JNTUA B.Tech.

R20 Regulations

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY ANANTAPUR

B.Tech (ECE)– IV-I Sem L T P C
3 0 0 3
(20A04703c) CELLUAR & MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS
(Professional Elective Course –V)
Course Objectives:
x To explain cell coverage for signal and traffic, diversity techniques and mobile antennas by
the use of Engineering Mathematics.
x To present impairments due to multipath fading channel, fundamental techniques to
overcome different fading effects, frequency management, Channel assignment and types of
handoffs.
x To teach concepts and solve problems on mobile antennas and cellular systems.
Course Outcomes:
x Know about cell coverage for signal and traffic, diversity techniques and mobile antennas by
the use of Engineering Mathematics
x Explain impairments due to multipath fading channel, fundamental techniques to overcome
different fading effects, frequency management, Channel assignment and types of handoff
x Apply concepts to solve problems on mobile antennas and cellular systems
x Analyze Co-channel and Non Co-channel interferences, different Hand-offs and dropped call
rates
x Evaluate performance of dropped call rate and false alarm rate
x Compare different handoffs

UNIT I
Introduction to Cellular Mobile Radio Systems: Limitations of Conventional Mobile Telephone
Systems, Basic Cellular Mobile System, Uniqueness of Mobile Radio Environment, Mobile Fading
Characteristics, Operations of Cellular Systems, Evolution of Cellular Systems.
Fundamentals of Cellular Radio System Design: Concept of Frequency Reuse, Co-Channel
Interference, Co-Channel Interference Reduction Factor, Desired C/I from a Normal Case in an Omni
Directional Antenna System, System Capacity, Trunking and Grade of Service, Improving Coverage
and Capacity in Cellular Systems- CellSplitting, Sectoring, Microcell Zone Concept.
UNIT II
Cell Coverage for Signal and Traffic: Signal Reflections in Flat and Hilly Terrain, Effect of Human
Made Structures, Phase Difference between Direct and Reflected Paths, Constant Standard Deviation,
Straight Line Path Loss Slope, General Formula for Mobile Propagation Over Water and Flat Open
Area, Near and Long Distance Propagation, Path Loss from a Point to Point Prediction Model in
Different Conditions, Merits of Lee Model.
Cell Site and Mobile Antennas: Space Diversity Antennas, Umbrella Pattern Antennas, Minimum
Separation of Cell Site Antennas, Mobile Antennas.
UNIT III
Co-Channel Interference Reduction: Measurement of Real Time Co-Channel Interference, Design
of Omnidirectional and directional Antenna System, Antenna Parameters and Their Effects, Diversity
Techniques-Space Diversity, Polarization Diversity, Frequency Diversity, Time Diversity.
Non-Co-Channel Interference: Adjacent Channel Interference, Near End Far End Interference,
Cross Talk, Effects on Coverage and Interference by Power Decrease, Antenna Height Decrease,
Effects of Cell Site Components.
UNIT IV
Frequency Management and Channel Assignment: Numbering and Grouping, Setup Access and
Paging Channels, Channel Assignments to Cell Site and Mobile Units, Channel Sharing and
Borrowing, Sectorization, Overlaid Cells, Non Fixed Channel Assignment.
UNIT V
Handoffs and Dropped Calls: Handoff Initiation, Types of Handoff, Delaying Handoff, Advantages
of Handoff, Power difference Handoff, Forced Handoff, Mobile Assisted and Soft Handoffs,
Intersystem Handoff, Introduction to Dropped Call Rates and their Evaluation.
 JNTUA B.Tech. R20 Regulations

System Evaluation: Performance Evaluation, Blockage, Dropped-call rate, Signaling Evaluation-

False Alarm Rate, Word error rate consideration and calculations, Measurement of averaged received
signal level and level crossings.

Textbooks:
1. W.C.Y. Lee, Mobile Cellular Telecommunications, McGraw Hill, 2nd Edn., 1989.
2. Theodore. S. Rapport, Wireless Communications, Pearson Education, 2nd Edn., 2002.

