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com
 Chemistry
Matter and its State
Matter is of 3 types – Solid Liquid and Gaseous

Matter can exist in one of three main states: solid, liquid, or gas.

Solid matter is composed of tightly packed particles. A solid will retain its shape; the particles
are not free to move around.

Liquid matter is made of more loosely packed particles. It will take the shape of its container.
Particles can move about within a liquid, but they are packed densely enough that volume is
maintained.

Gaseous matter is composed of particles packed so loosely that it has neither a defined shape
nor a defined volume. A gas can be compressed.

Solids
A solid’s particles are packed closely together. The forces between the particles are strong
enough that the particles cannot move freely; they can only vibrate. As a result, a solid has a
stable, definite shape and a definite volume. Solids can only change shape under force, as
when broken or cut.

A solid can transform into a liquid through melting, and a liquid can transform into a solid
through freezing. A solid can also change directly into a gas through a process called
sublimation.

Liquids
A liquid is a fluid that conforms to the shape of its container but that retains a nearly constant
volume independent of pressure. The volume is definite (does not change) if the temperature
and pressure are constant. When a solid is heated above its melting point, it becomes liquid
because the pressure is higher than the triple point of the substance.

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A liquid can be converted to a gas through heating at constant pressure to the substance’s
boiling point or through reduction of pressure at constant temperature. This process of a
liquid changing to a gas is called evaporation.

Gases
Gas molecules have either very weak bonds or no bonds at all, so they can move freely and
quickly. Because of this, not only will a gas conform to the shape of its container, it will also
expand to completely fill the container.

Gas molecules have enough kinetic energy that the effect of intermolecular forces is small (or
zero, for an ideal gas), and they are spaced very far apart from each other; the typical distance
between neighboring molecules is much greater than the size of the molecules themselves.

A gas at a temperature below its critical temperature can also be called a vapor. A vapor can
be liquefied through compression without cooling. It can also exist in equilibrium with a liquid
(or solid), in which case the gas pressure equals the vapor pressure of the liquid (or solid).

Atomic Structure

Atomic structure refers to the structure of an

atom comprising a nucleus (centre) in which
the protons (positively charged)
and neutrons (neutral) are present.

The negatively charged particles

called electrons revolve around the centre of
the nucleus.

The protons and neutrons make up the nucleus of the atom, which is surrounded by the
electrons belonging to the atom.

The atomic number of an element describes the total number of protons in its nucleus.

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Protons
Protons are positively charged particles found within atomic nuclei. Rutherford discovered
them in experiments with cathode-ray tubes that were conducted between 1911 and 1919.

Protons are about 99.86% as massive as neutrons.

The number of protons in an atom is unique to each element. For example, carbon atoms
have six protons, hydrogen atoms have one and oxygen atoms have eight.

The number of protons in an atom is referred to as the atomic number of that element.

The number of protons also determines the chemical behavior of the element. Elements are
arranged in the Periodic Table of the Elements in order of increasing atomic number.

Three quarks make up each proton — two "up" quarks (each with a two-thirds positive
charge) and one "down" quark (with a one-third negative charge) — and they are held
together by other subatomic particles called gluons, which a

Electrons
Electrons are tiny compared to protons and neutrons, over 1,800 times smaller than either a
proton or a neutron. Electrons are about 0.054% as massive as neutrons, according to
Jefferson Lab.

Joseph John (J.J.) Thomson, a British physicist, discovered the electron in 1897, according to
the Science History Institute. Originally known as "corpuscles," electrons have a negative
charge and are electrically attracted to the positively charged protons.

Electrons surround the atomic nucleus in pathways called orbitals, an idea that was put forth
by Erwin Schrödinger, an Austrian physicist, in the 1920s. Today, this model is known as the
quantum model or the electron cloud model. The inner orbitals surrounding the atom are
spherical but the outer orbitals are much more complicated.

