e ee f PiNcuBation Depp Cup Guide UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT eoeilend menjoe1080e1 Re-accredited by NAAC with ‘A’ Grade BSc PSYCHOLOGY Semester 2 BASIC THEMES IN PSYCHOLOGY-II Module 1: Cognitive Processes www.pepponiine.inNOoPpwNnep Contents . Thinking . Reasoning . Deductive and inductive reasoning . Mental imaginary . Problem solving . Language . Decision makingCOGNITION Cognition: The mental activities associated with thought, decision making, language, and other higher mental processes Cognitive ability: the skills involved in performing the tasks associated with perception, learning, memory, understanding, awareness, reasoning, judgment, intuition, and language. + THINKING: © cognitive behavior in which ideas, images, mental representations, or other hypothetical elements of thought are experienced or manipulated. © thinking includes imagining, remembering, problem solving, daydreaming, free association, concept formation, and many other processes. Basic units of thoughts Our thoughts consist largely of three components: concepts, propositions, images 1. Concepts: are mental categories for objects, events, experiences, or ideas that are similar to one another in one or more respects. © They allow us to represent a great deal of information about diverse objects, events, or ideas in a highly efficient manner. © Concepts simplify the complex world of our experience which is full of diversities and wide-ranging variations. Types of concepts: © Logical Concepts: Concepts that can be clearly defined by a set of rules or properties. Natural Concepts: Concepts that are not based on a precise set of attributes or properties, do not have clear-cut boundaries, and are often defined by prototypes. 2. Propositions: Sentences that relate one concept to another and can stand as separate assertions. 3. Image: Mental pictures of the worldSystem 1 and System 2 thinking (Kahneman ‘s model) Nobel Laureate Daniel Kahneman and describes the process of ‘thinking fast and slow” otherwise known as System 1 and System 2 thinking. The intention of the theory was to provide a helpful analogy that can guide our understanding of how our minds process information ‘System 1: - © the brain’s fast, automatic, intuitive approach © Includes the innate mental activities that we are born with, such as a preparedness to perceive the world around us, recognize objects, orient attention, avoid losses - and fear spiders! Other mental activities become fast and automatic through prolonged practice. System 2: - © the mind’s slower, analytical mode, where reason dominates. © activated when we do something that does not come naturally and requires some sort of conscious mental exertion. + REASONING Cognitive activity in which we transform information in order to reach specific conclusions. formal reasoning and everyday reasoning In formal reasoning; © all the required information is supplied the problem to be solved is straightforward © there is typically only one correct answer © the reasoning we apply follows a specific method In everyday reason; © the kind of thinking we do in our daily lives: planning, making commitments, evaluating arguments. © is far more complex and far less definite than formal reasoning © But because it is the kind we usually perform; itis worthy of careful attention. * Deductive and Inductive reasoning Deductive reasoning: It isa logical approach going from general ideas to specific conclusions It is a top-down approach. Here, inferences are made by applying different premises. (Premise is generally accepted idea, fact or rule) Inductive reasoning: It starts with specific observations to draw general conclusions. It is a bottom-up approach. Basic sources of errors in reasoning © Mood states: Individuals mood have an affect on their reasoning. Many of the researches conducted on mood state and reasoning suggest that individuals with negative mood performed worse than those with positive mood© Belief: The belief bias is a cognitive bias that causes people to over-rely on preexisting beliefs and knowledge when evaluating the conclusions of an argument, instead of properly considering the argument’s content and structure, People often accept arguments that align with their preexisting beliefs, even if those arguments are weak, invalid, or unsound, and that people often reject arguments that contradict their preexisting beliefs, even if those arguments are strong and logically sound. © Confirmation bias: innate, unconscious tendency to interpret information in ways that confirm what we already believe — or want to believe. CONFIRMATION BIAS Hindsight bias: the tendency of people to overestimate their ability to have predicted an outcome that could not possibly have been predicted. In essence, the hindsight bias is sort of like saying "I knew it!" when an outcome (either expected or unexpected) occurs - and the belief that one actually predicted it correctly. Ex: you are nervous to take an exam for which you waited to study until the very last minute. When you take the exam, you feel unsure about the results; however, when your grade comes back a B+, you