References:
1. W.C.Y Lee, Mobile Communications Engineering-Theory and Applications, McGraw Hill,
Second Edition, ,2014.
2. Gordon L. Stuber, Principles of Mobile Communications, Springer International, 2nd Edn.,
2001.
3. Simon Haykin, Michael Moher, Modern Wireless Communications, Pearson Education,
2005.
 VIDYASAGAR
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY HYDERABAD
IV Year B.Tech. E.C.E. I-Sem L T /P/D C
4 -/-/- 4
(A70434) CELLULAR AND MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS
UNIT – I
INTRODUCTION TO CELLULAR MOBILE RADIO SYSTEMS:
Limitations of conventional mobile telephone systems, Basic Cellular Mobile System, First, second, third, and
fourth generation cellular wireless systems, Uniqueness of mobile radio environment. Fading-Time dispersion
parameters, Coherence bandwidth, Doppler spread and coherence time.
FUNDAMENTALS OF CELLULAR RADIO SYSTEM DESIGN
Concept of frequency reuse, Co-channel interference, co-channel interference reduction factor, Desired C/I from
a normal case in a omnidirectional antenna system, system capacity, trunking and grade of service, Improving
coverage and capacity in cellular systems- Cell splitting, Sectoring, Microcell zone concept.
UNIT – II
CO-CHANNEL INTERFERENCE
Measurement of real time Co-channel interference, Design of antenna system, Antenna parameters and their
effects, Diversity technique- Space diversity, Polarization diversity, Frequency diversity, Time diversity.
NON CO-CHANNEL INTERFERENCE
Adjacent channel interference, Near end far end interference, cross talk, Effects on coverage and interference by
power decrease, Antenna height decrease, Effects of cell site components.
UNIT – III
CELL COVERAGE FOR SIGNAL AND TRAFFIC
Signal reflections in flat and hilly terrain, Effect of human made structures, Phase difference between direct and
reflected path, constant standard deviation, Straight line path loss slope, General formula for mobile propagation
over water and flat open area, near and long distance propagation, Path loss from a point to point prediction
model in different conditions, merits of Lee model.
CELL SITE AND MOBILE ANTENNAS
Space diversity antennas, Umbrella pattern antennas, and minimum separation of cell site antennas, mobile
antennas.
UNIT – IV
FREQUENCY MANAGEMENT AND CHANNEL ASSIGNMENT
Numbering and grouping, Setup access and paging channels, Channel assignments to cell sites and mobile units,
Channel sharing and barrowing, sectorization, Overlaid cells, Non fixed channel assignment.
UNIT – V
HANDOFFS AND DROPPED CALLS
Handoffs initiation, Types of handoff, Delaying handoff, Advantages of handoff, Power difference handoff,
Forced handoff, Mobile assisted and soft handoff. Intersystem handoff, Introduction to dropped call rates and
their evaluation.
TEXTBOOKS:
1. Mobile Cellular Telecommunciations-W.C.Y.Lee,Mc Graw Hill,2nd Edn.,1989.
2. Wireless Communications-Theodre.S.Rapport, Pearson education,2nd Edn.,2002.
3. Mobile Cellular Communications-Gottapu sashibushan rao,pearson,2012.
REFERENCES:
1. Principles of mobile communications-Gordon L.Stuber,Speinger international,2nd Edn.,2001.
2. Modern Wireless Communications-Simon Haykin,Michael moher,Pearson Education,2005.
3 Wireless Communications theory and techniques,Asrar U.H.Sheikh,Springer,2004.
4. Wireless Communications and networking,Vijay Garg,Elsevier Publications,2007.
5. Wireless Communications-Andrea Goldsmith,Cambridge University Press,2005.
 UNIT-I
INTRODUCTION
Wireless Communications: Modern telecommunications are one of the main
application of electromagnetic theory (along with remote sensing and radars). The wireless
telecommunications industry has seen incredible advances in recent years, some based on
well-known principles, others on new inventions or on new practical implementations. This
chapter introduces some aspects of wireless communications, including its spectrum
landscape.
Past:Early smoke signals and carrier pigeons may of course be considered as a form of
wireless communications, but offer little modern interest. Instead, it may be telling to look
at the first appearance of several important techniques. Early coding schemes can be
attributed to the British scientist Robert Hooke for inventing large mobile panels coding the
letters of the alphabet (1684). More elaborate schemes appear in the late 18th century,
including the noteworthy optical telegraph invented by the French physicist Claude Chappe
(1791); these large signaling towers transmitted coded words (rather than letters) over long
distances, and were developed in the following years into a large network over major cities
in France and surrounding countries. These precursors to radio communications already
emphasize some valuable points:
1) Coding information is used for efficiency,
2) Transmission works only in line of sight, and may suffer from outages due to fog or rain.
In a sense these systems are rather reminiscent of current fixed wireless systems such as
microwave, millimeter-wave, or infrared radio links.

