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 Chapter 2
Print ISBN: 978-93-90149-70-4, eBook ISBN: 978-93-90149-31-5

Issues in the Conceptualization and Understanding

of Intelligent Buildings
Ogwu Ikechukwu1*, Long Zhilin1 and Okonkwo Moses2
DOI: 10.9734/bpi/nicst/v1

ABSTRACT

The reality of global warming must have been settled by now while the incidence of same has in very
recent times adopted unprecedented dimensions. Rapid advancement of Information Technology (IT),
is now transforming the way we create and interact with the built environment with the notion of
Intelligent Buildings (IBs) underscoring its main features. However, these IBs utilize systems that
require energy, and fossil fuels are currently the world’s primary energy sources; they can also
irreparably harm the environment, exacerbating climate change. This paper, through review of
existing literature, attempts to explore some issues associated with the conceptualization of IBs,
highlighting how they are similar with other notional options that deliver the same benefits. It also
discusses the need to focus on less energy demanding and management approaches at design or
occupancy of buildings as a way to reduce the demand and thus consumption of fossil fuels across
the world.

Keywords: Technology; climate change; energy; energy efficiency; building energy assessment;
HVAC; façade systems; passive design; smart materials; intelligent buildings.

1. BACKGROUND

As world population continues to increase, urban areas are projected to house 60% of people
globally, and one in every three people will live in cities with at least half a million inhabitants [1]. This
will “…add to the growing demand for housing, water supply, sanitation and other urban services” [2],
requiring the erection of taller and taller buildings, enclosing larger and larger spaces [3]. Already,
buildings are some of the biggest energy consumers in the world, accounting for one-quarter to one-
third of all energy use and a similar amount of greenhouse gas emissions.

Energy is one of the most important factors in economic growth and social development in all
countries [4]. For this reason, as in the world, it is observed that the CO2 emissions concerning energy
have increased in the last 20 years [5]. In China alone, energy consumption by buildings has risen
from 10% in the late 1970’s to more than 25% in 2006, and is expected to soar to 35% soon [6].
Buildings consume energy at different levels in every stage of their life-cycle and building materials
occupy a great share of this consumption [7].

Over the past few decades, the construction sector has been under increasing pressure to improve its
cost efficiency, sustainability, and capacity, pushed by the endeavor and need to face consequences
of global warming and climate change. Indeed, the increased awareness of climate change and other
environmental concerns are empowering innovative solutions that seek to improve the quality of life
while being environmentally-friendly [8]. The construction activities occupy 38% of total energy
consumption of the world [9,10].

It is believed that science and technology at their best are motivated to satisfy genuine human needs,
that the needs of the city will be satisfied, and technology, spurred by the discoveries and inventions
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1
College of Civil Engineering and Mechanics, Xiangtan University, Xiangtan, China.
2
Faculty of Environmental Science, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Nigeria.
*Corresponding author: E-mail: ogwu@smail.xtu.edu.cn;
 New Ideas Concerning Science and Technology Vol. 1
Issues in the Conceptualization and Understanding of Intelligent Buildings

of the industrial and scientific revolutions, has come to help [3]. However, practically all technologies
require energy, and fossil fuels are still a major part of the world’s energy mix. In fact, energy, which is
linked with all aspects of development and has a tremendous impact on the well being of urban
citizens health, education, productivity, as well as economic opportunities, is primarily sourced from
coal, oil and gas (fossil) [11]. Review of literature reveals that about 68% of global energy is
generated from the combustion of fossil fuels, with coal accounting for more than 40% of total
production. Assessments of the health and economic costs of the impacts of fossil-fuel combustion
by-products on children have typically been fragmented, published in specialized journals and have
separately considered air pollution and climate change [12]. Although on the one hand, the share of
oil in power production has decreased considerably from 23% to 6% since the first oil crisis in 1973,
on the other hand, the share of natural gas has increased from 12% to 21% [13]. Renewable energy
sources contribute only about 18%, with hydropower accounting for more than 85% of this [13].
Earlier analysis of future energy pathways shows that it is technically possible to achieve improved
energy access, air quality, and energy security simultaneously while avoiding dangerous climate
change. In fact, a number of alternative combinations of resources, technologies, and policies are
found capable of attaining these objectives [14,15]. Also, in recent times, China, the world’s second
biggest economy, has been transformed from an energy exporter (as recently as the early 1990’s) to
the world’s third-largest net importer of oil in 2006. The growth rate of its energy consumption through
2030 is predicted to be the highest in the world. With nearly half of the world’s new building
construction in China, energy demand by buildings is projected to also increase [6].

