what has been conveyed by the superior is

important.
DIRECTING 5. Principle of Follow up: - Direction should
involve continuous supervision, advice,
According to Koontz & O’Donnel, “direction is a
counseling & assisting the subordinates in the
complex function that includes all those activities which
performance of their task.
are designed to encourage subordinates to work
effectively & efficiently in both the short & long run”. Elements/Functions of Directing

Principles of Directing  Communication

 Leadership & Supervision
The principles of directing can be divided in to two –
 Motivation
Principles relating to the purpose of directing &
principles relating to the directing process. Communication

Principles Relating to the Purpose of Directing According to Newman, Summer & Warren, “exchange
of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more
1. Principle of maximum individual contribution: -
persons is known as communication”.
Direction technique should enable the
subordinates to contribute maximum towards Principles of Effective Communication
organizational goals.
2. Principle of Harmony of Objectives: - 1. Clarity
Individuals join the organization to achieve 2. Integrity
certain personal objectives like physiological & 3. Strategic use of Informal Organization
psychological needs. They are required to work
Functions of Communication
for the achievement of organizational
objectives. Management should try to integrate 1. Information Function
both organizational & individual objectives 2. Command & Instructive Function
through proper direction techniques. 3. Influencing Function
3. Principle of Efficiency of Direction: - An 4. Integrative Function
effective directing technique should try to get
work accomplished by subordinates without Informative Function: - Timely information is very
affecting their need satisfaction adversely. essential in the case of any type of organization for
facilitating decision making etc. communication
Principles Relating to Direction Process technology has greatly enhanced man’s information
generating capacities.
1. Principle of Unity of Command: - The directing
techniques should be designed in a manner Command & Instructive Function: - Communication
which ensures unity of direction. system helps the superiors to command & control
2. Principle of Appropriateness of direction certain task related behaviors of their subordinates.
technique: - The direction technique should be
appropriate to the situation concerned. Influencing Function: - Managers can influence others
3. Principle of Managerial Communication: - through effective communication. Leadership depends
There should be effective communication upon how the manager communicates with his
between superior & subordinates. subordinates & others.
4. Principle of Comprehension: - According to this Integrative Function: - Communication performs the
principle, understanding & comprehending of integrative function by relating various components of
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 the organization & maintaining equilibrium among 2. It can be more widely disseminated.
them. 3. It can be checked for accuracy.
4. It is necessary in certain cases.
Types of Communication
Verbal or Oral Communication
 Formal & Informal Communication
 Written & Oral Communication Oral communication is face to face communication
 Upward, down ward & Horizontal between individuals (spoken words, visual media,
Communication. gestures etc). Communication through telephone,
public speech & other artificial means is also part of oral
Formal Communication communication.
It implies the flow of information along with the lines of Advantages
hierarchy formally established in the enterprise.
1. It saves time
Informal or Grapevine Communication 2. It can be easily conveyed.
This type of communication arises on account of the 3. It fosters a friendly & co operative spirit
natural desire of people to communicate with each 4. It provides immediate response & feedback.
other & is a result of social interaction of people. Disadvantages
Differences between Formal & Informal 1. It may be less accurate
Communication 2. Possibility for distortion
3. It may create legal difficulties.
Formal Communication Informal Communication
1 Based on formal 1 It emerges out of social Non Verbal Communication
organizational interaction
relationships. Due to its special feature, it is also called silent
2 The communication 2 Channels depend on language. Non verbal communication can be defined as
channels are well individual relationships non word human responses such as gestures, facial
defined expressions etc & the perceived characteristics of the
3 It is rigid 3 It is flexible environment through which the human verbal & non
4 It is treated as authentic 4 It is not authentic verbal messages are transmitted.

5 The speed of message is 5 Message travels faster. Up Ward & Down ward Communication
slow
6 Chance of distortion is 6 Messages are often Communication flows from a subordinate position to a
less distorted superior position is known as upward communication.
Upward communication includes information about
subordinates’ work performance, appraisal of their
subordinates, feedbacks, suggestions etc.
Written Communication
The passing of information from the top level to the
It means transmission of the contents by written words bottom level of the organization is called downward
in the form of letters, memo, circulars etc. communication.