Figure 1.1: Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894) and James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879), physicists
who laid the foundation of electromagnetic theory and its wireless applications.

True radio communications were of course based on the work of Maxwell and the
experiments of Hertz. The first use of radio to transmit coded information was proposed by
Tesla in the 1880’s, and the first radio communication systems were described in his
papers around 1891. Nearly simultaneously, Marconi patented the telegraph and
demonstrated to the world the usefulness of mobile communications with ships crossing
the English Channel. Interestingly the infancy of radio communications already emphasizes
the importance of some important points:
1) certain radio frequencies overcome line-of-sight obstructions and weather impediments,
2) mobility is the main application,
3) patent protection is paramount.
 Figure 1.2: Nicola Tesla (1856-1943) and Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1937), wireless
visionaries, pioneers, inventors.
The next major advances in radio systems were developed during and after world war two,
and benefitted from significant research around radar and remote sensing. Subsequently,
different applications flourished: TV broadcasting in the 1940’s probably has the merit of
introducing the first standardization of communications technology, leading to major
television standards, (NTSC Color Standard in 1953, and recently ATSC Digital Standard in
2009). Standards have become very important in all aspects of wireless communications,
and will be analyzed in more details further.
Cellular systems were devised by AT&T Bell Labs in the seventies. Continued improvements
in standards and products provide increasing spectral efficiencies, lower prices, and wider
consumer acceptance. Amazing growth occurred in the wireless industry during the 1980’s
and 1990’s, which led to almost ubiquitous service availability and cheap service plans;
some irrational exuberance in the industry also caused failures and bankruptcies around
2000 (such as excessive spectrum bidding, expensive satellite services, or some early
broadband wireless initiatives).

Spectrum:
Spectrum is a very important notion for any wireless system: it refers to the range of
frequencies used by the system’s electromagnetic waves; when several services use the
same spectrum in the same location interferences occur that may be harmful to these
services. Governments therefore step in and set rules and regulations for spectrum
coordination.
Spectrum Allocation:
VLF = Very Low Frequency UHF = Ultra High Frequency
LF = Low Frequency SHF = Super High Frequency
MF = Medium Frequency EHF = Extra High Frequency
HF = High Frequency UV = Ultraviolet Light
VHF = Very High Frequency
Relationship between frequency ‘f’ and wave length ‘’ :  = c/f
Where c is the speed of light  3x108m/s.
Licensed Spectrum
Different spectrum bands are made available for commercial use at different times. The
spectrum bands listed in this section are interesting for US activities, they have a very
different history and different rules. Many of the detailed band plans are available at
www.fcc.gov under auctions.
Cellular and PCS spectrum:
The first US cellular spectrum, at 800 MHz, was given to interested operators in 1982 and
1986 to encourage rolling out mobile wireless systems. With the booming success of these
cellular systems, the FCC decided to auction more spectrum, at 1900 MHz, referred to as
PCS spectrum (for Personal Communication Services).

Figure : Cellular band plan at 800 MHz: two 20-MHz blocks (A and B) allocated by the FCC
in 1982, augmented in 1986 (A* and B*).

