 0
◦
the current wave lags voltage by 90 .
Impedance:
◦
ZL = ωL̸ 90
1 The magnitude of the above impedance, ωL, is called
inductive reactance.
2 When ω, is expressed in radians per second and L is expressed
in henrys, the inductive reactance, XL , is in ohms.
Mathematically, XL = ωL = 2πfL
Power and Energy
The instantaneous power is given by:p = vi
◦
p = vi = Vm sinωt × Im sin(ωt − 90 )
p = Vm Im (−sinωt cosωt)
p = − Vm2Im sin2ωt
The exact amount of energy delivered to the circuit during a
quarter of a cycle may be obtained by integrating any positive loop
of the power wave, for example, integrating p between the limits of
t = T4 and t = T2
R T /2
WL = T /4 − Vm2Im sin2ωtdt
V m Im T /2
WL = 2( 4π )
[cos 4π
T t]T /4
T
Vm Im
WL = 2ω
Vm ◦ ◦
Since, Vm = ωLIm , [Because, ωL sin(ωt − 90 ) = Im sin(ωt − 90 )]
(ωLIm )Im LIm2
WL = 2ω = 2
The ’C’ Branch
Here,
v = Cq = Vm sinωt —————–(1)
dq
dt = Vm ωCcosωt ——————–(2)
◦ ◦
i = Im sin(ωt + 90 ) = V1m sin(ωt + 90 )
ωC
◦
the current wave leads voltage by 90 .
Impedance:
1 ̸ ◦
ZC = ωC − 90
1
1 The magnitude of the above impedance, , is called
ωC
capacitive reactance.
2 When ω, is expressed in radians per second and C is expressed
in farads, the capacitive reactance, XC , is in ohms.
106
Mathematically, XC = ωC µf

Power and Energy

The instantaneous power is given by:p = vi
◦
p = vi = Vm sinωt × Im sin(ωt + 90 )
p = Vm Im (sinωt cosωt)
p = Vm2Im sin2ωt
The exact amount of energy delivered to the circuit during a
quarter of a cycle may be obtained by integrating any positive loop
of the power wave, for example, integrating p between the limits of
t = 0 and t = T4
R T /4 Vm Im
WC = 0 sin(2ωt)dt
R T /4 Vm2Im
WC = 0 2 sin(2 × 2πft)dt
R T /4 Vm Im 1
WC = 0 2 sin(2 × 2π × T t)dt
V m Im 4π T /4
WC = 2( 4π [−cos T t]0
)
T
WC = V2ω m Im

Since, Im = ωCVm ,
CVm2
WC = (ωCV2ωm )Vm = 2
• In case of a purely resistive,inductive, capacitive circuit write
down the general expression of i, v, p, Z and WL , WC where the
symbols mean their usual meaning
The ’RL’ Branch
Here,
di
v = Ri + L dt = Vm sinωt —————–(1)
v = RIm sinωt + ωLIm cosωT
p —————–(2)
dividing both sides by R 2 + (ωL)2
√ 2v 2
= RIm sinωt+ωLI
√ 2 m cosωT
2
R +(ωL) R +(ωL)
√ v R ωL
= Im [sinωt( √ + cosωt( √ ]
R 2 +(ωL)2 R 2 +(ωL)2 R 2 +(ωL)2
Representing the above equation by the following figure:

R
cosθ = √
R 2 +(ωL)2
 ωL
sinθ = √
R 2 +(ωL)2
√ v
= Im [sinωtcosθ + cosωtsinθ]
R 2 +(ωL)2
p
From which, v = Im R 2 + (ωL)2 [sinωtcosθ + cosωtsinθ]
v = Im Z (sinωt + θ) = Vm (sinωt + θ)
Impedance:
ZRL = R 2 + (ωL)2 ̸ tan−1 ωL
p
R
Like
q wise In case of R-C Branch ZRC =
1 2
(− ωC )
R 2 + (− ωC ) tan−1
1 2̸
R
1 The above expression for ZRL implies
p that the numerical ratio
of Vm to Im in the RL branch is R 2 + (ωL)2 .
2 Current lags the applied voltage by an angle whose tangent is
ωL
R
Power and Energy
The instantaneous power delivered to the RL branch is obtained by:
p = vi
p = vi = Vm (sinωt + θ) × Im sin(ωt)
p = Vm Im (sinωt cos θ + cosωt sin θ)
p = Vm Im sin2 ωt cos θ + Vm Im (cos ωt sin ωt) sin θ
p = Vm2Im cos θ - Vm2Im [cos 2ωt] cos θ + Vm2Im [sin 2ωt] sin θ

the average value of the power is

given by:
1
RT
Pav = T Vm sin(ωt + θ)Im sin ωt.dt
R0 T Vm Im
⇒ Pav = [ cos θ - Vm2Im (cos 2ωt) cos θ + Vm2Im (sin 2ωt) sin θ]
R0T Vm2Im
⇒ Pav = [ cos θ - Vm2Im (cos 2.2πft) cos θ + Vm2Im (sin 2.2πft) sin θ]
R0T Vm2Im
⇒ Pav = 0
[ 2 cos θ - Vm2Im (cos 4π T1 t) cos θ + Vm2Im (sin 4π T1 t) sin θ]
V m Im
⇒ Pav = 2 cosθ
Real Power and Reactive power
We already know:
p = Vm2Im cos θ - Vm2Im [cos 2ωt] cos θ + V m Im
2 [sin 2ωt] sin θ
In the equation above Vm2Im cos θ - Vm2Im [cos 2ωt] cos θ is known as
REAL POWER and Vm2Im [sin 2ωt] sin θ is known as REACTIVE
POWER.
considering Vm2Im [cos 2ωt] cos θ and sin 2ωt = 0 and 1 respectively
we get:
Real Power = Vm2Im cos θ
Reactive power = Vm2Im sin θ
The ’RLC’ Branch

Here,
vR = Ri = RIm sin ωt —————–(1)
di
vL = L dt =R ωLIm cos ωt ———–(2)
1 Im sin ωtdt −Im
vC = C = C = ωC cos ωt——(3)
So,v = vR + vL + vC
So,v = RIm sin ωt + ωLIm cos ωt + −IωC cos ωt
m

1
v = RIm sin ωt + (ωL - ωC )Im cos ωt

Impedance:
1
q
ωL− ωC
ZRLC = R 2 + (ωL − 1 2̸
ωC ) tan−1 R
Power and Energy

The instantaneous power delivered to the RLC branch is obtained

by:
p= vi
p= vi = Vm (sinωt + θ) × Im sin(ωt)
p= Vm Im (sinωt cos θ + cosωt sin θ)
p= Vm Im sin2 ωt cos θ + Vm Im (cos ωt sin ωt) sin θ
Vm I m Vm I m V m Im
p= 2 cos θ - 2 [cos 2ωt] cos θ + 2 [sin 2ωt] sin θ
(The equation is similar to that obtained in case of R-L branch)

• In case of an RLC network as shown in the circuit proof the

followings: q
ωL− 1
(a) ZRLC = R 2 + (ωL − ωC ) tan−1 R ωC
1 2̸

(b) p = Vm2Im cos θ - Vm2Im [cos 2ωt] cos θ + Vm Im

2 [sin 2ωt] sin θ
Mathematical Problems 1

Find out the followings from the given RLC series network.
(1) Total impedance of the network.
(2) Expression for i
(3) Expression for instantaneous power delivered to the network.
(4) Average power delivered to the network.
Impedance:
1
q
ωL−
ZRLC = R 2 + (ωL − ωC ) tan−1 R ωC
1 2̸

q 106
106 377×.056− 377×50
⇒ ZRLC = 102 + (377 × .056 − 377×50 )2 ̸ tan−1 10
⇒ ZRLC = 33.40̸ tan−1 21.10−53.00
10
⇒ ZRLC = 33.40̸ tan−1 (−3.19)
⇒ ZRLC = 33.40̸ −72.60
The expression of i:
200 sin 377t
i = 33.4 ̸ −72.6
200 sin 377t
⇒i = 33.4̸ −72.6
◦
⇒ i = 5.988 sin(377t + 72.60 )
Expression of instantaneous power delivered to the network:
Power, p = Vm2Im cos θ - Vm2Im [cos 2ωt] cos θ + Vm2Im [sin 2ωt] sin θ
⇒ p = 200×5.988
2 cos 72.6 - 200×5.988
2 [cos(2 × 377)t] cos 72.6 +
200×5.988
2 [sin(2 × 377)t] sin 72.6
⇒ p = 598.8(.299 − .299 cos 754t + .954 sin 754t)
Average power power delivered to the network:
pav = Vm2Im cos θ
⇒ pav = 200×5.988
2 cos 72.6
⇒ pav = 179.065W
Mathematical Problems 2

(1) Total impedance of the network.