An atom's electron configuration refers to the locations of the electrons in a typical atom.
Using the electron configuration and principles of physics, chemists can predict an atom's

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properties, such as stability, boiling point and conductivity, according to the Los Alamos
National Laboratory.

Neutrons
The neutron's existence was theorized by Rutherford in 1920 and discovered by Chadwick in
1932, according to the American Physical Society.

Neutrons were found during experiments when atoms were shot at a thin sheet of beryllium.
Subatomic particles with no charge were released – the neutron.

Neutrons are uncharged particles found within all atomic nuclei (except for hydrogen).

A neutron's mass is slightly larger than that of a proton. Like protons, neutrons are also made
of quarks — one "up" quark (with a positive 2/3 charge) and two "down" quarks (each with a
negative one-third charge).

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

The English chemist John Dalton suggested that all matter is made up of atoms, which were
indivisible and indestructible. He also stated that all the atoms of an element were exactly the
same, but the atoms of different elements differ in size and mass.

Chemical reactions, according to Dalton’s atomic theory, involve a rearrangement of atoms to

form products. According to the postulates proposed by Dalton, the atomic structure
comprised atoms, the smallest particle responsible for the chemical reactions to occur.

Demerits of Dalton’s Atomic Theory

1. The theory was unable to explain the existence of isotopes.

2. Nothing about the structure of atom was appropriately explained.

3. Later, the scientists discovered particles inside the atom that proved, the atoms are
divisible.

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Thomson Atomic Model
The English chemist Sir Joseph John Thomson put forth his model describing the atomic
structure in the early 1900s.

He was later awarded the Nobel prize for the discovery of “electrons”.

His work is based on an experiment called cathode ray experiment.

Based on conclusions from his cathode ray experiment, Thomson described the atomic
structure as a positively charged sphere into which negatively charged electrons were
embedded.

It is commonly referred to as the “plum pudding model” because it can be visualized as a

plum pudding dish where the pudding describes the positively charged atom and the plum
pieces describe the electrons.

Thomson’s atomic structure described atoms as electrically neutral, i.e. the positive and the
negative charges were of equal magnitude.

Rutherford Atomic Theory

Rutherford, a student of J. J. Thomson modified the atomic structure with the discovery of
another subatomic particle called “Nucleus”. His atomic model is based on the Alpha ray
scattering experiment.

Rutherford proposed his own atomic structure which is as follows.

The nucleus is at the center of an atom, where most of the charge and mass are concentrated.

Atomic structure is spherical.

Electrons revolve around the nucleus in a circular orbit, similar to the way planets orbit the
sun.

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Atomic Structures of Some Elements
Hydrogen

The most abundant isotope of hydrogen on the planet Earth is protium. The atomic number
and the mass number of this isotope are 1 and 1, respectively.

Structure of Hydrogen atom: This implies that it contains one proton, one electron, and no
neutrons ( total number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number)

Carbon

Carbon has two stable isotopes – 12C and 13C. Of these isotopes, 12C has an abundance of
98.9%. It contains 6 protons, 6 electrons, and 6 neutrons.

Structure of Carbon atom: The electrons are distributed into two shells and the outermost
shell (valence shell) has four electrons. The tetravalency of carbon enables it to form a variety
of chemical bonds with various elements.

Oxygen
There exist three stable isotopes of oxygen – 18O, 17O, and 16O.

However, oxygen-16 is the most abundant isotope.

Structure of Oxygen atom: Since the atomic number of this isotope is 8 and the mass number
is 16, it consists of 8 protons and 8 neutrons. 6 out of the 8 electrons in an oxygen atom lie in
the valence shell.

Periodic Classification of Elements

All existing matter in our surroundings is made up of basic units known as elements.

Initially, in 1800, only 31 chemical elements were discovered.

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After some advancement in technology in 1865, about 63 more elements were discovered.
This created the need for the periodic classification of elements.

Presently, there are 118 elements known to us , Out of these 118 chemical elements, some
elements are man-made.

Döbereiner grouped the elements into triads and Newlands gave the Law of Octaves.