Figure : PCS band plan: the PCS band was auctioned by the FCC in 1994-1996, different
block sizes combined with spectrum caps encouraged newcomers in the industry.
1.1 Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications :
The first wire line telephone system was introduced in the year 1877. Mobile com-
munication systems as early as 1934 were based on Amplitude Modulation (AM) schemes
and only certain public organizations maintained such systems. With the demand for newer
and better mobile radio communication systems during the World War II and the
development of Frequency Modulation (FM) technique by Edwin Armstrong, the mobile
radio communication systems began to witness many new changes. Mobile telephone was
introduced in the year 1946. However, during its initial three and a half decades it found
very less market penetration owing to high costs and numerous technological drawbacks.
But with the development of the cellular concept in the 1960s at the Bell Laboratories,
mobile communications began to be a promising field of expanse which could serve wider
populations. Initially, mobile communication was restricted to certain official users and the
cellular concept was never even dreamt of being made commercially available. Moreover,
even the growth in the cellular networks was very slow. However, with the development of
newer and better technologies starting from the 1970s and with the mobile users now
connected to the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), there has been an
astronomical growth in the cellular radio and the personal communication systems.
Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) was the first U.S. cellular telephone system and it
was deployed in 1983. Wireless services have since then been experiencing a 50% per year
growth rate. The number of cellular telephone users grew from 25000 in 1984 to around 3
billion in the year 2007 and the demand rate is increasing day by day. A schematic of the
subscribers is shown in Fig. 1.3.
 Figure 1.3: The worldwide mobile subscriber chart.
Limitations of conventional mobile telephone systems
One of many reasons for developing a cellular mobile telephone system and deploying it in
many cities is the operational limitations of conventional mobile telephone systems: limited
service capability, poor service performance, and inefficient frequency spectrum utilization.
1. Limited service capability: A conventional mobile telephone system is usually designed
by selecting one or more channels from a specific frequency allocation for use in
autonomous geographic zones, as shown in Fig.1.4.The communications coverage area of
each zone is normally planned to be as large as possible, which means that the transmitted
power should be as high as the federal specification allows.
The user who starts a call in one zone has to reinitiate the call when moving into a new
zone because the call will be dropped. This is an undesirable radio telephone system since
there is no guarantee that a call can be completed without a handoff capability. The
handoff is a process of automatically changing frequencies as the mobile unit moves into a
different frequency zone so that the conversation can be continued in a new frequency zone
without redialing. Another disadvantage of the conventional system is that the number of
active users is limited to the number of channels assigned to a particular frequency zone.
2. Poor Service Performance: In the past, a total of 33 channels were all allocated to three
mobile telephone systems: Mobile Telephone Service (MTS), Improved Mobile Telephone
Service (IMTS) MJ systems, and Improved Mobile Telephone Service (IMTS) MK systems.
MTS operates around 40 MHz and MJ operates at 150 MHs; both provide 11 channels;
IMTS MK operates at 450 MHz and provides 12 channels.
These 33 channels must cover an area 50 mi in diameter. In 1976, New York City had 6
channels of( MJ serving 320 customers, with another 2400 customers on a waiting list.
New York City also had 6 channels of MK serving 225 customers, with another 1300
customers on a waiting list. The large number of subscribers created a high blocking
probability during busy hours. Although service performance was undesirable, the demand
was still great. A high-capacity system for mobile telephones was needed.
 Fig.1.4 Conventional Mobile System
3. Inefficient Frequency Spectrum Utilization: In a conventional mobile telephone
system, the frequency utilization measurement Mo, is defined as the maximum number of
customers that could be served by one channel at the busy hour.
Mo = Number of customers/channel: Mo = 53 for MJ, 37 for MK
The offered load can then be obtained by
A = Average calling time (minutes) x total customers / 60 min (Erlangs)
Assume average calling time = 1.76 min.
A1 = 1.76 * 53 * 6 / 60 = 9.33 Erlangs (MJ system)
A2 = 1.76 * 37 * 6 / 60 = 6.51 Erlangs (MK system)
If the number of channels is 6 and the offered loads are A1 = 9.33 and A2 = 6.51, then from
the Erlang B model the blocking probabilities, B1 = 50 percent (MJ system) and B2 =30
percent (MK system), respectively. It is likely that half the initiating calls will be blocked in
the MJ system, a very high blocking probability. As far as frequency spectrum utilization is
concerned, the conventional system does not utilize the spectrum efficiently.Since each
channel can only serve one customer at a time in a whole area. This is overcome by the new
cellular system.
BASIC CELLULAR SYSTEMS:
A basic analog cellular system consists of three subsystems: a mobile unit, a cell site, and a
mobile telephone switching office (MTSO), as Fig. 1.5 shows, with connections to link the
three subsystems.
1. Mobile units. A mobile telephone unit contains a control unit, a transceiver, and an
antenna system.
2. Cell site. The cell site provides interface between the MTSO and the mobile units. It has a
control unit, radio cabinets, antennas, a power plant, and data terminals.
3. MTSO. The switching office, the central coordinating element for all cell sites, con-tains
the cellular processor and cellular switch. It interfaces with telephone company zone
offices, controls call processing, provides operation and maintenance, and handles billing
activities.
4. Connections. The radio and high-speed data links connect the three subsystems. Each
mobile unit can only use one channel at a time for its communication link. But the channel
is not fixed; it can be any one in the entire band assigned by the serving area, with each
site having multichannel capabilities that can connect simultaneously to many mobile
units.
The MTSO is the heart of the analog cellular mobile system. Its processor provides
central coordination and cellular administration. The cellular switch, which can be either
analog or digital, switches calls to connect mobile subscribers to other mobile subscribers
and to the nationwide telephone network. It uses voice trunks similar to telephone
company interoffice voice trunks. It also contains data links providing supervision links
between the processor and the switch and between the cell sites and the processor. The
radio link carries the voice and signaling between the mobile unit and the cell site. The
high-speed data links cannot be transmitted over the standard telephone trunks
and therefore must use either microwave links or T-carriers (wire lines). Microwave
radio links or T-carriers carry both voice and data between cell site and the MTSO.