exclaim to your friends, "I was sure that I'd aced that exam!" and actually believe it in hindsight. « MENTAL IMAGERY ‘Mental imagery can be defined as pictures in the mind or a visual repre-sentation in the absence of environ-mental input. CONCEPTS © A concept is simply a category or class of objects, events, qualities, or relations that share one or more defining features. © The defining feature allows us to discriminate between the members of one category from the members of another category (or class).WHEREVER YOU GO YOU WILL SURELY MEET A PEPPIAN Fulfill your central university dream with the |fSHSRGIHEIBESE coaching program in Kerala Download PEPP Learning App For Admission Related Queries: Call: +91 808925250, +91 8891359553 Visit: www.pepponiine.in© Forming concepts helps us to make sense of the world and prepares us to anticipate or predict future events more successfully. For example, classifying a predator in the woods as a tiger prompts us to keep a safe distance © Concepts also help us respond more quickly to events reducing the need for new learning each time we encounter a familiar object or event. Types of concepts © Logical concepts: have clearly defined rules for determination of membership. Eg: three sided form or figure - triangle © Natural concepts: no or poorly defined rules. Prototype Mental representation that serves as a cognitive reference point for the category. The most salient features of the prototype are the first features that come to mind when the category is mentioned. “ PROBLEM SOLVING Problem solving is defined as the process in which people attempt to overcome difficulties. ‘The process involves achieving plans that move them from a starting situation to a desired goal of reaching conclusions through the use of higher mental functions, such as reasoning and creative thinking, Types of problems Well defined problem & Ill defined problems 1. A well-defined problem is one that has clarity in the problem, the problem solving strategy, and the goal or solution. 2. On the other hand, an ill-defined problem (also known es a poorly-defined problem) is cone where there is a lack of clarity, or in other words, abstractness or confusion, in regards to the problem, problem solving strategy, and the goal or solution. Routine problem and non routine problem 1. A routine problem is one that is typical and has a simple solution. Routine problems are what most people do in school: memorizing simple facts, how to do addition and subtraction, how to spell words, and so on 2. In contrast, a non-routine problem is more abstract or subjective and requires a strategy to solve.Eg:the ethics of social issues such as the death penalty, or the role of civil rights in laws, or themes in famous literature, might be considered non-routine problems. Problem solving strategies A problem-solving strategy is a plan of action used to find a solution, Common problem strategies include: © Algorithms: algorithms are step-by-step strategies or processes for how to solve a problem or achieve a goal.Eg:Instruction manual for installing new software on your computer© Heuristics: are general strategies used to make quick, short-cut solutions to problems that sometimes lead to solutions but sometimes lead to errors. Heuristics are sometimes referred to as mental short-cuts, and we often form them based on past experiences. © Trial and error:Continue trying different solutions until problem is solved.Eg:Restarting phone, turning off WiFi, turning off bluetooth in order to determine why your phone is malfunctioning © Abstraction — refers to solving the problem within a model of the situation before applying it to reality. © Analogy — is using a solution that solves a similar problem. Brainstorming — refers to collecting and analyzing a large amount of solutions, especially within a group of people, to combine the solutions and develop them until an optimal solution is reached. © Divide and conquer — breaking down large complex problems into smaller more manageable problems. Hypothesis testing — method used in experimentation where an assumption about what would happen in response to manipulating an independent variable is made, and analysis of the effects of the manipulation are made and compared to the original hypothesis. © Means-ends analysis — choosing and analyzing an action at a series of smaller steps to move closer to the goal. Barriers to problem solving There are numerous obstacles to solving a problem. Generally, these obstacles are mental constructs that impede the ability to correctly solve problems. Some barriers do not prevent us from finding a solution, but do prevent us from finding the most efficient solution, Mental set:Mental set is the tendency to solve certain problems in the same way based on how you have solved similar problems in the past. Mental set makes you blind to any alternative approaches. © Functional fixedness : Functional fixedness occurs when we only think about the most common purpose of an abject (where you cannot perceive an object being used for something other than what it was designed for). “* LANGUAGE Language is a communication