(2) Expression for i
(3) Expression for instantaneous power delivered to the network.
(4) Average
q power delivered to the network. 1
ωL− ωC
ZRLC = R 2 + (ωL − 1 2̸
ωC ) tan−1 R
⇒ ZRLC =
 6
10
157×300×10−3 − 157×50
q
6
10
302 + (157 × 300 × 10−3 − 157×50 )2 ̸ tan−1 30
⇒ ZRLC = 900 + (−80)2 ̸ tan−1 −80
p
30
⇒ ZRLC = 85.71̸ −69.44
100 sin 157t
i = 85.71̸ −69.44
◦
⇒ i = 1.166 sin(157t + 69.44 )
Average power power delivered to the network:
pav = 100×1.1667
2 cos 69.44
⇒ pav = 20.48
Mathematical Problem 3

From the following figure find out the followings: (a) The
expression of the sine wave current, i. (b) The value of phase
angle, θ.

di
The t = 0 reference is at a point where dt is positive and i = +
1.5 amperes.
i = im sin(ωt + θ)
where, at t = 0, i = 1.5A, imax = 1.732 and f = 1591 KHz
so, 1.5 = 1.732 sin(2π × 1591 × 103 × 0 + θ)
= 1.732 sin θ
1.5
so, sin θ = = 0.866
1.732 o
θ = 60.0029 = 60
Mathematical Problem 4

Express an alternating current of 10 amperes maximum value

which has an angular velocity of 377 radians per second as a cosine
function of time. Determine the frequency of this wave.

Mathematical Problem 5
◦ ◦
If v = 100 sin(ωt − 30 ) and i = 10sin(ωt − 60 ), what is the
angle of phase difference between the current and voltage waves?
Show graphically which wave leads?
Mathematical Problem 6
◦
A current i = 5sin(110t + 30 ) amperes flows in a purely resistive
branch of 20 Ohms:
(a) Write the expression for v as a function of time employing
numerical coefficients. (b) What is the frequency of the voltage
variation? (c) Write the expression for p as a function of times
employing numerical coefficients. (d) What is the frequency of the
◦
power variation? i = 5 sin(110t + 30 ) and R = 20Ω
◦ ◦
(a) v = 5 sin(110t + 30 × 20 = 100 sin(110t + 30 v
(b) fv = 110
2π = 17.5 Hz ◦ ◦
(c) P = vi = 100 sin(110t + 30 ) × 5 sin(110t + 30 )
◦
= 500 sin2 (110t + 30 )
◦
= 250 × 2 sin2 (110t + 30 )
◦
= 250 × 1 − cos 2(110t + 30 )
◦
= 250 × 1 − cos(220t + 60 )
◦
= 250 − 250 cos(220t + 60 )
(d) fp = 220
2π = 35 Hz
Mathematical Problem 7
◦
A voltage v = 100cos(ωt + 60 ) volts is impressed upon a pure
resistive circuit of 10 Ω as shown in the figure. (a) Write the
equation with respect to time of the current wave and employ
numerical coefficients.
(b) Find the equation with respect to time of the power wave.
(c) What is the maximum instantaneous power?
(d) What is the minimum instantaneous power?
(e) What, is the average value of the power wave
Mathematical Problem 8
For a 60Hz alternating current of sine form with maximum value of
10 amperes as shown in the figure find the followings: (a) The
maximum time rate of change of current
(b) The maximum value of the voltage across the terminals of the
inductance.
(c) The voltage equation.
(a) Given i = Imax sin ωt = 10 sin 2 × π × 60 × t
= 10 sin 377t
di
Rate of change of current, dt = d(10 sin
dt
377t)

=10 × 377 cos 377t

Maximum time rate of change current takes place when
cos 377t = 1
di
So, ( dt )max = 10 × 377 × 1 = 3770 A
(b)The inductive reactance, XL = ωL
= 377 × 100 × 10−3 = 37.7 Ω
So, Vmax = Imax × XL = 10 × 37.7 = 377 V
◦
(c) The voltage equation is, v = Vmax sin(ωt + 90 )
◦
V = 377 sin(377t + 90 )
Mathematical Problem 9
◦
A voltage drop of v = 100 sin(377t + 30 ) volts is across a pure
inductance of 0.02654 H.
(a) Use numerical coefficient and express the current through the
coil as a function of time.
(b) Find the equation with respect to time of the power wave.
Express the result as a single sine function.
(c) What is the average power?
(d) What is the first value of time at which maximum energy is
stored in the inductance?
(e) What is the maximum amount of energy stored in the
inductance during a cycle?
 ◦
v = 100 sin(377t + 30 )
L = .025654H
So, XL = ωL = 377 × 0.02654 = 10Ω
(a) We know v = iXL
◦ ◦
So, i = xvL = 100
10 sin(377t + 30 − 90 ) ........ (Current lags from
voltage)
◦
= 10 sin(377t − 60 )
 ◦ ◦
(b) P = vi = 100 sin(377t + 30 ) × 10 sin(377t − 60 )
◦ ◦ ◦
= −1000 sin(377t + 30 ) cos(377t − 60 + 90 )
◦ ◦
= −1000 sin(377t + 30 ) cos(377t + 30 )
◦
=− 1000 sin(377t+30
2
)
. . . As 2sin A cos A = sin 2A
◦
= −500 sin(754t + 60 )
◦
(c) Pav = Vm2Im cos θ = 100×10 2 cos 90 = 0 W
◦
P = -500× 754 cos(754t + 60 )
(d) Finding differentiation,
dp ◦
dt = −500 × 754 cos(754t + 60 )
Finding maximum value,
dp
dt = 0 , we find◦
,
cos(754t + 60 ) = 0
(e) Energy Stored = V2ω m Im 100×
= 2×377 = 1.326J
Problem 10
A current of 5 sin 300t amperes flows through a pure inductive
branch of 0.2 H.
(a) Find the impedance function and express numerically.
(b) How many joules are stored in the magnetic field about the
inductance when t = = 0.05 second ?
c) Write the expression for v as a function of time employing
numerical coefficients.