Figure 1.5 Cellular systems

First, second, third, and fourth generation cellular wireless systems (1G, 2G, 3G and
4G networks):
The "G" in wireless networks refers to the "generation" of the wireless network technology.
Technically generations are defined as follows:
1G networks :( NMT, C-Nets, AMPS, and TACS) are considered to be the first analog
cellular systems, which started early 1980s completed in early 1990s. There were radio
telephone systems even before that. 1G networks were conceived and designed purely for
voice calls with almost no consideration of data services. It provides a speed up to 2.4kbps
and is based on analog system. It allows user to make call in one country, it has low
capacity, unreliable handoff, poor voice links , and no security at all since voice calls were
played back in radio towers, making these calls susceptible to unwanted eavesdropping by
third parties. Low capacity, unreliable handoff, poor voice links, and no security at all since
voice calls were played back in radio towers, making these calls susceptible to unwanted
eavesdropping by third parties. Ex: GSM Global System for Mobile Telecommunication.
2G networks : (GSM, CDMAOne, D-AMPS) are the first digital cellular systems launched
early 1990s and completed in late 1990s, offering improved sound quality, better security
and higher total capacity. GSM supports circuit-switched data (CSD), allowing users to
place dial-up data calls digitally, so that the network's switching station receives actual
ones and zeroes rather than the screech of an analog modem. 2G networks with theoretical
data rates up to about 144kbps and provides a speed of up to 64 kbps.It provides services
like voice and sms with more clarity.Major prominent technologies were GSM, CDMA, and
IS95. Ex: GPRS Generalized Packet Radio Service, packet service for GSM (2G) networks.
2.5G technology: addition to GSM service.
EDGE Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution; enhancement (data rates) of GPRS service
(mainly software based, can be deployed in existing GPRS networks with software
upgrades).
2.75G technology: Sometimes also seen as a 3G technology. EDGE is actually a step
between GPRS and UMTS.UMTS Universal Mobile Telecommunication System.
3G networks: NTT DoCoMo launched the first commercial 3G network on 1 October 2001,
using the WCDMA technology (UMTS FDD and TDD, CDMA2000 1x EVDO, CDMA2000 3x,
TDSCDMA, Arib WCDMA, EDGE, IMT-2000 DECT) are newer cellular networks that have
data rates of 384kbit/s and more. Bandwidth of 3G network is 128 Kbps for mobile
stations, and 2 Mbps for fixed applications. The current trend in mobile systems is to
support the high bit rate data services at the downlink via High Speed Downlink Packet
Access (HSDPA).
3.5G technology: Enhancement of UMTS for higher speeds in Network-to-mobile direction.
Mainly a software based improvement over plain UMTS. HSUPA High Speed Uplink Packet
Access.
3.75G technology: Further enhancement (higher speeds in mobile-to-network direction) of
UMTS and HSDPA service. LTE Long Term Evolution.
4G networks: 4G was developed in the year 2010 refers to the fourth generation of mobile
phone communication standards. LTE and WiMAX are marketed as parts of this
generation, even though they fall short of the actual standard. The ITI has taken ownership
of 4G, bundling into a specification known as IMTAdvanced. The document calls for 4G
technologies to deliver downlink speeds of 1Gbps when stationary and 100Mbps when
mobile. It provides high performance like uploading and downloading speed and provides
easy roaming as compared to 3G. Use of a higher Layer Protocol (IP) as transport medium
affords intelligence at every stage within the network relative to a service. UMTS successor,
competitor to WiMAX.
5G networks:
It is the next major phase of mobile telecommunication & wireless system. It is 10 times
faster than 4G.It has an expected speed of 1gbps.Lower cost than the previous version.
 Figure 1.6