Mendeléev arranged the elements in increasing order of their atomic masses and according to
their chemical properties.

Mendeléev’s Periodic Table

Mendeléev’s Periodic Table contains vertical columns called ‘groups’and horizontal rows
called ‘periods’.

While developing the Periodic Table, there were a few instances where Mendeléev had to
place an element with a slightly greater atomic mass before an element with a slightly lower
atomic mass.

The sequence was inverted so that elements with similar properties could be grouped
together.

Mendeleev’s table could not assign a proper position to hydrogen or to the lanthanides and
actinides and isotopes. Isotopes

of all elements posed a challenge to Mendeleev’s Periodic Law.

The vertical columns are called groups, while the horizontal rows are called periods.

The noble gases are on the extreme right of the table and on the table’s extreme left, are the
alkali metals.

The elements of Groups 1, 2 and 13 to 17 are called the main group elements. These are also
called typical or representative or normal elements.

The elements of Groups 3 to 12 are called transition elements.

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 Acid, Bases & Salts
Why lemon is tangy and mango is sweet?

This is because of different percentage of acids,

bases, and salts in their chemical composition.

Acid:- An acid is defined as a substance whose

water solution tastes sour, turns blue litmus
red and neutralizes bases.

Base:- A substance is called base if its aqueous

solution tastes bitter, turns red litmus blue or neutralizes acids.

Salt:- Salt is a neutral substance whose aqueous solution does not affect litmus.

ACIDS
➢ An acid is a compound, which on dissolving in water yields hydronium ions (H3O+) as the
only positive ions.

➢ The characteristic property of an acid is due to the presence of these hydronium ions.

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➢ Acids are compounds that contain Hydrogen (Hydrochloric, HCl; Sulphuric, H2SO4; Nitric,
HNO3).

➢ However, not all compounds that contain Hydrogen are acids (Water, H2O; Methane, CH4).
Acids are usually compounds of non-metals with Hydrogen and sometimes Oxygen.

➢ The strength of an acid depends on the concentration of the hydronium ions present in a
solution.

➢ Strong Acid: Examples of strong acids are: hydrochloric acid,sulphuric acid, nitric acid etc.

➢ Weak Acid: Examples are acetic acid, formic acid, carbonic acid etc.

➢ Acids are generally sour in taste. Special type of substances are used to test whether a
substance is acidic or basic. These substances are known as indicators.

➢ Turmeric, litmus, china rose petals (Gudhal), etc., are some of the naturally occurring
indicators.

➢ When added to an acidic solution, it turns red and when added to a basic solution, it
turns blue.

➢ Acids are corrosive and can burn flesh and dissolve metal.

Bases
A base is a substance that renders hydroxyl
ion(OH–) in their aqueous solution.

Bases turn red litmus paper blue while the

blue litmus paper stays blue.

They taste bitter and also feel soapy.

Some other common examples of bases

include sodium bicarbonate that is used in
cooking and household bleach.

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Salts
➢ Salt is an ionic compound that results from the neutralization reaction of acids and
bases.

➢ Salts are constituted of positively charged ions, known as cations and negatively
charged ions, known as anions, which can either be organic or inorganic in nature.

➢ These ions are present in a relative amount, thus rendering the nature of the salt
neutral.

➢ Sodium chloride or common salt is a product of the reaction between the hydrochloric
acid (acid) and sodium hydroxide (base).

➢ Solid sodium chloride is made of a cluster of positively charged sodium ions and
negatively charged chloride ions held together by electrostatic forces.

Metals and Non Metals

Metals and Non-metals are elements that

exist in our surroundings. So, it is essential to
know whether a particular element is either
a metal or non-metal.

Materials can be further divided into metals

and non-metals.

The characteristic feature of metals like

aluminum and copper is a high thermal and
electrical conductivity, whereas non-metals like sulfur and phosphorus metal are the
insulators. These elements are distinguished based on their properties.