Given i = 5 sin 300t

Impedance function for an Inductive circuit
◦
ZL = ωL̸ 90
◦
= 300 × 0.2̸ 90
(b) P = vi
Where,
di d(5 sin 300t)
V =L =L = .2 × 5 × 300 × cos300t
dt dt
= 300 cos 300t
so,
P = 300 cos 300t × 5 sin 300t
= 1500 sin 300t cos 300t
= 750 sin 600t R
.05
Stored Energy = 0 750 sin 600tdt
−750 0.05
= cos
600 √ 0
−750 3
= ( − 1)
600 2
= 0.16750 Joules.
(c) v = Vm cos 300t
◦
= 300 sin(300 − 90 )
Problem 11
A voltage v = 100sin377t volts is impressed on a pure capacitance
of 530.50 µf .
(a) Write the expression for i as a function of time employing
numerical coefficients.
(b) Find the expression for the power wave as a function of time,
employing numerical coefficients.
(c) How many joules are stored in the condenser when the current
is zero and when the current is a maximum?
Here, v = Vm sin ωt = 100 sin 377t
c = 530.50µf and ω = 377
106
Xc = = 50Ω
377 × 530.50µ
Vm
(a) i = 1 ◦
ωc sin(ωt + 90 )
100 ◦ 100 ◦
i= 1
sin(ωt + 90 ) = sin(ωt + 90 )
377×530.50×10−06
5
◦
= 20 sin(ωt + 90 )
◦
(b) P = vi = 100 sin 377t × 20 sin(377t + 90 )
◦
= 2000 sin 377t × sin(377t + 90 )
◦ ◦
= 2000(− cos(377t + 90 )) × sin(377t + 90 )
 2000 ◦ ◦
= 2(− cos(377t + 90 )) × sin(377t + 90 )
2 ◦
= -1000 sin(754t + 180 )
◦
= -1000(sin 754t. cos 180 + cos 754t. sin 180 )
= 1000 sin 754t
(c) When current is maximum, that is Im = 20 A,
Energy stored in the condenser,
Vm Im 100 × 20
Wc = = = 2.65 Joules
2ω 2 × 377
Verification of the result
Energy stored in the condenser,
C × Vm2
Wc =
2
530 × 10−6 × 1002
Wc =
2
530 × 1002
=
2 × 106
= 2.65 Joules (Verified)
When current is minimum, that is Im = 0 A,
Energy stored in the condenser,
 Vm Im
Wc =
2ω
100 × 0
=
2 × 377
= 0 Joules
Problem 12
R = 10 ohms and L = 0.05 henry are connected in series and
energized by a 25-cycle sinusoidal voltage, the maximum value of
which is 150 volts.
(a) Find the complete impedance expression for the RL branch.
(b) Write the expression for the supply voltage as a function of
dv
time, making v = 0, ( positive) at t=0.
dt
(c) Write the expression for current as a function of time,
assuming that the voltage in (b) is applied to the branch. Employ
numerical coefficients.
(d) Write the expression for the instantaneous power delivered to
the branch as a function of time. Express the result in three terms
- a constant term, a single cosine term, and a single sine term.
What is the average power?
(e) What are the real and reactive power?
Given, R = 10Ω
XL = 2πfL
=2 × π × 25 × .05
= 7.854Ω
Vm = 150v q
7.854
(a) XRL = R 2 + XL2 ̸ tan−1
◦
10
= 12.71̸ 38.15
(b) v = 150 sin ωt = 150 sin 157t
V sin ωt
(c) i =
XRL
150 sin 157t
=
12.71̸ 38.15◦ ◦
150 sin(157t − 38.15 )
=
12.71 ◦
= 11.8 sin(157t − 38 )
(d) p = Vm2Im cos θ - Vm2Im [cos 2ωt] cos θ + Vm Im
2 [sin 2ωt] sin θ
 150×11.8 ◦ ◦
p= 2 cos 38.15 - 150×11.8
2 ◦ [cos(2 × 157t)] cos 38.15 +
150×11.8
2 [sin(2 × 157t)] sin 38.15
◦ ◦
p = 885 cos 38.15 - 885[cos 314t] cos 38.15 +
◦
885[sin 314t] sin 38.15

p = 695.96 - 695.96[cos 314t] + 546.68[sin 314t] watts

Vm Im
Pav = cos θ
2
150 × 11.8 ◦
= cos 38.15
2
= 695.96 Watts

(e)Real Power = Vm2Im cos θ

◦
PReal = 150×11.80
2 cos 38.15
= 695.96 W
Reactive power = Vm2Im sin θ
◦
Preactive = 150×11.80
2 sin 38.15
= 546.68 W
Problem - 13
A resistive element of 30 Ω is connected in series with an
inductance coil, the self-inductance of which is 50 mH and the
ohmic resistance of which is 4.5 Ω. A voltage v = 100 cos 377t
volts is connected to the series branch. Draw the circuit diagram
find the followings
(a) Evaluate the expression for I .
(b) Evaluate the expression for P.
(c) Write the expression for the real power and reactive power as a
function of time, employing numerical coefficients.
(d)What is the average value of the instantaneous power?
 Figure: Circuit Diagram

Given, Total Resistance R = 30 + 4.5 = 34.50Ω, Inductive

Reactance XL = 377 × 50 × 10−3 = 18.85Ω
Impedance,
p
ZRL = p(R)2 + (XRL )2
ZRL = (34.50R)2 + (18.85)2 ̸ tan−1 34.50
18.85

= 39.31̸ 28.65
v
(a) i =
ZRL
 100 cos 377t
=
39.31̸ 28.65
=2.54 cos(377t − 28.65)

Vm Im V m Im Vm Im
(b) p = 2 cos θ - 2 [cos 2ωt] cos θ + 2 [sin 2ωt] sin θ

100×2.54
p= 2 cos 28.65 - 100×2.54
2 [cos 2 × 377t] cos 28.65 +
100×2.54
2 [sin 2 × 377t] sin 28.65

p = 127 cos 28.65 - 127[cos 754t] cos 28.65 +

127[sin 754t] sin 28.65

p = 111.450 - 111.450[cos 754t] + 60.89 sin 754t

Real Power = 111.450 - 111.450[cos 754t]

Reactive Power = 60.89 sin 754t

Vm Im
(d) Average Power, PAverage = cos θ
2
 100 × 2.54
= cos 28.65
2
= 111.450
Problem 14
A resistive element of 151 Ω is connected in series with a capacitor
of 4µf capacitance. A 500 cycle sinusoidal voltage, the maximum
value of which is 15 volts, energizes the RC branch.
(a) Write the expression for the supply voltage, choosing the t = 0
reference at the point of maximum positive voltage.
(b) Evaluate ZRC completely.
(c) Evaluate the expression for i.
(d) Evaluate the expression for p which corresponds to the product
of voltage and current employed here, and express all trigonometric
terms with exponents no higher than unity.
 1
Capacitive reactance, Xc =
ωC
1 1
= =
2πfc 2π × 500 × 4 × 10−6
= 79.577
(a) v = Vmq cos ωt = 15 cos 2π × 500t =15 cos 3141.60t
− 1
(b) ZRC = R 2 + (− ωC ) tan−1 RωC
1 2̸

ZRC = 1512 + (−79.577)2 ̸ tan−1 −79.577

p
151
= 170.685̸ − 27.788
15 cos 3141.60t
(c) i =
170.685̸ − 27.788
= 0.08788 cos(3141.60t + 27.788)
(d) p = vi = (15 cos 3141.60t)(0.08788 cos(3141.60t + 27.788))
= 1.3182(cos 3141.60t)(cos(3141.60t + 27.788))
= 1.3182 cos 3141.60t[.8846 cos 3141.60t − .4662 sin 3141.60t]
=1.166 cos2 3141.60 − .6145 cos 3141.60t sin 3141.60t
= .583 + .583 cos 6283.20 − .307 sin 6283.2t

[2 sin θ cos θ = sin 2θ

and 2 cos2 θ = 1 + cos 2θ]
Problem 15
A resistance of 10 Ω is in series with a 303 µf capacitor. If the
◦
voltage drop across the capacitor is 150 sin(220t − 60 ) volts, find
the equation with respect to time of the voltage drop across the
entire series circuit. Find also the expression for the current at any
time t.
 1 1
Capacitive Reactance, Xc = =
ωc 2πfc
1
= 15Ω
220 × 303 × 10−6 p
−15
Impedance, ZRC = 102 + (−15)2 ̸ tan−1 10
= 18.023 × ̸ − 56.309
◦
Vc = 150 sin(220t − 60 )
◦ ◦
i = 150 sin(220t−60
15
+90 )
◦
i = 10 sin(220t + 30 )
Voltage across the entire circuit, V = ZRC × i
◦
V = 18.023 × ̸ − 56.309 × 10 sin(220t + 30 )
= 180.23 sin(220t − 26.309)
Problem 16
Consider a series RLC branch wherein R = 10 Ω, L = 0.10 henry,
and C is 200 µf . Assume that the current i = 10 sin(157t)
amperes flows through the RLC branch.
(a) Write the expression for the voltage drop across R, namely, Ri,
employing numerical coefficients.
(b) Write the expression for the voltage drop across L, namely,
di
L= employing numerical coefficients.
dt
q
(c) Write the expression for the voltage drop across C, namely,
C
employing numerical coefficients.
(d) Add (a), (b), and (c) to find the voltage drop across the RLC
branch. Express the result as a single sine function of time.
(e) What is the numerical value of the impedance of the series
RLC branch?
(a) i = Im sin ωt
= 10 sin 157t
VR = iR
= 10 sin 157t × 10
= 10 sin 157t
di
(b) VL = L
dt
d(10 sin 157t)
= 0.01 ×
dt
= 157 cos 157t
q R idt
(c) VC = =
C C
 R (10 sin 157t)dt
=
200 × 10−6
− cos 157t 106
= 10 ×
157 200
= −318.5 cos 157t
Total voltage drop,
(d) VDrop = VR + VL + VC =
(100 sin 157t) + (157 cos 157t) + (−318.5 cos 157t)
= 100 sin 157tq− 161.5 cos 157t
1 2
(e) XRLC = R 2 + (ωL − ωC )
q
106
= 102 + (157 × .01 − 157×200 )2
p
= 100 + (15.7 × −31.852
= 18.99 = 19Ω
Problem 17
Assume that the current I = Im cos ωt flows through a given RLC
branch. Show that the voltage across the branch is:
1
v = Im R sin ωt + (ωL − ) cos ωt
ωC
Here,
vR = Ri = RIm sin ωt —————–(1)
di
vL = L dt =R ωLIm cos ωt ———–(2)
I sin ωtdt
vC = C1 = m C = −IωC cos ωt——(3)
m