UNIQUENESS OF MOBILE RADIO ENVIRONMENT :

Description of Mobile Radio Transmission Medium:
The Propagation Attenuation. In general, the propagation path loss increases not only with
frequency but also with distance. If the antenna height at the cell site is 30 to 100 m and at
the mobile unit about 3 m above the ground, and the distance between the cell site and the
mobile unit is usually 2 km or more, then the incident angles of both the direct wave and
the reflected wave are very small, as Fig. 1.7 shows. The incident angle of the direct wave is
91, and the incident angle of the reflected wave is 02. 01 is also called the elevation angle.
The propagation path loss would be 40 dB/dec, 4 where "dec" is an abbreviation of decade,
i.e., a period of 10. This means that a 40-dB loss at a signal receiver will be observed by the
mobile unit as it moves from 1 to 10 km. Therefore C is inversely proportional to R.

C R—4 = aR—4 (1.3-1)

Where C = received carrier power, a = constant
R = distance measured from the transmitter to the receiver
Model of Transmission Medium:
A mobile radio signal r (t), illustrated in Fig. 1.8, can be artificially characterized5 by two
components m (t) and r0 (t) based on natural physical phenomena.
r (t) = m(t )ro(t)

FIGURE 1.7 Mobile radio transmission model.

The component m(t) is called local mean, long-term fading, or lognormal fading and its
variation is due to the terrain contour between the base station and the mobile unit. The
factor r0 is called multipath fading, short-term fading, or Rayleigh fading and its variation
is due to the waves reflected from the surrounding buildings and other structures.
 FIGURE 1.8 A mobile radio signal fading representation. (a) A mobile signal fading.
(b) A short-term signal fading.

Mobile Fading Characteristics:

Rayleigh fading is also called multipath fading in the mobile radio environment. When these
multipath waves bounce back and forth due to the buildings and houses, they form many
standing-wave pairs in space, as shown in Fig. 1.8. Those standing-wave pairs are summed
together and become an irregular wave-fading structure. When a mobile unit is standing
still, its receiver only receives a signal strength at that spot, so a constant signal is
observed. When the mobile unit is moving, the fading structure of the wave in the space is
received. It is a multipath fading. The recorded fading becomes fast as the vehicle moves
faster.
The Radius of the Active Scattered Region. The mobile radio multipath fading shown in Fig.
1.8 explains the fading mechanism. The radius of the active scattered region at 850 MHz
can be obtained indirectly as shown. The radius is roughly 100 wavelengths. The active
scattered region always moves with the mobile unit as its center. It means that some
houses were inactive scatterers and became active as the mobile unit approached them;
some houses were active scatterers and became inactive as the mobile unit drove away
from them.
Signal path loss basics: The signal path loss is essentially the reduction in power density of
an electromagnetic wave or signal as it propagates through the environment in which it is
travelling.
There are many reasons for the radio path loss that may occur:
• Free space loss: The free space loss occurs as the signal travels through space without
any other effects attenuating the signal it will still diminish as it spreads out. This can be
thought of as the radio communications signal spreading out as an ever increasing sphere.
As the signal has to cover a wider area, conservation of energy tells us that the energy in
any given area will reduce as the area covered becomes larger.
• Absorption losses: Absorption losses occur if the radio signal passes into a medium
which is not totally transparent to radio signals. This can be likened to a light signal
passing through transparent glass.
• Diffraction: Diffraction losses occur when an object appears in the path. The signal
can diffract around the object, but losses occur. The loss is higher the more rounded the
object. Radio signals tend to diffract better around sharp edges.
• Multipath: In a real terrestrial environment, signals will be reflected and they will reach
the receiver via a number of different paths. These signals may add or subtract from each
other depending upon the relative phases of the signals. If the receiver is moved the
scenario will change and the overall received signal will be found vary with position. Mobile
receivers (e.g. cellular telecommunications phones) will be subject to this effect which is
known as Rayleigh fading.
• Terrain: The terrain over which signals travel will have a significant effect on the signal.
Obviously hills which obstruct the path will considerably attenuate the signal, often making
reception impossible. Additionally at low frequencies the composition of the earth will have
a marked effect. For example on the Long Wave band, it is found that signals travel best
over more conductive terrain, e.g. sea paths or over areas that are marshy or damp. Dry
sandy terrain gives higher levels of attenuation.
• Buildings and vegetation: For mobile applications, buildings and other obstructions
including vegetation have a marked effect. Not only will buildings reflect radio signals, they
will also absorb them. Cellular communications are often significantly impaired within
buildings. Trees and foliage can attenuate radio signals, particularly when wet.
• Atmosphere: The atmosphere can affect radio signal paths. At lower frequencies,
especially below 30 - 50MHz, the ionosphere has a significant effect, reflecting (or more
correctly refracting) them back to Earth. At frequencies above 50 MHz and more the
troposphere has a major effect, refracting the signals back to earth as a result of changing
refractive index. For UHF broadcast this can extend coverage to approximately a third
beyond the horizon.
FREE-SPACE PATH LOSS (FSPL):
In Mobile communication, free-space path loss (FSPL) is the loss in signal strength of an
electromagnetic wave that would result from a line-of-sight path through free space
(usually air), with no obstacles nearby to cause reflection or diffraction. It does not include
factors such as the gain of the antennas used at the transmitter and receiver, nor any loss
associated with hardware imperfections. A discussion of these losses may be found in the
article on link budget.