2. PUSH TOWARDS ENERGY EFFICIENCY

With the development of the world economy, the situation of energy crisis and environmental impact is
serious [16]. The high energy consumption in buildings and climate change due to global warming are
now big challenges to development. According to new research by construction blog Bimhow, the
construction sector contributes up to 23% of air pollution, 50% of the climatic change, 40% of drinking
water pollution, and 50% of landfill wastes. In separate research by the US Green Building Council
(USGBC), the construction industry accounts for 40% of worldwide energy usage, with estimations
that by 2030, emissions from commercial buildings will grow by 1.8% [17]. One reason (for the high
energy consumption by buildings) is that throughout the 20th century, a large percentage of buildings
were constructed (to be) completely dependent on fossil fuels. Advances in mechanical ventilation
took site and climatic context out of the design considerations. Rather than focusing on energy
efficiency, architects and engineers were more concerned with furthering only their aesthetic ideals
[18], creating what may be perceived as hollowed-out sculptural works of art. Indeed, the way
buildings are designed, constructed, serviced and how they are adapted over time, all directly
influence the volume of fossil fuels consumed and lead directly to the tonnes of carbon dioxide
released into the atmosphere, raising planetary temperatures [19]. Consequently, if buildings are
responsible for almost half of total energy use globally, then, the urban built environment with its
complex matrix of buildings, activities, services and transportation consumes 75% of the world’s
energy resources and produces the vast bulk of its pollution and climate change gases [19]. This
indicates therefore that action to develop buildings that are energy efficient will go a long way in
reducing the volume of fossil fuel demanded and consumed by buildings, from construction to
occupancy. In line with this, energy efficiency and conservation have now taken on a new importance.
As the global community struggles with satisfying new energy demand with less-carbon intensive
approaches, it is agreed that efficiency provides the fastest and least expensive way to meet energy
needs [20]. Indeed, consumption of fossil fuels can be reduced through efficiency [21]; it is the
easiest, quickest, and least expensive way to fight global warming. In China, the national energy
policy is now gradually shifting from a previous focus solely on energy development to emphasis on
both development and efficiency; building and transport sectors are now being accorded the same
importance in the energy conservation policy as the industrial sector [6].

3. SOME APPROACHES TOWARDS ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN BUILDINGS

Although there are many approaches towards achieving energy efficiency in buildings, only a few are
discussed in an attempt towards establishing their advantages in reducing or possibly eliminating the
excess energy demands of buildings, and without the computer information technology control and
monitoring systems upon which IBs (as discussed later) are based.

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3.1 Building Environmental Assessment (BEA) Methods

Numerous attempts have been made to reduce the environmental impact of construction. Many cases
for energy efficient buildings have been developed across the world and new strict codes issued for
enforcement [8]. Review of literature reveals that building energy codes and standards (will) provide
the basic requirements for energy-efficient design and construction for new and renovated buildings,
ensuring reductions in energy use and greenhouse gas emissions over the life of buildings [22]. It is
argued that the adoption of model codes will present a significant opportunity to save energy in
residential and commercial buildings. The ISO focus also reports that standards can help improve
energy efficiency and enhance energy management, asserting that their ISO 50001 standard is one of
many that can help ensure access to affordable, reliable and modern energy for all by 2030 and
reduce carbon emissions, limiting the rise in earth’s temperature to below 2°C [23].