Advantages of Written Communication The flow of information between persons of the same
hierarchical level is known as horizontal
1. It serves as permanent reference for future. communication.
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 4. Undue reliance on the Written Word: - A
written communication might fail to explain the
Barriers in Communication purpose of order, procedure or directive.
 Semantic Barriers Organizational barriers: - Following are the important
 Emotional or Psychological Barriers organizational barriers: -
 Organizational Barriers
 Personal Barriers 1. Organizational Policy: - If the policy concerned
is not supportive to the flow of communication
Semantic Barriers in the different directions, communication flow
These are the barriers related with the language. would not be smooth & adequate.
Following are the important semantic barriers: - 2. Organizational Rules & Regulations: -
Organizational rules & regulations affect the
1. Symbols with Different Meanings: - flow of communication by prescribing the
Communication symbols usually have a variety subject matters to be communicated & also the
of meanings and we have to choose one channel through which these are to be
meaning from the many. communicated.
2. Badly expressed Message: - Lack of clarity & 3. Complexity in Organizational Structure: -In an
precision in a message makes it badly organization where there are number of
expressed. managerial levels communication flow will be
3. Faulty Translations: - Every manager receives difficult.
various types of communication from superiors, 4. Organizational facilities: - Communication
peers, subordinates etc & he must translate facilities in the form of communication media
information to the parties concerned. such as meetings, conferences, complaint box,
4. Un clarified Assumptions: - There are certain suggestion box etc affect the quality of
uncommunicated assumptions which underlie communication.
practically different meanings.
Personal Barriers
Emotional or Psychological Barriers
1. Attitude of Superiors: - If the attitude of the
These are the barriers related with the psychological superior towards the communication is
status of both the parties involved. unfavorable, there is greater possibility that
messages would not flow properly.
1. Premature Evaluation: - Premature evaluation
2. Lack of confidence in Subordinates: - If the
is the tendency of prematurely evaluating the
superiors haven’t confidence in their
communications, rather than to keep an
subordinates, it will affect the flow of
uncompromised position during the
communication.
interchange.
3. Lack of time
2. Inattention: -The preoccupied mind of a
4. Lack of awareness.
receiver & the resultant non listening is one of
the major emotional barriers. Leadership
3. Loss by Transmission & poor Retention: -When
communication passes through various levels in Leadership is a quality whereby an individual is able to
the organization, successive transmissions of move a group towards certain ideals normally without
the same message are decreasingly accurate. exerting force.

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Definition: - According to RT Livingston, “leadership is consults with the subordinates & ensures the
the ability to awaken in others the desire to follow a participation in the formulation of plans & policies. He
common objective”. leads the subordinates mainly through persuasion
rather than fear & force.

The Laissez faire or Free Rein Leadership: - These

Functions of a Leader leaders try to avoid power & responsibility. The laissez
1. Setting Goals: -The leader has to set goals & faire leader passes on the responsibility for decision
policies in order to persuade subordinates to making to his subordinates & takes a minimum of
work with zeal & confidence. initiative in administration. He acts as an umpire.
2. Shaping the Organisation: - Leader has to shape Paternalistic Leadership: - In this type of leadership, the
the structure of organization on scientific lines leader assumes that his function is fatherly or paternal.
with a view to make its various components The relationship between the leader & his group is the
operate sensitively & reliably for executing the same as the relationship between the head of the
policies. family & the members of the family. The leader guides
3. Taking Initiatives: -A leader has to take the & protects his subordinates with good working
initiative in all matters. He should not wait conditions & fringe benefits. It is assumed that workers
others. Further, his decisions & policies should will work harder out of gratitude.
reflect organizational thinking.
4. Guiding & Directing the Organization: - An Differences between Mgt & Leadership
effective leader can stimulate action by issuing
orders to his subordinates. The directions Mgt Leadership
should be intelligent, clear & comprehensive. 1 It has wider scope 1 Its scope is limited.
5. Representing the Organization: - Leader should It uses informal
It directs the employees
act as a symbol of the objective of the 2 2 authority to influence
through formal authority.
enterprise & deal with the outsiders as the the followers.
spokesman of the group which he leads. Exists manager & Leader & followers
3 3
6. Interpreting: - Interpreting the order or subordinates relationship. relationship.
command issued by him is an essential function Leaders may be both
4 Structure is formal. 4
of the leader. formal & informal.
All the managers are All leaders are not
5 5
Leadership Styles leaders. managers.