Fig 1.9
Free-space path loss formula:
Free-space path loss is proportional to the square of the distance between the transmitter
and receiver, and also proportional to the square of the frequency of the radio signal. For
any type of wireless communication the signal disperses with distance. Therefore, an
antenna with a fixed area will receive less signal power the farther it is from the
transmitting antenna.
 For satellite communication this is the primary mode of signal loss. Even if no
other sources of attenuation or impairment are assumed, a transmitted signal
attenuates over distance because the signal is being spread over a larger and larger
area. This form of attenuation is known as free space loss, which can be express in
terms of the ratio of the radiated power to the power received by the antenna or, in
decibels, by taking 10 times the log of that ratio. For the ideal isotropic antenna, free space
loss is

[Equation 1]
Where: λ is the signal wavelength (in metres), f is the signal frequency (in hertz),
d is the distance from the transmitter (in metres),c is the speed of light in a
vacuum, 2.99792458 × 108 metres per second,
Gt and Gr are the transmit and receive antenna gains and are dimensionless
quantities, Pt is the transmitted power, Pr is the received power,Pt and Pr are in
same units.

Derivation of Friis Transmission Formula :

To begin the derivation of the Friis Equation, consider two antennas in free space (no
obstructions nearby) separated by a distance R:

Figure 1.10. Transmit (Tx) and Receive (Rx) Antennas separated by R.

Assume that Watts of total power are delivered to the transmit antenna. For the
moment, assume that the transmit antenna is omnidirectional, lossless, and that the
receive antenna is in the far field of the transmit antenna. Then the power density p (in
Watts per square meter) of the plane wave incident on the receive antenna a distance R
from the transmit antenna is given by:

[Equation 2]
If the transmit antenna has an antenna gain in the direction of the receive antenna given
by , then the power density equation above becomes:

[Equation 3]
 The gain term factors in the directionality and losses of a real antenna. Assume now
that
the receive antenna has an effective aperture given by . Then the power received by this
antenna ( ) is given by:

[Equation 4]
Since the effective aperture for any antenna can also be expressed as:

[Equation 5]
The resulting received power can be written as:

[Equation 6]
This is known as the Friis Transmission Formula. It relates the free space path loss,
antenna gains and wavelength to the received and transmit powers. This is one of the
fundamental equations in antenna theory, and should be remembered (as well as the
derivation above).
Another useful form of the Friis Transmission Equation is given in Equation [7]. Since
wavelength and frequency f are related by the speed of light c (see intro to frequency page),
we have the Friis Transmission Formula in terms of frequency:

[Equation 7]
Free-space path loss in decibels
A convenient way to express FSPL is in terms of dB:

[Equation 8]

LdB =
 =

For other antennas, we must take into account the gain of the antenna, which yields the
following free space loss equation:

[Equation 9]
At = effective area of transmitting antenna
Ar = effective area of receiving antenna
We can recast the loss equation as:
LdB =20 log (λ) + 20 log (d)-10 log (AtAr)
= -20 log (f) + 20 log (d)-10 log (AtAr) +169.54 dB

Time dispersion parameters:

Power delay profile P(_): the channel power spectral density as a function of delay, i.e. how
“channel power” is distributed along dimension excess delay