At the same time, many research institutes have also developed Building Environmental Assessment
(BEA) methods, where energy efficiency is an important factor. Further research reveals that the
development of BEA tools is motivated by increased public awareness of environmental issues,
highlighting the need for both building constructors and owners to estimate environmental impacts;
the aim being to improve the environmental performance of buildings by focusing on energy
consumption, heat insulation, air quality, light, noise, land use, material consumption, water efficiency,
etc. [24]. They also reveal that beyond these range of factors (from energy, water and land use, to
safety and design), BEA also summarizes their impact as an aggregate indicator by weighting each
factor. BEA aims to comprehend these wide coverage for better design and action that is
environmentally friendly. BEA offers guidelines to secure sustainability not only for inhabitants but also
for future generations. Indeed BEA has been instituted to combine all the different complicated issues
into a single principle with simple but diverse grading structure to assess environmental impact.

3.2 Indoor Environment Control and Passive Design Heating, Ventilation and Air-
Conditioning (HVAC) Control, and Passive Design

It is commonly believed that maintaining constant or fixed indoor environmental conditions ensures
comfort and satisfaction. Consequently, in order to ensure productivity of occupants, indoor
temperature is usually maintained at a fixed value that will dissatisfy the least number of people.
However, keeping the indoor temperature at a constant or fixed value is energy intensive, with huge
implications both for resource consumption and environmental impact. The HVAC (heating, ventilation
and air-conditioning) systems, (especially in tall office buildings), account for 33% or more of overall
building energy consumption. Therefore, the increased efficiency, or possibly elimination—of these
systems could be the most important single step in making (tall) buildings more sustainable, reducing
their energy demand [25]. Also, studies now reveal that as many as 43% of occupants are actually
dissatisfied with HVAC, and 56% to 89% of government workers regard HVAC as a problem in
Europe and the US [26]. Field studies actually reveal that people accept a larger range of temperature
variation in naturally ventilated buildings than in air-conditioned ones. In China, a study was
conducted to rate user satisfaction with household air conditioning; it revealed that over 50% of
surveyed families were currently dissatisfied [27].

In addition, since heating, cooling, and lighting are accomplished by adding energy to or removing it
from a building, and since the consumption of energy is causing global warming, some argue that
architects can produce low energy demanding sustainable buildings especially from the decision
making design stage so that important options are considered at the appropriate time. The cost of a
building and its impact on the environment can be ascertained at the preliminary design/sketch stage
by decisions on form, orientation and size; these three factors ultimately determine how much energy
and resources will be needed or consumed during construction and occupancy. Thus, sustainability in
buildings can be achieved by decisions made early in the design process as against supplementary
engineering actions made post design or during construction [21]. Others believe that buildings with
properly designed spaces can breathe naturally without the use of mechanical systems; they suggest
that true natural ventilation can be achieved by considering the building’s structure, envelope, energy
use, and form, thereby giving the occupants thermal comfort and healthy indoor air [28].

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3.3 Façade Systems

Alternative façade systems—the double skin façade system generally addresses the practical need
for improved indoor environment and ensures the reduction of energy use during the occupation stage
of a building providing both improved indoor conditions and reduced use of energy at the same time
[29]. Double façades provide an effective means of buffering and controlling heat, light, air and noise
through a building. The principle involves an additional layer of wall offset from the conventional one
forming an interstitial space that acts as a thermal buffer. In some instances, blinds could be
incorporated into the space to prevent solar heat gains. These blinds could be manually operated,
further reducing energy requirements [30]. Some researchers [31] explain the Double Skin Façade
system as essentially a pair of glass “skins” separated by an air corridor. The primary surface usually
glass, is protected, and the air space acts as a safe-guard against extreme temperatures, wind as well
as sound. Sun-shading devices are often located between the two skins. A double skin façade is
much like a second cover wall fixed right over the original perimeter wall. This additional façade is
mainly transparent. The resulting area between the two skins is a space that helps to minimize heat
gains in the building. This space could also be oriented to receive solar radiation during cold seasons
[32]. It has also been described as an active façade covering one or several storey’s constructed with
multiple glazed skins which can be air tight or not, the air cavity between the skins naturally or
mechanically ventilated [33]. One of the main advantages of the Double Skin Façade systems is that
they can allow natural (or fan supported) ventilation when possible [29]. Indeed, they can have major
benefits for temperature, air flow, as well as on the air quality which gets inside the building; and if
properly designed, this natural ventilation can result in a significant drop in energy use during
occupancy as well as improve occupant comfort.