So,v = vR + vL + vC
So,v = RIm sin ωt + ωLIm cos ωt + −I ωC cos ωt
m

1
v = RIm sin ωt + (ωL - ωC )Im cos ωt 
1
v = Im R sin ωt + (ωL − ) cos ωt
ωC
Problem 18
A resistive element of 20 ohms, an inductance coil of L = 300
millihenrys and RL = l0 Ω, and a condenser of 50 µf capacitance
are connected in series to form an RLC branch. A voltage
v = 100 sin 157t volts is applied to the RLC branch.
(a) What is the numerical value of ZRLC ?
(b) Write the expression for i, employing numerical coefficients.
(c) Write the expression for p, employing numerical coefficients
(d) What is the average value of the power delivered to the branch?
(e) What is the maximum value of the reactive volt. amperes?
(f) Write the expression for the voltage drop across the 20 Ω
resistive element as a function of time, employing numerical
coefficients.
(g) Write the expression for the instantaneous power delivered to
the 20 Ω resistor as a function of time, employing numerical
coefficients.  
1
ωL −
s
1 2
 
2 −1 ωC
(a) ZRLC = (R) + ωL − tan
ωC R
=
s  2
−3
1 −80.288
2
(20 + 10) + 157 × 300 × 10 − −6
tan−1
157 × 50 × 10 30
√
= 900 + 6446.2488̸ − 69.51
= 85.71̸ − 69.51
V 100̸ − 90
(b) i = =
ZRLC 85.71̸ − 69.51
= 1.166̸ − 20.49
(c) P = vi
= 100̸ − 90 × 1.166̸ − 20.49
= 116.67̸ − 110.49
(d) Average Power,
Vm Im
pav = cos θ
2
100 × 1.166
pav = cos(−20.49)
2
pav = 58.335 × (−.9367)
pav = −54.610
(e) Maximum Value of the reactive volt amperes,
Vm Im
pmax−react = sin ωt sin θ
2
100 × 1.166
= sin 157t sin(−20.49)
2
= 58.335 sin 157t × (−0.35)
= -20.41sin 157t
(f) VR = i × R = 1.166̸ − 20.49 × 20
= 23.32̸ − 20.49
(g) PR = VR × i
= 23.32̸ − 20.49 × 1.166̸ − 20.49 = 27.19̸ − 40.98W
Problem 19
A voltage v = 282.80 sin 500t volts is applied to a series circuit,
and the resulting current is found to be
◦
i = 5.656 sin(500t − 36.87 ) amperes. One element of this series
combination is known to be a capacitor which has a capacitance of
200 µf . Determine the magnitudes of the other series elements
present.
Here Given,
v = 282.80 sin 500t
◦
i = 5.656 sin(500t − 36.87 )
From the impedance formula,
(XL − XC ) v
ZRLC = R 2 + (XL − XC )2 tan−1
p
=
R i
p
−1 (X L − XC ) 282.80 sin 500t
R 2 + (XL − XC )2 tan =
R 5.656 sin(500t − 36.87◦ )
(XL − XC )
R 2 + (XL − XC )2 tan−1
p
= 50̸ 36.87
p R
So, R 2 + (XL − XC )2 = 50 —–(1)
and
 (XL − XC )
tan−1 = 36.87————–(2)
R
Solving (2)
(XL − XC )
tan−1 = 36.87
R
(XL − XC )
= tan 36.87
R
(XL − XC )
= .75
R
(XL − XC ) 2
= R 2 ——–(3)
0.5625
Putting the value of R 2 in Eqn (1),
(XL − XC )2
+ (XL − XC )2 = 2500
0.5625
2500
(XL − XC )2 =
2.7777
(XL − XC )2 = 900
(XL − XC ) = 30————-(4)
WE also know,
1
XC =
ωC
 10−6
XC =
500 × 200
= 10Ω ——————————–(5)
Putting the value of XC = in equation (4)
(XL − 10) = 30
XL = 40 Ω
Putting the value of XL and XC in equation (1)
R 2 + (X√ 2
L − XC ) = 50
2

⇒ R = √502 − 302
⇒ R = √502 − 302
⇒ R = 502 − 302
⇒ R = 10Ω
So, XC = 10Ω, XL = 40Ω and R = 10Ω
IMPORTANT QUESTION
Explain Resonance in an RLC Circuit.
Resonance of an RLC circuit refers to the condition when the
voltage across the inductor is the same as the voltage across the
capacitor, or VL = VC . As a result, the EMF of the battery is
entirely consumed by the resistor and the current achieves its
maximum value.
Proof the in the state of Resonance in an RLC circuit, the
resonance frequency,
1
fR = √
2π LC
As VL = VC
iXL = iXC
1
LωR =
C ωR
1
ωR = √
LC
1
fR = √
2π LC
Effective Current and Voltage, Average Power CHAPTER III

Ampere Value of Alternating Current.

An alternating current which produces heat in a given resistance at
the same average rate as I amperes of direct current is said to have
a value of I amperes. The average rate of heating produced by an
alternating current during one cycle is,
R T
1
Ri 2 dt
T 0
The average rate of producing heat by I amperes of direct current
in the same resistance is RI 2 . Hence by definition,
R T
2 1 p
RI = Ri 2 dt = Averagei 2 —–(1)
T 0
The current given in equation (1) which defines the alternating
current in terms of its average rate of producing heat in a
resistance is called the root mean square (abbreviated RMS) value.
It is also called the effective or virtual value. The graphical
evaluation of the rms value of an alternating current is illustrated
in the following fig.

Figure: Graphical Representation of RMS value

Alternating Volt.
An alternating volt is the value of a wave of alternating potential
which maintains an alternating current of 1 RMS ampere through
a non-inductive resistance of 1 ohm. It therefore follows that the
volt value of a wave is measured by the square root of the average
square of the instantaneous values of the voltage wave.
Average Values. The average value of any ac wave which is
symmetrical about the zero axis is zero. However, when average
value is applied to alternating quantities, it usually means the
average of either the positive or negative loop of the wave. This
value represents the dc equivalent for electrolytic action of the
alternating wave abcde, in the following Fig, if the wave were
commutated (or rectified) and made the same as the wave abcfe.
Since the average ordinate multiplied by the base is equal to the
area under the curve, it follows directly that,
 Figure: Rectified ac wave shown by dotted line
R T
2
2
Average Value = idt ——(2)
T 0
Equation (2) is applicable only when the wave passes through zero
at the time t = 0. For any other condition the time t1 at which
the instantaneous value of the wave is zero must be determined
and the average value found from,
R t1 + T2
2
Average Value = idt ——(3)
T t1
RMS value q of an alternating current
1 T 2
R p
I(rms) = T 0 i dt = average i 2
Average value of an alternating current
R T /2
Iaverage = T2 0 idt
Effective and Average Values of it Sinusoid