Properties of Metals and Non-metals

Physical Properties of Metals

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Malleability

The property of metals by which they may be beaten into thin sheets is
malleability. An example is a silver metal beaten to make silver foil used for sweets
decoration.

Ductility

Ductility is the property of metals by the virtue which can be drawn into thin
wires. Examples are copper, iron which can be drawn into thin wires.

Conductivity

Metals are the good conductors of heat and electricity. The best conductors of
electricity are copper and silver. However, Mercury and lead are poor conductors.
Except for Caesium and Gallium, they also have a high melting point.

Solid

All the metals are solid, except Mercury. At room temperature, Mercury remains
in a liquid state. The exceptional metals are Potassium (K), Sodium (Na), and
Mercury. Metals like Potassium (K) and Sodium (Na) are easily cut with a knife.
Other examples of metals are copper, silver, iron, aluminum, gold, calcium, and
more.

Chemical Properties of Metals

Usually, the density of metals is high

Metals are ductile, malleable

Metals forms alloy with other metals or non-metals

More metals produce the metal oxide, and highly reactive metals react violently
by burning in the oxygen of the air

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Metals like sodium, potassium are stored in oil as they react with air in seconds
and are highly reactive

Less reactive metals like silver, gold, platinum, and more do not tarnish easily.
They stay lustrous and shiny.

Physical properties of Non-metals

Non-metals may be of solids, liquids, or gases

Except for Graphite, non-metals are poor conductors of heat and electricity

They don’t possess metallic luster

Non-metals do not produce a ringing sound and are not sonorous

Non-metals possess no malleability and are not ductile

Except for iodine, they have a dull luster

Examples of non-metals are oxygen, carbon, Sulphur, phosphorous, and many

more

Chemical properties of Non-metals

Except for Graphite and Gas carbon, non-metals are poor conductors of heat and
electricity

Non-metals aren’t ductile and malleable unlike metals

These react more with metals compared to non-metals.

Non-metals usually react with other non-metals at high temperatures

Most non-metals don’t react with air at room temperature

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The only non-metal is white phosphorus that reacts with air to form its oxide by
burning

Electrolysis

The term electrolysis was first popularized in the 19th century by Michael Faraday.

It was a process that helped in the study of chemical reactions in obtaining pure elements.

Electrolysis, process by which electric current is passed through a substance to effect a

chemical change.

The chemical change is one in which the substance loses or gains an electron (oxidation or
reduction).

The process is carried out in an electrolytic cell, an apparatus consisting of positive and
negative electrodes held apart and dipped into a solution containing positively and negatively
charged ions.

Electrolysis is used extensively in metallurgical processes, such as in extraction

(electrowinning) or purification (electrorefining) of metals from ores or compounds and in
deposition of metals from solution (electroplating).

Base and Alkali

Base
➢ A substance used to neutralize acid is called a base.

➢ Some of the bases that form a neutral product with acids are metal hydroxides and
metal oxides.

➢ Examples of base: zinc hydroxide and copper oxide.

➢ Base reacts with the acid in order to make it neutral.

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 ➢ The base is bitter in taste and is slippery in nature.

➢ They produce salt molecules and water on reacting with acids.

➢ Types of bases are a strong base and a weak base.

➢ Example of a strong base is NaOH.

➢ Example of a weak base is NH3.

➢ Bases do not dissolve in water.

Alkali
Alkali is a base.

Alkalis are like a subset of bases. So, we can say that “All alkali are bases but all bases are not
alkali”.

Alkalis are water soluble bases. The term alkali is mainly used for the hydroxides of alkali
metals or alkaline earth metals as they easily dissolve in water to furnish OH- ions.

Alkali turn red litmus blue and are bitter to taste. And, pH of a alkali solution is greater than 7.

Some examples of alkali are:

NaOH, KOH, Be (OH)2, Ca (OH)2

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) – caustic soda

Potassium hydroxide (KOH) – caustic potash

Calcium hydroxide, {Ca (OH)2 } – limewater

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 pH scale

A scale for measuring hydrogen ion concentration in a solution, called pH scale has been
developed.