3.4 Smart Materials

Described as exceptionally structured substances which manifest quick responses to their
surroundings, smart materials have intrinsic or implanted intelligence abilities. Smart refers to notions
of alertness and well informed responses as well as attributes of vigilance and swiftness. According to
NASA these smart materials can recall the arrangement of elements in a particular form and then
(re)adjust to them under specific conditions. The Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology describes
them as items or objects that perceive surrounding events, analyze them and then deploy suitable
responses [34]. Smart materials have been shown to be responsive to external stimulus in order to
control temperature changes or solar radiation as can be seen in thermo- and electro- chromic glass
with glazing material in curtain walls, windows, shading devices and other applications [35]; they have
also been applied in smart solar skins, building facades and shape morphing solar shadings, all
saving energy costs in the short and long terms [36].

4. QUALIFICATIONS OF INTELLIGENT BUILDINGS

The concept of Intelligent Buildings is not new. The term has been in use since the early 1980s, with
the first definition given by the Intelligent Buildings Institute as “one which provides a productive and
cost-effective environment through optimization of four basic elements: structure, systems, services
and management, and the interrelationship between them” [37]. Intelligent buildings use technology to
provide a more efficient environment by enhancing the connection between a buildings form, flow,
mechanical and electrical services as well as its operation [38]. These definitions present intelligent
buildings as one which adjusts its basic elements to meet user requirements using technology to
make the communication between the elements possible. Indeed, intelligent buildings feature the
surveillance of all service and communications functions, as well as safety/security, environmental
control and electricity management as an integrated system, and provides responsive measures in an
attempt to mitigate losses, optimize energy use and guarantee occupant comfort (see Fig. 1).

These feature of intelligent buildings are computer based involving sensors that can detect changes in
the environment, relay mechanisms that communicate the changes detected to a central system
which then deploys counter mechanisms. They can come as add-ons to an existing building or can be
considered from the design stage. Intelligent buildings have also been described as one in which the
building fabric, space, services and information systems can respond in an efficient manner to the
initial and changing demands of the owner, the occupier and the environment [39].

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Fig. 1. Basic concept of Intelligent Buildings (IBs)

Historically, one of the first uses of the term “smart” (in association with intelligent buildings) was in
connection with improved sensor-based monitoring and control systems for regulating the thermal
environment in a building (the “Smart House” of the 1990s) in a Washington Post article [34]. The
article describes this “smart house” as being “imbued with computer intelligence…needing an extra
six miles of wiring…and walls that conceal a household-wide skeleton of pipes to facilitate the
distribution of data throughout the house” [40]. Indeed, this make it clear that in order to fully optimize
the performance of intelligent buildings, smart materials are fully connected to computer control
systems.

Post the energy crisis of the 1970s, the US state of California began implementing strict energy
efficiency standards for buildings and home appliances, also as part of its solution to air pollution. By
1984, when the City Place Building in Hartford, Connecticut was completed, the 38-story office
building, was hailed as the world’s first intelligent building. However, it was equipped with advanced
telecommunications, office automation, automatic monitoring, and architecture equipment
management systems, with a thinking “brain” of sorts, implanted in the building; this marked the
advent of the intelligent building sector [41].

Now given that the world’s electricity production is still mostly coal-fired, any increase in energy
consumption in buildings will turn out to be a source of air pollution as well. In a push to create more
intelligent buildings, well-functioning intelligent advanced equipment and data management support
and expert capacity are needed, which ultimately lead to increased costs and increased electricity
demand (see Fig. 2).