1. Autocratic or Authoritarian Leadership.

2. Democratic or Participative Leadership. Motivation
3. The laissez faire or Free Rein Leadership.
4. Paternalistic Leadership. The word motivation has been derived from the Latin
word “movere” which means to move. Motivation is the
Autocratic or Authoritarian Leadership: - An autocratic act of stimulating someone to take a desired course of
leader centralizes power & decision making in himself. action. It includes a stimulus & a desired result.
The leader gives orders, assigns tasks & duties without
consulting the employees. Autocratic leadership is Definition – According to William G Scot, “motivation
negative, based on threats & punishments. means a process of stimulating people to action to
accomplish desired goals”.
Democratic or Participative Leadership: - Democratic
leaders decentralize authority. A democratic leader Motivating Factors
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The important motivating factors common to all Need for food, water and other bodily needs are
individuals are: - included in this group.

1. Recognition of individual status In the organizational context, physiological needs are

2. Job security represented by employees’ concern for salary & basic
3. Fair treatment by Mgt. working conditions. It is the duty of the managers to
4. Scope for better career ensure that these needs of the employees are met so
5. Accommodative or co operative colleagues that they can be motivated to strive for gratification of
6. Congenial working conditions higher order needs.
7. Fair wages & suitable incentives
8. Pride in work Safety Needs: - Once physiological needs are met,
9. Appreciation for work done by them. safety or security needs become motivators. Here, the
primary motivating force is to ensure reasonable degree
Theories of Motivation of continuity, order, structure & predictability in one’s
environment. Safety needs in the organizational context
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory correlate to such factors as job security, salary increase,
Abraham Maslow developed a widely publicized theory safe working conditions etc. Managerial practices to
of motivation called the hierarchy of needs. He views an satisfy the safety needs of employees include pension
individual’s motivation as a predetermined order of schemes, provident fund, gratuity, insurance etc.
needs which he strives to achieve. Maslow’s model Social Needs: -An individual at this level looks for
indicates the following propositions about human affectionate relationship with others. Group
behavior: - membership becomes a dominant goal for the
1. Human beings have wants & desires which can individual. Being loved & accepted is instrumental to
influence their behavior. healthy feelings of worth. In the organizational context,
2. Only unsatisfied needs can influence their social needs represent the need for a compatible work
behavior. Satisfied needs do not act as group, peer acceptance, professional friendship &
motivators. friendly supervision.
3. Needs can be arranged in the order of their Self Esteem Needs: - Maslow classifies these needs into
importance. two subsets – self respect & esteem from others. Self
4. Physiological, safety & social needs are lower respect includes such things as desire for competence,
order needs & esteem and self actualization confidence, personal strength, achievement, challenges
needs are higher order needs. etc. Esteem from others includes prestige, recognition,
Maslow arranged the human needs as a hierarchy as acceptance, status, reputation & appreciation. In the
follows: - organizational context, self esteem needs include job
title, supervisory recognition, challenging work etc.
1. Physiological Needs
2. Safety Needs Self actualization Needs: - Maslow characterized self
3. Social Needs actualization as the desire to become everything that
4. Esteem Needs one is capable of becoming. To self actualize is to
5. Self actualization Needs become the total kind of person that one wants to
become, to reach the peak of one’s potential.
Physiological Needs: - The most basic, powerful &
obvious of all human needs is the need for survival. Merits of Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory

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 1. This theory offers some useful ideas for helping 6. Responsibility
managers to motivate their employees.
2. It accounts for the interpersonal variations in Hygiene or Maintenance Factors
human behavior. The presence of these factors did not significantly
3. This model is dynamic. It presents motivation motivate them but the absence of such factors caused
as a constantly changing force. serious dissatisfaction. These factors are mainly
4. This theory deserves appreciation for its external to the job & relate to the job environment.
simplicity, commonness, humanness & These factors include: -
initiativeness.
1. Company policy & administration
Criticisms 2. Technical supervision
1. It is not a theory of work motivation. 3. Inter personal relations with supervisor
2. The hierarchy of needs does not exist always. At 4. Interpersonal relations with colleagues
all levels, needs are present at a given time. 5. Interpersonal relations with subordinates
3. If we assume that hierarchy among needs 6. Salary
exists, it may not be in the same order in all 7. Personal life
individuals. 8. Work conditions
4. Managers may not be free or may not have 9. Status
time to supply immediate rewards to each To achieve motivation, manager should cope up with
employee. both satisfiers & dissatisfiers. Hygienic factors must be
Herzberg’s Motivation – Hygiene Theory (Two Factor improved. In this way, dissatisfaction is removed from
Model) the minds of employees.