We know, i = Im sin ωt
and q R
T
I(rms) = T1 0 i 2 dt
T
2 = T1 0 (Im sin ωt)2 dt
R
⇒ I(rms)
2 RT
Im
2 2 2
⇒ I(rms) = 2T 0 (2 sin ωt) dt
2 RT
2
⇒ I(rms) = ITm 0 12 (1 − cos 2ωt)dt
2 RT
2
⇒ I(rms) = ITm 0 ( 21 − 12 cos 2ωt)dt
2 Im2 t 1 2π T Im2
⇒ I(rms) = T [( 2 − 4ω sin 2( T )t]0 = 2
Im
⇒ I(rms) = √
2
= .707Im
For a sine wave, therefore, the rms value is 0.707 times the
maximum. In general, I(rms) is written simply as I , and unless
otherwise specified the symbol I refers to the effective or rms value
of an alternating current.
The average value of a sinusoid over one-half cycle is:
R T /2
Iaverage = T2 0 idt
R T /2
⇒ Iaverage = T2 0 Im sin ωtdt
Im T /2
⇒ Iaverage = − T2 ω [cos ωt]0
Im
⇒ Iaverage = − T2 1 T
2πf [cos(2π T × 2 ) − 1]
Im
⇒ Iaverage = − T2 2π T1
[cos(2π T × T2 ) − 1]
1

⇒ Iaverage = − Iπm [cos π − 1]

⇒ Iaverage = − Iπm [−1 − 1]
⇒ Iaverage = − Iπm [−2] = π2 Im = .636Im
Form Factor (Sinusoidal
q
wave)
1
R T 2
T 0
e dt I(rms) .707Im
Form Factor = 2
R2
2 dt
= I(average) = .636Im = 1.11
T 0
e
 1 Form factor does give some indication of the relative
hysteresis loss that will exist when a voltage is impressed on a
coil wound on an iron core.

2 Also some use is made of form factor in determining effective

voltages induced in such coils when a known non-sinusoidal
flux wave is present in the iron core.

Crest Factor (Sinusoidal√wave)

Em
Crest Factor = .707E m
= 2 = 1.414
The crest, peak, or amplitude factor is the ratio of the maximum
value of a voltage wave to the effective value.
TRIANGULAR WAVE q
1
R T 2
T 0
e dt I(rms) .577Im
Form Factor (Triangular Wave) = 2
R 2 2 dt
= I(average) = .5Im =
T 0
e
1.154 √
Em
Crest Factor = .577Em = 3 = 1.732
Summary (Form Factor and Crest Factor of Sinusoidal and
Triangular Wave )

1 For a pure sinusoidal waveform the Form Factor will always be

equal to 1.11

2 For a pure sinusoidal waveform the Crest Factor will always be

equal to 1.414

3 For a pure triangular waveform the Form Factor will always be

equal to 1.154

4 For a pure triangular waveform the Crest Factor will always be

equal to 1.732
Form Factor and Crest Factors of Different kinds of waveform
For the figure given find out the Vaverage , form factor and crest
factor:

1
Average value (Vaverage ) = 2 × Vmax = 75 V
V√
max 150
√
V(rms) 3 3
Form Factor = V(average) = Vmax = 150 = 1.1547
2 2
and √
V(max) V(max)
Crest Factor = V(rms) = V√
max
= 3 = 1.732
3
The sine wave of current I = Im sin ωt is shown in Fig. All the
ordinates of this wave at the various times t may be represented by
the projection of the revolving vector OA on the vertical axis of the
Fig. This projection is Im sin ωt if OA has a magnitude of Im . This
is the equation of the wave shown in the figure.
 Figure: Vector representation of sine wave

PROBLEM 1
Find out the resultant current by adding the following currents as
waves and as vectors:
i1 = 5 sin ωt
◦
i2 = 10 sin(ωt + 60 )
As waves:
◦
Sum = i0 = i1 + i2 = 5 sin ωt + 10 sin(ωt + 60 )
◦ ◦
= 5 sin ωt + 10 sin ωtcos60 + 10 cos ωtsin60
= 5 sin ωt + 10 10
2 × sin ωt + 3 × cos ωt
√

= 10 sin ωt + 8.66 cos ωt

If the previous equation is multiplied and divided b y 13.23:
10 8.66
i0 = 13.23[ 13.23 sin ωt + 13.23 cos ωt] Consider the following figure
The above equation becomes:

10 8.66
i0 = 13.23[ 13.23 sin ωt + 13.23 cos ωt]
i0 = 13.23[cos α sin ωt + sin α cos ωt]
i0 = 13.23[sin(ωt + alpha)
◦
i0 = 13.23[sin(ωt + 40.89 )
◦
where the value of α = cos −10/13.23 = sin−8.66/13.23 = 40.89
As vectors

P
P x = 5 sin ωt = 10 ◦
y = 10
p sin(ωt + 60√) = 8.66
Sum = xP 2 + y2 = 102 + 8.662 = 13.23
◦
α = tan−1 P yx = tan−1 8.66
10 = 40.89
◦
i0 = 13.23[sin(ωt + 40.89 )
PROBLEM 2
Draw the vector representation and find the resultant vector
corresponding to points ’A’ and ’B’ of the sine waves given in the
following figure.

Figure: Vector representation of SIne Wave

PROBLEM 3
Page 100 (ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUITS, Russell M
Kerchner, George F Corcoran)
calculate current, power, power factor, vars, reactive factor,
volt-amperes, voltage drop across each circuit element. Solution:
XL = 2πfL = 2π60 × 0.053 = 20Ω
1 1
XC = 2πfC = 2π60×180.70×10 −06 = 14Ω
X = XL − XC = (20 − 14)Ω = 6Ω
R = 8Ω√ √
Z = R 2 + X 2 = 82 + 62 = 10Ω
I = 110
10 = 11Amperes
P.f = cos θ = IR IR R 8
V = IZ = Z = 10 = 0.80
P = I 2 R = 112 × 8 = 968Ω
Reactiveva = V sin θ = 110 × 11 × XI 6
ZI = 110 × 11 × 10 = 726vars
√ = VI = 110 × 11 = 1210vars =
va √
REAL POWER 2 + REACTIVE POWER 2 = 9682 + 7262
VR = IR = 11 × 8 = 88 V
VL = IXL = 11 × 20 = 220 V
VC = IXC = 11 × 14 = 154 V
PROBLEM 4
Page 103 (ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUITS, Russell M
Kerchner, George F Corcoran)
(a) What is the average value of the pulsating current shown in
the following figure?
(b) What is the effective value?
 Time period = 0.3 + 0.5 + 0.4 + 0.5 + 0.3 = 2 sec
Average Current.
Iavg = 12 [10 × 0.03 + 15 × 0.05 +50 × 0.04 +15 × 0.05
+10 × 0.03]
⇒ Iavg = 20Amps]
Iqavg =
1 2
2 [10 × 0.03 + 152 × 0.05 + 502 × 0.04 + 152 × 0.05 + 102 × 0.03]
⇒ Iavg = 25.35Amps]
Problem 5
A current in a circuit starts at zero and increases Linearly until a
value of 12 amperes is attained. It then drops to zero in negligible
time and repeats the cycle. What will an effective reading a-c
ammeter in this circuit read?

Figure: CHAPTER 3 PROBLEM 14

 s R T
1
I= i 2 dt
Tv 0
u R T 
12 2

t1
u
⇒I = t dt
T 0 T
v
u R T  
t1 144
u
⇒I = t dt
T 0 T2
r
1 144 t 3 T
⇒I = × 2 ×
rT T 3 0
1 144 T 3
⇒I = × 2 ×
T T 3
⇒I = 6.93A
Problem 6
A current starts abruptly at 10 amperes and decreases linearly to
zero and then repeats this cycle. Find the rms value without
changing the orientation of the wave from that given.
 r
1 2
Irms = i dt
Ts
10t 2
 
1
⇒ Irms = 10 − dt
T T
s R T
1 10t 100t 2
⇒ Irms = (100 − 2 × 10 × )+ dt
r T 0 T T2
1 200t 2 100t 3 T
⇒= (100t − + )
T 2T 3T 2 0
 r
1 100T
⇒= (100T − 100T + )
r T 3
100
⇒= = 5.77A
3
Problem 7
Calculate the form factor of the current, wave in the figure below.
 Figure: CHAPTER 3 PROBLEM 14