Various sensors are needed on the surface of, and inside an intelligent building to transmit real-time
data including temperature, sunlight intensity and levels of air pollution, as well as the energy
consumption so that they can be re-aligned with more favorable conditions. Also, there must be an
expert team to research and compare operation data, in order to create an optimal solution to balance
energy consumption and comfort. In terms of operating costs, a balance must be struck between the
focus on a particular function and the emphasis on overall energy efficiency. For example further
review of existing literature revealed that the pure pursuit of high indoor air-purification capacity will
consume more energy and cause higher pollution at large [41]. With the afore mentioned why does
the notion of intelligent buildings still remain attractive today? Some argue it is because intelligent
buildings feature an Intelligent Building Management System (IBMS) which provide integrated
management features similar to a buildings brain—monitoring, interacting and management for all the
buildings other automation systems at real time, including access control, audio/video intercom,
wireless networking infrastructure, structure cabling system, CCTV/DVR surveillance system,
computer room facilities, electrical distribution, lighting control and information display system, etc,
making overall management of the building easier [42]. Also, there are studies which reveal that
installing technology to meter and monitor energy consumption has an average payback period of
less than 6 months; thus, a small increase in capital expenditure, they believe, can reduce operational
expenditure significantly. Indeed empirical studies of metering solutions show an average of 5%

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reduction in utility bills in different buildings [43]. A state of the art Intelligent Building employs many
integrated mechanical and electrical systems that control the buildings environment, lighting and
security to maintain high-speed data networks and emergency backup power generators.
Incorporating these systems into the building, saves energy while increasing reliability, security and
efficiency, making the building more desirable for prospective occupants. However, it is all so critical
that these systems function continually and reliably. If faults develop and they are not detected and
repaired quickly, malfunctioning mechanical and electrical systems in an Intelligent Building can pose
serious consequences putting the lives of occupants at risk; unreliable network connections can also
impair the proper functioning of the building hampering workers productivity. Indeed there has to be a
serious commitment to maintaining an Intelligent Building which can only be ensured by constant
power.

Fig. 2. Features of Intelligent Buildings powered by energy primarily from the combustion of
fossil fuels

It has also been posited that the Intelligent Building concept is becoming mainstream because of its
capacity for utilizing creative initiatives and modern information technology with sustainable design as
an approach to ensure the comfort of building occupants. These days, Intelligent Buildings have a
certain appeal because they are enabling the connectivity between people and their environment,
allowing the building to become much more real and effective. From the economic point of view
however, it is also essential to debate the initial high costs and reliability of the implementation of
these intelligent technologies, such as sensors and actuators that are still new and have not gained
wide spread acceptance. There are also the related issues of running, maintenance and energy costs,
the innovation for even newer products to aid real time feedback, self-healing and low embodied
materials (for energy efficiency), biomimetics (for economical use of materials and energy), robotics
(for maintenance and internal surveys), using chaos, and complex theory and network science, all of
which makes them (Intelligent Buildings) highly unaffordable [44]. Additionally, there is also the
general shortage of expertise for monitoring their operations especially for residential buildings, not to
mention the possibility of hacking them. It is suggested therefore that IBs should rather respond to
smartness and technology awareness, economic and cost efficiency, personal and social sensitivity,
as well as environmental responsiveness [ibid].

5. CONCLUSIONS
Although intelligent buildings present an attempt to save energy and optimize building performance, in
the long run, the systems upon which they operate make the concept nugatory. Sensors, receptors,
computer based monitoring and control systems are the core of intelligent buildings and these
installed systems have to be maintained and kept running with energy which is currently mainly
sourced from the consumption of fossil fuels—coal or oil and gas. Buildings are already the largest
consumers of the existing supply of the world’s energy; focus should be on how to reduce this through
best practices, and not to increase its demand. An approach would be to consider total energy
independence from the existing major source (fossil fuels) in the form of renewables. However,
renewable energy systems still fall short because of their high upfront cost, intermittency, and general
low capacity. There are also the associated environmental impacts such as resulting water shortages
in surrounding areas where a river would have flown to in the case of dams built to harness
hydropower, the nitrogen trifluoride greenhouse gas attributed to be over 17,000 times more harmful
than carbon dioxide used in the manufacture of certain types of photovoltaic cells for solar panels, and

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so on. Consequently, until the global community finds more considerable alternatives, focus and
attention should indeed be on energy efficiency and zero energy demand technologies for buildings:
smart materials as sensors could be made to respond naturally to environmental stimuli without
controlled computer intelligence such as by changing color in response to light intensity or heat
(photo-chromic or thermo-chromic) which can be used in glass windows; sustainable architecture
achieved by combining the best of the old and the new, resulting in an architecture that passively
responds to human needs, regionalism, and local climate.