On the pH scale we can measure pH from 0 (very acidic) to 14 (very alkaline). Higher the
hydronium ion concentration, lower is the pH value.

The pH of a neutral solution is 7. Values less than 7 on the pH scale represent an acidic
solution.

As the pH value increases from 7 to 14, it represents an increase in OH– ion concentration in
the solution, that is, increase in the strength of alkali.

Properties / Behavior of Gases

Gas has no definite volume or shape; a gas will fill whatever volume is available to it.

Outstanding characteristic of gases is their low densities, compared with those of liquids and
solids.

Properties of Gases

1. Compressibility

Particles of gas have huge intermolecular spaces in the midst of them. By the exertion of
pressure, much of this space can be diminished and the particles are brought closer. Thus, the
volume of gas can be hugely reduced. This is termed as compressing the gas

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2. Expansibility

When pressure is exerted on gas, it contracts. On the other hand, when pressure is freed, the
gas expands.

3. Diffusibility

The molecules of the gas are in perpetual motion, at a very high velocity. There is a huge
amount of intermolecular space amid the molecules. When two gases are mixed, particles of
one gas can effortlessly pass through the intermolecular space of the other gas. As an
outcome both the gases get completely and consistently mixed. Thus, a mixture of gases at all
times remains homogeneous.

4. Low Density

Since gases have large intermolecular spaces, they have very large volumes when compared to
their mass. Therefore, they have less densities. If 1 ml of water at 39.2oF is transformed into
steam at 212oF and 1-atmosphere pressure, it will occupy a volume of 1700 ml.

5. Exertion of Pressure

Solids exert pressure only in the downward direction. Liquids apply pressure downward as
well as to the sides. But gases apply pressure in all directions (a good sample is a balloon). This
pressure is because of the bombardment of the particles against the walls of the vessel

Gas Laws
There are five gas laws that affect the behavior of gas molecules and they are as follows

Boyle’s Law

According to Boyle’s law, the volume of the gas is inversely related to pressure when the
amount of gas is fixed at a constant temperature.

Mathematical representation of the law - P∝1V

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P is the pressure of a gas

V is the volume of gas

Charles’s Law

According to Charles’s law, the volume of the gas with a fixed mass is directly proportional to
the temperature.

Mathematical representation of the law V ∝ T

T is the temperature of a gas

V is the volume of gas

Gay-Lussac’s Law

According to Gay-Lussac’s law, when the volume of the gas is constant, the pressure of a given
mass of gas varies directly with the absolute temperature of the gas.

Mathematical representation of the law - P1/T1 = P2/T2

T1 is the initial temperature

P1 is the initial pressure

T2 is the final temperature

P2 is the final pressure

Avogadro’s Law

According to Avogadro’s law, when the pressure and temperature of the given gas are
constant, then the number of moles and the volume of the gas are in a direct relationship.

Mathematical representation of the law - V ∝ n or V /n=k

V is the volume of the gas

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n is the number of moles

k is the proportionality constant

N is Avogadro’s number, NA = 6.0221×1023

Ideal Gas Law

According to ideal gas law, the product of pressure and volume of one gram molecule of an
ideal gas is equal to the product of a number of moles of the gas, universal gas constant and
the absolute temperature.

Mathematical representation of the law - PV = nRT = NkT

P is the pressure of the gas

V is the volume of the gas

n is the number of moles

R is the universal gas constant = 8.3145 J.mol-1.K-1

T is the temperature of the gas

Organic Chemistry
Organic chemistry is a branch of chemistry that
studies the structure, properties and reactions
of organic compounds, which contain carbon

in covalent bonding.

Study of structure determines their structural

formula.

Organic chemistry is the study of the

structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation of carbon-containing
compounds.

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Most organic compounds contain carbon and hydrogen, but they may also include any
number of other elements (e.g., nitrogen, oxygen, halogens, phosphorus, silicon, sulfur).