We know,
Irms
Form Factor =
s Iaverage
R T
1
Here, Irms = i 2 dt
T 0
 v
u R T 
12 2

t1
u
⇒I = t dt
T 0 T
v
u R T  
t1 144
u
⇒ Irms = t dt
T 0 T2
r
1 144 t 3 T
⇒ Irms = × 2 ×
rT T 3 0
1 144 T 3
⇒ Irms = × 2 ×
T T 3
⇒ I = 6.93A
R T
1
Iavg = idt
T 0R T  
1 12
⇒ Iavg = t dt
T  0 T
1 12t 2 T
⇒ Iavg =
T 2T 0
 1
T
⇒ Iavg = 2 6t 2
T 0
=6
6.93
So form factor = = 1.55 (Ans)
6
PROBLEM

Page 105 (ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUITS, Russell M

Kerchner, George F Corcoran)
1. Find the current delivered to the combination.
2. Calculate the total power.
3. Calculate power consumed by each branch.
Z1 = 6 + j(48 − 40) = 10̸ 53.13
Z2 = 7 − j2 = 7.28̸ −15.95
 ̸
Zcircuit = ZZ11 ×Z 37.18
+Z2 = 14.32̸ 24.78
2

100
Current = 5.08 = 19.88
Total Power = VI cos θ = 100 × 10 × cos 12.40 = 1, 922.09W
I1 = ZV1 = 100 10 = 10A
P1 = VI1 cos θ = 100 × 10 cos 53.13 = 600W
I2 = ZV2 = 7.28
100
= 13.74A
P2 = VI1 cos θ = 100 × 13.74 cos(−15.95) = 1321.10W
Page 107 (ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUITS, Russell M
Kerchner, George F Corcoran)
Chapter - IV
Phasor Algebra (as Applied to A-C Circuit Analysis)
The Phasor A q
The Phasor A is expressed as A = xA2 + xB2

yA
here, θA = tan−1 xA
The Operator j √
The value of j = −1

The Cartesian Form of Notation

A phasor in any quadrant can be completely specified in a
Cartesian or rectangular form of notation, as shown below:
′
A = ±a + ±a
where a is the x-axis projection and a’ is the y-axis projection of
the phasor.
√ In any case the magnitude of the phasor A is:
A = a2 + a′ 2
 ′
(+a )
θ1st = tan−1 (+a)
′
−1 (a )
θ2nd = tan (−a)
′
θ3rd = tan−1 (−a
(−a)
)
 ′
θ4th = tan−1 (−a )
(+a)
The Operator (cos θ ± j sin θ)
′
A = A(cos θ ± j sin θ) = ±a + ±a
The plus sign is used if θ is measured counter-clockwise from the
reference axis, the minus sign if θ is measured clockwise.
Exponential Form of the Operator (cosθ ± jsinθ) = e ±jθ
All Forms
Ae jθ = A̸ θ = (cosθ + jsinθ)
Ae −jθ = A̸ −θ = (cosθ − jsinθ)
Exponential form, Polar form, Cartesian form/Rectangular form
10̸ 70 = 10e j70 = 10(cos70 + jsin70) = 3.42 + j9.39
Phasor Addition

Phasor Subtraction
Phasor Multiplication
Phasor Division
Raising a Phasor to a Given Power
Extracting the Roots of a Phasor

Impedance Expressed in Polar Form

Where θ represents a lead of the voltage with respect to the
current or a lag of the current with respect to the voltage. If a
phasor voltage V = V ̸ α is applied to the above branch the
resulting current is
̸
i = VI = VZ ̸ αθ = [ Zv ]̸ α − θ
Problem
An RLC series branch consists of R = 12.9 ohms, L = 0.056 henry,
and C = 78 µf
(a) What is the complex impedance of the RLC branch at 60 cycles
(b) If a 60-cycle current, I= 10̸ 30 deg amperes, flows through the
branch, find the voltage phasor V across the terminals of the series
branch.
  + j(XL − XC ) 
(a) Z = R
1
⇒ R + j 2πfL −
2πf ×C
106
 
⇒ 12.90 + j 2 × π × 60 × 0.056 −
2 × π × 60 × 78
⇒ 12.9 + j(21.11 − 34.00) =
21.11 − 34.00
12.92 + (21.11 − 34.00)2 tan−1
p
◦
12.9
=18.24̸ − 45
◦
(b) V = Zi = 18.24̸ − 45 × 10̸ 30d egree
◦
= 182.40̸ − 15
Problem
Express the following as a single complex number in Cartesian,
polar forms and exponential form:
◦
24 + j36 e j45
= ×
5̸ (−39◦ ) cos 39 + j sin 39
√ 36
242 + 362 tan−1 e j45
◦

= 24 × j39
5e −j39 e
 √ ◦
576 + 1296̸ 56.309 e j45
= × j39
5e −j39 ◦
e
43.266̸ 56.309 e j45
= × j39
5e −j39 e◦
43.266e 56.309 e j45
= × j39
5e −j39 e
= 8.6533e j(56.309+39+45−39)
= 8.6533e j101.309 (Exponential Format)
= 8.6533̸ 101.309 (Polar Format)
= 8.6533 × (cos 101.309 + j sin 101.309)
= 8.6533(−0.197 + j0.98)
= −1.697 + j8.4852 (Cartesian or Rectangular format)
Chapter - V
Sinusoidal Single-Phase Circuit Analysis
Impedance in Series
Difference between String vector diagram and
polar vector diagram
The distinguishing characteristic of a string vector diagram is that
certain component vectors are combined head-to-tail to form a
resultant vector as, for example, the component voltages
IR1 , IX1 , IR2 , IX2 andIR3 are combined head-to-tail to form the
resultant voltage vector V.
In a polar vector diagram, all vectors are started from a common
origin.Either type of diagram may be used since they represent the
same thing.
The one which appears to be the simpler in any particular case
should be used. In certain cases the funicular diagram shows the
quantities to better advantage, whereas for others the polar
diagram is more suggestive of the relationships and more
convenient to use.
Problem 1.
(a) Find the current through the circuit in Fig Below and the
voltage drops Vab , Vbc , V cd.
(b) Draw a string vector and polar diagram of Vab , Vbc , V cd ,
including both V and I on the diagram.
(c) Calculate the total power dissipated applying the following
formulas
(a) Here,
V = ZI
V = [(2 − j4) + (3 + j11) + (2 + j0)]I
⇒ 98.98̸ 45 = [(7 + j7)]I
98.98̸ 45
⇒ =I
9.89̸ 45
⇒ I = 10̸ 0 q X1
Vab = IZ1 = (2 − j4) × 10̸ 0 = 20 − j40 = I R12 − X12 tan−1
R1
= 44.721̸ − 63.434
Vbc = IZ2 = (3 + j11) × 10̸ 0 = 30 + j110 =
q X2
I R22 + X22 tan−1 = 114.017̸ 74.74
R2 q X3
Vcd = IZ3 = (2 + j0) × 10 0 = 20 + j0 = I R32 − X32 tan−1
̸
R3
= 20̸ 0
(b) Here,
IR1 = 20
IR2 = 30
IR3 = 20
IX1 = −j40
IX2 = j110
Figure: String Vector Diagram
 Figure: Polar Vector Diagram

(b) Total Power dissipated,

′
P = VI = I 2 R = VI cos θ = vi + v i ′
Here V = 98.98̸ 45 = 69.989 + j69.989
⇒ 102 (7) = 700 Watt
989.80
⇒ 98.98̸ 45 × 10̸ 0 cos ̸ 45 = √ = 699.89
2
′ ′
⇒ vi + v i = 69.989 × 10 + 69.989 × 0 = 699.89
SERIES RESONANCE
A series circuit containing R, L, and C is in resonance when the
resultant reluctance is zero
In case of a series resonance XL = XC
1
So 2πfL =
2πfC
⇒ = fm = 2π√1 LC
Here fm = Series resonance frequency
The vector diagram corresponding to a series circuit in resonance is
as follows:
 Figure: Vector diagram of Series Resonance

Series resonance can be produced in a series circuit by varying

either L, C, or f. The current is always given by:
I = VZ = √ 2 V 2
=q 2 V 1
R +(XL −XC ) 2
R +(2πfL − 2πf )
C
For any value of current the drop across the resistance, inductance
and capacitance is respectively:
VR = IR = q 2 VR 1 2
R +(2πfL − 2πf )
C
 VL
VL = IL = q
R 2 +(2πfL − 2πf1 )2
C
VC
VC = IC = q
R 2 +(2πfL − 2πf1 )2
C
For instance in all cases the power factor at resonance is 1. The
power is simply the impressed voltage times the current.
V
The current is , the maximum possible value for the resistance
R
which is in the circuit.
Effect of resistance on series resonance
In the following diagram resonance occurs at the point C. The
current at the resonant point C will be large if the resistance is
small.
 Figure: Effect of resistance on a series resonant circuit

When the resultant reactance is large as it is at point A there

will be only a small current flowing. Hence there is a rapid
rise in current from point A to point C.
 Conversely,when the resistance is large, the amount of the
change in current from point A to C will be small.