Indeed, opportunities abound for energy efficiency in buildings but focus should be on approaches
that reduce or manage the existing supply of energy in the short and long terms, by both design
practices and choice of materials that have intrinsic properties which can be exploited to minimize
energy used in any space. Clear distinctions must also be made in the understanding of 'smart' and
'intelligent' as they relate to buildings. Both words have been used interchangeably to mean the same
thing - responsive buildings. However, smartness relates more to innate responsiveness, usually of
materials, while intelligence involves deployment of best response from a list of controlled options,
usually incorporating complex IT systems (which need energy). The debate on the responsiveness of
intelligent buildings must be expanded beyond their interconnected technological appeal, to include
concerns about their energy requirements and their environmental impact.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Ogwu Ikechukwu thanks Prof. Rongguo Zhao of the College of Civil Engineering and Mechanics,
Xiangtan University, Hunan, China, for his review of the first manuscript.

CONFLICTS OF INTEREST

The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

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Biography of author(s)

Ogwu Ikechukwu
College of Civil Engineering and Mechanics, Xiangtan University, Xiangtan, China.

He is a Doctoral research student in the College of Civil Engineering and Mechanics, Xiangtan University, Hunan, China, under
the supervision of Prof. Long Zhilin. He received both his Bachelors and Masters Degrees in Architecture from Nnamdi Azikiwe
University, Awka, Nigeria, and is also a lecturer at the Enugu State Polytechnic, Iwollo, Nigeria. His research interests include
architectural design strategies for energy efficiency, building physics, smart building materials and intelligent buildings.

Prof. Long Zhilin

College of Civil Engineering and Mechanics, Xiangtan University, Xiangtan, China.

He is a Doctoral tutor, Dean, Executive Director of the Engineering Safety and Protection branch - Chinese Society of Rock
Mechanics and Engineering, a member of the Academic Committee of Xiangtan University, Head of the Postdoctoral research

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 New Ideas Concerning Science and Technology Vol. 1
Issues in the Conceptualization and Understanding of Intelligent Buildings

mobile station, Vice President of the Hunan Province Applied Mechanics Society, special agent of Science and Technology of
Xiangtan High-tech District, Yangtze River Scholars Award Program, National Natural Science Foundation, National Science
and Technology Award, Multi-Provincial (City) Natural Science Foundation, Multi-Province (City) Science and Technology
Award and China Postdoctoral Science Fund Communication Review Expert, Hunan Province Science and Technology Award
evaluation expert, member of the Japan Metal Society, Hunan Province, the new century 121 talents, a variety of international
and domestic academic journals reviewer. He has been engaged in new material mechanics behavior and geotechnical and
engineering research work. In the past 5 years, he has presided over 9 research projects with strong application background.

Okonkwo Moses
Faculty of Environmental Science, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Nigeria.

He holds a Diploma in Building Technology from the Institute of Management Technology, Nigeria, a Master of Science Degree
in Architecture and Urban Design from Universidad de Navarra, Spain, and a Doctor of Technical Sciences Degree in
Architecture and Urban Development from Warsaw University of Technology, Poland. He has been Rector, Head of
Departments, and taught many courses at undergraduate and postgraduate levels. Currently, he coordinates and supervises
Doctoral Programmes in three Departments of Architecture in Nigeria.
_________________________________________________________________________________
© Copyright (2020): Author(s). The licensee is the publisher (Book Publisher International).

DISCLAIMER
This chapter is an extended version of the article published by the same author(s) in the following journal.
Open Journal of Energy Efficiency, 8: 52-63, 2019.

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