system that involves using words and systematic rules to organize those words to transmit information from one individual to another. Structure of language Five major components of structure of language: © Phonemes Morphemes Lexemes Syntax ContextPhonemes: Phoneme is the basic unit of phonology. It is the smallest unit of sound that may cause a change of meaning within a language, but that doesn't have meaning by itself. Morphemes: Morphemes, the basic unit of morphology, are the smallest meaningful unit of language. Thus, a morpheme is a series of phonemes that has a special meaning. If a morpheme is altered in any way, the entire meaning of the word can be changed. Lexemes: The set of inflected forms taken by a single word. For example, members of the lexeme RUN include “run” (the uninflected form), “running” (inflected form), and “ran,” This lexeme excludes “runner” (a derived term—it has a derivational morpheme attached). Syntax: A set of rules for constructing full sentences out of words and phrases. Context: How everything within language works together to convey a particular meaning. Context includes tone of voice, body language, and the words being used. Theories of language acquisition © The behaviorist theory believes that “infants learn oral language from other human role models through a process involving imitation, rewards, and practice. When a child attempts oral language or imitates the sounds or speech patterns they are usually praised and given affection for their efforts. Thus, praise and affection become the rewards. © \Nativist theorists argue that children are born with an innate ability to organize laws of language, which enables children to easily learn a native language. They believe that children have language-specific abilities that assist them as they work towards mastering a language. © Interactionist approach (sociocultural theory) combines ideas from sociology and biology to explain how language is developed. According to this theory, children learn language out of a desire to communicate with the world around them. Language emerges from, and is dependent upon, social interact MAKING + DECISION MAKING The cognitive process of choosing between two or more alternatives, ranging from the relatively clear cut (e.g., ordering a meal at a restaurant) to the complex (e.g., selecting a mate). The act of evaluating (ie., forming opinions of) several alternatives and choosing the one most likely to achieve one or more goals Types of Heuristics © Representativeness heuristic: involves making a decision by comparing the present situation to the most representative mental prototype. © Availability heuristic: is a cognitive bias in which you make a decision based on an example, information, or recent experience that is readily available to you, even though it may not be the best example to inform your decision.For example, plane crashes can make people afraid of flying. However, the likelihood of dying in a car accident is far higher than dying as a passenger on an airplane, © Familiarity heuristics: The familiarity heuristic uses familiarity to help you decide between a range of choices. This heuristic assumes thet the person, thing or situation you know will always remain or behave as you remember it. Your familiarity with itmakes you consider it the safest option among other choices with which you have less experience or knowledge.eg: choosing a brand of noodles, while you are purchasing, which you had the best previous experience © Anchoring heuristics: occurs when you rely heavily on either pre-existing information or the first piece of information (the anchor) when making a decision. + CREATIVITY Creativity involves the ability to develop new ideas or utilize objects or information in novel ways. Primary components of creativity Originality: The idea should be something new that is not simply an extension of something else that already exists. Functionality: The idea needs to actually work or possess some degree of usefulness. Stages of creativity 1. Preparation: the thinker formulates the problem and collects the facts and materials considered necessary for finding new solutions 2. Incubation: The overt activity and sometimes even thinking about the problem is absent in this stage. But the unconscious thought process involved in creative thinking is at work during this period. Apparently, the thinker will be busy in other activities like reading literature or playing games, etc. Inspite of these activities the contemplation about finding a solution to problem will be going on in the mind. 3. Illumination: clusive “aha” moment. After a period of incubation, insights arise from the deeper layers of the mind and break through to conscious awareness, often in a dramatic way. It’s the sudden Eureka! that comes when you’re in the shower, taking a walk, or occupied with something completely unrelated. Seemingly out of nowhere, the solution presents itself. 4. Verification: Following the aha moment, the words get written down, the vision is committed to paint or clay, the business plan is developed. 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