In the former case the current peak will be sharper than in the
latter, as illustrated in Fig.

Hence the small resistance is said to give sharp tuning and the
large resistance broad tuning.

Illustrate the effect of varying ’L’ in a series RLC circuit and proof
that maximum VL occurs after resonance when .
R 2 + XC2
XL =
XC
Answer
When L is varied to produce resonance, a series of curves shown in
the following Fig is obtained.. It will be noted that VC becomes
maximum at resonance whereas the maximum value of VL occurs
after resonance. (WHY?)
Figure: Series resonance by varying L
 Since VC = IXC and XC is constant, the maximum drop
across the condenser will occur when the current is a
maximum.
In the case of VL = IXL , both I and XL are increasing before
resonance and the product must be increasing.
At resonance, I is not changing but XL is increasing, and
hence the drop is increasing.
The drop continues to increase until the reduction in the
current offsets the increase in XL . The point at which VL
becomes maximum is calculated in the following manner.
We already know in case of resonance,
VL = IL = q 2 VL 1 2
R +(2πfL − 2πf )
C
Differential the above equation w.r.t XL and equation it equal to =
0, we get. !
VL
d q
dVL R 2 +(XL − 2πf1 )2
C
= =0
dXL dXL
  
d √ 2 VL
R +(XL −XC )2
⇒ =0
dXL
⇒
1
p 1 2 2
−
R + (XL − XC ) V − VXL (R + (XL − XC ) ) 2 2(XL − XC )
2 2
2
R 2 + (XL − XC )2
=0
Solving the above equation yields :
R 2 + XC2
XL = (Proved)
XC
and in case of resonance we already know,
1
XL = XC = 2πfL =
2πfC
So,  2
R + XC2

1
L= = C (R 2 + XC2 )
2πf XC
Conductance, Suceptance and admittance
When impedances are connected in parallel, as in Fig. the same
voltage V is impressed across each impedance.

The current in each impedance is therefore

where the symbol Y represents the reciprocal of impedance and is
called admittance

= R1P − j X1P = g − jb
(Here g = conductance and b = suseptance )

Problem
For the circuit of Fig. with the parameters shown, the followings
are desired:
(a) conductance and susceptance of each branch;
(b) the resultant conductance and susceptance;
From which g1 = 0.06mho b1 = 0.08mho

Problem
Calculate current, power, and power factor for each impedance
shown in Fig., and the total current and power and the power
factor of the whole combination.
Power factor = cos θ = cos −53.2 = .599 .600(Lagging )
 Thévenin’s Theorem
Thévenin’s theorem, as stated for sinusoidal ac circuits, is changed
only to include the term impedance instead of resistance; that is,
any two-terminal linear ac network can be replaced with an
equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source and an impedance
in series, as shown in Fig.

Procedure
Remove that portion of the network across which the
 Thévenin equivalent circuit is to be found.

Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network.

Calculate ZTh by first setting all voltage and current sources

to zero (short circuit and open circuit, respectively) and then
finding the resulting impedance between the two marked
terminals.

Calculate ETh by first replacing the voltage and current

sources and then finding the open-circuit voltage between the
marked terminals.

Draw the Thévenin equivalent circuit with the portion of the

circuit previously removed replaced between the terminals of
the Thévenin equivalent circuit.

PROBLEM
Find the Thévenin equivalent circuit for the network external to
′
branch a − a in the following Fig.
 Figure: THEVENIN’s THEOREM

simplifying the above fig we get,//

Where,
Assigning the subscripted impedances for the network and finding
ZTh :
 ′
Since a − a is an open circuit, Then ET h is the voltage drop
across Z2 :

So the thevenin’s equivalent circuit can be formed as below,:

Norton’s Theorem
Norton’s theorem allows us to replace any two-terminal linear
bilateral ac network with an equivalent circuit consisting of a
current source and an impedance, as shown in the following Fig.
 Figure: Norton’s Theorem

Procedure
Remove that portion of the network across which the Norton
equivalent circuit is to be found.
Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network.
Calculate ZN by first setting all voltage and current sources to
zero (short circuit and open circuit, respectively) and then
finding the resulting impedance between the two marked
terminals.
 Calculate IN by first replacing the voltage and current sources
and then finding the short-circuit current between the marked
terminals.
Draw the Norton equivalent circuit with the portion of the
circuit previously removed replaced between the terminals of
the Norton equivalent circuit.
Problem
Determine the Norton equivalent circuit for the network external to
the 6 Ω resistor in the following Fig:

Assigning the subscripted impedances to the network:

 Figure: Assigning the subscripted impedances to the network

For ZN ,
 Figure: Finding out ZN

For IN ,
 Figure: Finding out IN

Hence the Norton equivalent circuit becomes:

Chapter VIII
BALANCED POLYPHASE CIRCUITS
A polyphase system is simply several single-phase systems which
are displaced in time phase from one another.
 Figure: Waves of emf generated by a Three Phase generator

This system is called three-phase because there are three waves of

different time phases. In general, the electrical displacement
between phases for a balanced n-phase system is 360/n electrical
degrees. Three-phase systems are the most common, although for
certain special applications a greater number of phases is used.
three-Phase, Four-Wire Systems of Generated E.m.f’s
The above connection is also called is called a wye connection.
The voltages between terminals a, b, and c are called the line or
terminal voltages. Under balanced conditions they are definitely
related to the phase voltages, as the following shows:
Eba = Ebn + Ena or −Eab = −Enb − Ean = Ebn − Ean or
Eab = Ean − Ebn
Eac = Ean + Enc or Eca = Ecn − Ean
Ecb = Ecn + Enb or Ebc = Ebn − Ecn
Here magnitude of the phase voltage is considered as E. Hence line
voltage in the balanced three phase star or wye connection is the
√
3 times the phase voltage and makes an angle with the
◦ ◦
component phase voltages of either 30 or 150 depending upon
which are considered. The complete vector diagram showing all
line voltages is given in Fig.

When the system is balanced, the currents in the three phases are
◦
all equal in magnitude and differ by 120 in time phase, as shown
in Fig:
Under balanced condition, Inn′ = Ina + Inb + Inc = 0
Three-Phase, Three-Wire Systems
Here, Ena + Enb + Enc = 0 In this event loads are not placed
between the lines and neutral, and the neutral wire is therefore not
brought out.
Power Calculations in Balanced Systems If the voltage per
phase is VP , the phase current IP ,, and the angle between them
θP , the power per phase is:
PP = VP × IP cos θP

The power for all phases of the n-phase system is:

Pt = nPP = nVP × IP cos θP
In case of DELTA Connection:
 VL
√
Pt = 3PP = 3VP × IP cos θP = 3 √ 3
× IL cos θP = 3VL IL cos θP
VL
√
Pt = 3PP = 3VP × IP cos θP = 3√ 3
× IL cos θP = 3VL IL cos θP
The equations for power in terms of line voltages and line
currents for balanced three-phase loads whether
√ delta or
wye-connected are identical and equal to: 3VL IL cos θP
√
In this expression, 3VL IL cos θP for balanced three-phase
power, it must be remembered that θP is the angle between
phase voltage and phase current and not between line voltage
and line current.
Volt-Ampere
√
v at = 3VL IL (For both wye and delta connection)