Organic chemistry began to emerge as a science about 200 years ago. By the late eighteenth
century, substances were divided into two classes called organic and inorganic compounds.

Organic compounds were obtained from plants and animals. Organic compounds were more
difficult to work within the laboratory and decompose easily.

The answer is in a single precious atom – CARBON. All organic molecules contain carbon, and
to study organic chemistry is to study molecules made of carbon and to see what kinds of
reactions they undergo and how they are put together. Therefore, Organic chemistry is the
branch of chemistry that deals with the study of carbon compounds.

1. Alkanes: In the alkanes, all four of the Carbon valency bonds are taken up with links to
different atoms. These types of bonds are called single bonds and are generally stable and
resistant to attack by other chemicals. Alkanes contain the maximum number of Hydrogen
atoms possible. They are said to be saturated. The simplest Hydrocarbon is:

• Methane: CH4 This is the simplest member of a series of hydrocarbons. Each

successive member of the series has one more Carbon atom than the

preceeding member.

• Ethane: C2H6.

• Propane (heating fuel): C3H8.

• Butane (lighter / campingfuel): C4H10.

• Pentane: C5H12.

• Hexane: C6H14.

• Polythene is a very large alkane with millions of atoms in a single molecule. Apart from
being flammable, alkanes are table compounds found underground.

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2. Alkenes: Another series of compounds is called the alkenes. These have a general formula:
CnH2n. The double bonds are more reactive than single bonds making the alkenes chemically
more reactive. The simplest alkenes are listed in the table below:

• Ethene (used as an industrial starter chemical): C2H4.

• Propene: C3H6.

• Butene: C4H8.

• Pentene: C5H10.

• Hexene: C6H12.

3. Alkynes: A third series are the alkynes. These have the following formula: CnH2n-2.

These highly reactive substances have many industrial uses. Alkynes have two carbon atoms
joined by a tripple bond.

This is highly reactive making these compounds unstable. Examples of alkynes are:

• Ethyne - better known as acetylene which is used for welding underwater: C2H2

• Propyne: C3H4

• Butyne: C4H6

• Pentyne: C5H

• Hexyne: C6H10

Chemical Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is a branch of Chemistry which deals with the exchange in heat energy
during chemical and physical changes.

System: It is a part of the universe which is under thermodynamic consideration.

Open system: Continuous exchange of heat energy and matter takes place together.

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Closed system: Continuous exchange of energy takes place, but matter remains constant.

Isolated system: There is neither exchange of energy nor matter.

Surroundings: It constitutes the biotic and abiotic factors which affect the physical and
chemical properties of the system.

Intensive properties: These are properties which do not depend on the quantity of matter
present in the system such as pressure, temperature, specific heat, refractive index, surface
tension, viscosity, and boiling and melting points.

Extensive properties: These are properties which depend on the quantity of matter present in
the system such as volume, mass, energy, enthalpy and entropy.

Adiabatic process: q = 0

Heat exchange with the surrounding = 0 (zero)

Zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with some third
body, then they may also be in equilibrium with each other.

First law of thermodynamics: Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed but can be
transferred from one form to another.

Enthalpy: When the system is under conditions of constant pressure, the energy of the system
is called enthalpy.

Second law of thermodynamics:

Total energy of an isolated system can never decrease over time.

Third law of thermodynamics: The entropy of perfect crystals of all pure elements and
compounds is zero at absolute zero temperature.

Gibb’s free energy (G): (State function and an extensive property)

Gsystem = H system - TS system

Enthalpy of reaction: The amount of heat absorbed or evolved in the reaction.

Heat capacity: It is the capacity of heat required to raise the temperature of a system by one
degree.

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Entropy in thermodynamics: Entropy is the loss of energy available to do work. Another form
of the second law of thermodynamics states that the total entropy of a system either
increases or remains constant; it never decreases. Entropy is zero in a reversible process; it
increases in an irreversible process.

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