This theory was introduced by Frederick Herzberg in Mc Gregor’s Theory X & Theory Y
1950s. He conducted a study on the motivating factors
Mc Gregor, a well known social psychologist,
& the study revealed that factors responsible for job
propounded two theories of human behavior.
satisfaction are different from factors that led to
According to Mc Gregor, management’s actions of
dissatisfaction. According to Herzberg, satisfaction &
motivating human beings in an organization involve
dissatisfaction are not opposite poles of dimensions.
certain assumptions, generalizations & hypotheses
Satisfaction is affected by motivating factors &
relating to human behavior. Mgt’s assumptions about
dissatisfaction is affected by hygiene factors. That is
human behavior influence the personnel practices,
why this theory is called two factor theory.
decision making etc. These different philosophies gave
Motivational Factors birth to two different theories, known as Theory X &
Theory Y.
Certain factors are related with job directly. Their
presence creates a highly motivating situation but their Theory X
absence does not cause dissatisfaction. Herzberg
It is the traditional theory of Mgt philosophy. Power is
mentions six such factors: -
supreme is the main theme of this theory. This theory
1. Achievement states that people at work level have no option but to
2. Recognition obey authority.
3. Advancement
Assumptions of Theory X
4. The work itself
5. The possibility of personnel growth
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 1. The average person inherently dislikes work & will Both theories are based on certain assumptions about human
avoid if it is possible. behavior. They are the reverse side of a coin. Hence, these
2. Therefore, they must be controlled, directed & theories are characterized a opposite theories.
threatened with punishment to get them to put
forth adequate efforts towards the achievement of Criticisms of Mc Gregor’s Theories
organizational goals.
1. People cannot be put on two extremes. No
3. The average human being prefers to be directed,
enterprising man belongs either to Theory X or
wishes to avoid responsibility & put off the work till
Theory Y.
it is necessary.
2. This theory squeezes managerial styles &
4. People lack ambition, seek security and economic
philosophies into two extremes of conduct, which is
rewards above all else.
devoid of reality.
5. Most people lack creative ability & are resistant to
3. Mc Gregor opines that job itself is a motivating
change.
factor. But all persons do not see job as a motivating
6. Working method of the people is generally
factor.
traditional.
7. The average man is inherently self centered, Existence, Relatedness & Growth – ERG Theory
indifferent to organizational needs.
Clayton Alderfer formulated a modified need hierarchy with
Theory Y just three levels which was more in line with empirical
research. Alderfer argues that there are three groups of core
This theory emphasizes on the co operative endeavor of
needs. They are Existence, Relatedness & Growth (and hence
management & employees. This theory focuses on getting
the ERG Theory).
maximum output with minimum amount of control &
direction. The theory is participative in nature in the sense The existence needs are concerned with survival. They
that supervisors consult their subordinates about the include the items that Maslow considered as physiological &
proposed course of action before taking any decisions. safety needs. The second group of needs is those of
relatedness i.e. the desire we have for maintaining inter
Assumptions of Theory Y
personal relationships. These social & status desires require
1. The average human being does not dislike work. interaction with others if they are to be satisfied. They
Work is as natural as play or rest. include the items Maslow considered as love & esteem
2. Employees will exercise self direction & self control if needs. Finally, employees want to satisfy growth needs &
they are committed to objectives. Hence, external these involve both the desire for self esteem & self
control & the threat of punishment are not the only actualization.
means for bringing about efforts towards
Maslow had stated that a person will stay at a certain level
organizational objectives.
until that need is satisfied. The ERG theory counters this by
3. Avoidance of responsibility, lack of ambition &
noting that when a higher level need is frustrating, the
emphasis on security are the consequences of
individual’s desire to increase a lower level need takes place.
experience & not the inherent human
For Eg inability to satisfy desire for social interaction might
characteristics.
increase the desire for more money or for better working
4. Under the condition of modern industrial life, the
conditions. Thus, ERG theory contains a frustration – regress
intellectual potentialities of average person are only
in direction. Frustration at a higher level need can lead to
partly utilized.
regression to a lower level need.
The theory Y emphasizes on creating the opportunities,
removing obstacles, encouraging growth & providing
guidance.

Comparison of Theory X & Theory Y

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