Reactive Volt-Amperes
√
3VL IL sin θP (For both wye and delta connection)
Example - 2
The line voltage, VL of the following balanced three phase system
is 220 volts. R and X of each phase are 6 Ω resistance and 8 Ω
inductive reactance. Find the followings:
(a) Value of line and phase and line voltage.
(b) Value of phase and line current.
(c) Power per phase.
(d) Total power.
(e) The vector expressions for the line and phase voltages.
(f) vector expression of phase and line current.
(g) Vector diagram showing the line voltages, phase voltages and
phase current.
Solution
(a) Value of line and phase and line voltage.
VL 220
VP = √ = √ = 127 Volts
3 3
(b) Value of phase and line current.
127 127
IL = IP = √ = = 12.70 A
2
6 +8 2 10
(c) Power per phase.
Power per phase = IP2 × RP = 12.702 × 6 = 968 watts
(d) Total power.
Total Power = 3 × 968 = 2904 Watts
(e) The vector expressions for the line and phase voltages.
Vna = 127 + j0 volts
Vnb = 127̸ − 120o = 127(cos 120o − j sin 120o ) = −63.50 − j110 Volts
Vnc = 127̸ 120o = -63.50 +j110 volts
Vba = Vbn + Vna = 63.5+j110 +127 + j0 = 190.5 + j110
Vcb = Vcn + Vnb = 63.50 - j110-j110 = -j220
Vac = Van + Vnc = -127 - j0 -63.50 +j110 = -190.50 + j110
(f) Vector expression of line and phase current.
Vna 127 + j0
Ina = = = 7.62 — j10.16 = 12.70 ̸ − 53.13o
Zna 6 + j8
Vnb −63.5 − j110 127̸ − 120o
Inb = = = = 12.70 ̸ − 173.13o
Znb 6 + j8 10̸ 53.13o
Vnc 127̸ 120o
Inc = = = 12.7̸ 66.87o
Znc 10̸ 53.13o
Power per phase (Vector solution).
 ′ ′
Pna = vi + v i = 127 × 7.62 = 968 watts
The vector representation of the given circuit is given below:

Figure: Vector representation of the given circuit

Pnb = 127 ×12.70 cos(120o − 173.13o ) = 968
Example 3
Calculate phase current, line current, phase power, and total power
from the given delta connected network.
Solution
VL = VP = 220Volts
220
IP = √
R2 + X 2
220
IP = √ = 22A
2 2
√6 +8
IL = 3 × 22 = 38.10A√
Power per phase = 222 × 6 = 2904 watts
Total power = 3 × 2904 = 8712 watts
(g) Vector diagram showing the line voltages, phase voltages and
phase current.
Figure: Vector representation
Example - 3
In the given delta connection as shown in the following figure
calculate the followings: (a) Phase current, line current, phase
power, and total power.
(b) Vector expression of the phase voltages.
(c) Vector representation of the phase current.
(d) Vector representation of the line current.
(e) Draw the vector vector diagram corresponding to the vector
solutions.
Here R = 6 ohm and X = 8 ohm
 Figure: Delta connected network

(a) Phase current, line current, phase power, and total power.
VL = VP = 220 Volts
220 220
IP = √ = √ = 22 A.
2 2 62 + 82
√R +x
IL = 3 × 22 = 38.10 Amperes
Power per phase = 222 × 6 = 2904 Watts
Total Power, 3× 2904 = 8712 Watts.
(b) Vector expression of the phase voltages.
Vba = 220̸ 0o Volts
Vcb = 220̸ − 120o Volts
Vac = 220̸ 120o Volts

(c) Vector representation of the phase current.

√ X √ 8
Z= R 2 + X 2 ̸ tan−1 = 62 + 82 ̸ tan−1 = 10̸ 53.13o
R 6
220̸ 0o
Iba = = 22̸ − 53.13o = 13.2 — j17.6 amperes
10̸ 53.13o
220̸ − 120o
Icb = = 22̸ − 173.13o = -21.85 — j2.63 amperes
10̸ 53.13o
220̸ 120o
Iac = = 22̸ 66.87o = 8.65 + j20.2 amperes
10̸ 53.13o
Pba = VI cos θ = 220 X 22 cos 53.13 = 2904 watts

Total Power, PTotal = 3 × 2904 = 8712 watts.

(d) Vector representation of the line current.

Ic ′ c = Icb + Ica = -21.85 — j2.63 + (- 8.65 - j20.2) = -30.5 - j22.8

= 38.10̸ − 143.13o

Ib′ b = Iba + Ibc = 13.2 — j17.6 + 21.85 + j2.63 = 35.05 - j15 =

38.1 ̸ − 23.13o

Ia′ a = Iab + Iac = -13.2 + j17.6 + 8.65 + j20.2 = — 4.55 + j37.8

38.1 ̸ 96.87o

(e) Draw the vector vector diagram corresponding to the vector

solutions.
 Figure: Vector Diagram

Power Calculations in Balanced System

if the voltage per phase is VP , the phase current IL , and the angle
between them θP , the power per phase is PP = VP IP cos θP
The power for all phases of an n-phase system is,
Pt = nPP = VP IP cos θP
For Wye connection,
VL √
Pt = 3PP = 3VP IP cos θP = 3 √ IL cos θP = 3VL IL cos θP
3
For the delta connection,
IL √
Pt = 3PP = 3VP IP cos θP = 3 √ VL cos θP = 3VL IL cos θP
3
The equations for power in terms of line voltages and line currents
for balanced three-phase
√ loads whether delta- or wye-connected are
identical and equal to 3VL IL cos θP
Volt-Amperes. The volt-amperes of a balanced three-phase
system are defined as the sum of the volt-amperes of the separate
phases or three times the number of volt-amperes per phase: Hence
vat = 3vaP = 3VP IP
In terms of line voltage and line current, volt-amperes are,
IL √
For delta: 3VP IP = 3VL √ = 3VL IL
3
VL √
For wye: 3VP IP = 3 √ IL = 3VL IL
3
Reactive Volt-Amperes
The reactive volt-amperes for a balanced three-phase system are
defined as the sum of the reactive volt-amperes for each phase, or
three times the reactive volt-amperes per phase. In terms of line
voltage and line current the reactive volt-amperes or reactive
power is,
For Wye connection,
VL √
PX = 3PX = 3VP IP sin θP = 3 √ IL sin θP = 3VL IL sin θP
3
For the delta connection,
IL √
PX = 3PX = 3VP IP sin θP = 3 √ VL sin θP = 3VL IL sin θP
3
QUESTION -
Write down the interrelationship between the followings in
case of both wye and delta connected balanced poly phase
network:
(a) Phase voltage and line voltage.
(b) Phase current and line current.
Basing on the above relationships, proof that the Reactive
volt ampere for both the wye and delta connected network is
identical.
√ That is:
Px = 3VL IL sin θP
Where the notations symbolize their usual meaning.
Power Factor
The power factor of a balanced three-phase system is defined as
the cosine of the angle between phase voltage and phase current
independent of whether the connection is delta or wye.
Summary

• For a balanced Wye and Delta connected balanced polyphase

network write down the expression for total power, reactive volt
ampere, volt ampere and power factor in terms of line voltage
(VL ), line current (IL ) and phase angle θP .
For balanced 3-phase √ network (Both Delta and Wye):
Total Power, Pt = √3VL IL cos θP
Volt-Ampere, va = 3VL IL √
Reactive Volt-Ampere, PX = 3VL IL sin θP
Questions Summary
Write down the numerical expression of V1 , V2 andV3 from the
given figure
In case of a purely resistive,inductive, capacitive circuit write
down the general expression of i, v, p, Z and WL , WC where
the symbols mean their usual meaning
In case of an RLC network as shown in the circuit proof the
followings: q
1
ωL− ωC
(a) ZRLC = R 2 + (ωL − 1 2̸
ωC ) tan−1 R
(b) p = Vm2Im cos θ - Vm I m
2 [cos 2ωt] cos θ + Vm Im
2 [sin 2ωt] sin θ
For a balanced Wye and Delta connected balanced polyphase
network write down the expression for total power, reactive
volt ampere, volt ampere and power factor in terms of line
voltage (VL ), line current (IL ) and phase angle θP .
For balanced 3-phase √ network (Both Delta and Wye):
Total Power, Pt = √3VL IL cos θP
Volt-Ampere, va = 3VL IL √
Reactive Volt-Ampere, PX = 3VL IL sin θP