When a signal is transmitted, this signal can suffer a distortion caused by reflections
and scattered propagation paths in the radio channel, and these phenomenon’s cause that
an identical signal arrives at different times at its destination. These different times are due
that to the signal arrives via multiple paths and in different incident angles. The time
difference between the arrival moment of the first multipath component and the last one is
called delay spread.
In order to compare different multipath channels and to develop some general design
guidelines for wireless systems, some parameters are used to quantify the multipath
channel. Some of these multipath parameters are the mean excess delay, rms delay spread,
and maximum excess delay, and can be determined from a power delay profile. However,
the mean excess delay and the rms delay spread are frequently used to quantify the time
dispersive properties of wide band multipath channels.
The Mean Excess Delay is the first moment of the power delay profile (PDP) and is defined
as the first moment of power delay profile
RMS Delay Spread:
The root-mean-square (RMS) delay spread is probably the most important single measure
for the delay time extent of a multipath radio channel. This parameter calculates the
standard deviation value of the delay of reflections, weighted proportional to the energy in
the reflected waves. This parameter can be considered like the square root of the second
central moment of the power delay profile and is defined by
We must take into consideration that these delay are measured relative to the first
detectable signal arriving at the receiver at = 0, and their equations do not rely on the
absolute power level of P(),but only the relative amplitudes of the multipath components
within P().

RMS delay spread →

Where

where Avg( τ2) is the same computation as above as used for except that
A simple way to explain this is “the range of time within which most of the delayed signals
arrive”
Maximum Excess Delay (X dB) :
The maximum excess delay (X dB) of the power delay profile is defined as the time delay
value after which the multipath energy falls to X dB below the maximum multipath energy
(not necessarily belonging to the first arriving component). It is also called excess delay
spread, but in all cases must be specified with a threshold that relates the multipath noise
floor to the maximum received multipath component.
The values of these time dispersion parameters also depend on the noise threshold used to
process P(), and if this noise is set too low, then the noise will be processed as multipath
and thus causing the parameters to be higher.
Coherence Bandwidth
Coherence bandwidth is a statistical measure of the range of frequencies over which the
channel can be considered "flat".
Two sinusoids with frequency separation greater than are affected quite differently by the
channel. If the coherent bandwidth is defined as the bandwidth over which the frequency
correlation function is above 0.9, then the coherent bandwidth is approximately

If we define Coherence Bandwidth as the range of frequencies over which the frequency
correlation is above 0.5, then The coherence bandwidth of the channel gives a good
indication about the frequency variations of the channel in relation to the bandwidth of the
transmitted signal. We can have two different cases, depending on this bandwidth. If a
signal with a bandwidth larger than Bc is transmitted through the channel, it will be
subject to frequency selective distortion.
The channel will be, in this case, referred to as a frequency selective fading channel.
However, if the signal transmitted has a bandwidth considerably less than Bc, it will
experience amplitude attenuation only with no distortion since the channel characteristics
will be the same all over the spectrum of the signal. In this case the channel is referred to
as a frequency non-selective (flat) fading channel.

Time domain view Freq. domain view

x(t ) X( f )

Range of freq over Which response is flat

B
 delay spread

Figure 1.11
Frequency Dispersion Parameters:

Doppler Spread and Coherent Time:

Doppler spread and coherent time are parameters which describe the time varying nature
of the channel in a small-scale region. When a pure sinusoidal tone of fc is transmitted, the
received signal spectrum, called the Doppler spectrum, will have components in the range
fc- fd and fc+ fd, where fd is the Doppler shift.
fd is a function of the relative velocity of the mobile, and the angle between the direction of
motion of the mobile and direction of arrival of the scattered waves

Figure 1.12
Coherent time is the time domain dual of Doppler spread. Coherent time is used to
characterize the time varying nature of the frequency depressiveness of the channel in the
time domain.

fm: maximum Doppler shift given by fm =v /λ

v : speed of the mobile , λ : speed of the light
Two signals arriving with a time separation greater than Tc are affected differently by the
channel.
A statistic measure of the time duration over which the channel impulse response is
essentially invariant. If the coherent time is defined as the time over which the time
correlation function is above 0.5, then
The Cellular Concept:
The design aim of early mobile wireless communication systems was to get a huge coverage
area with a single, high-power transmitter and an antenna installed on a giant tower,
transmitting a data on a single frequency. Although this method accomplished a good
coverage, but it also means that it was practically not possible to reuse the same frequency
all over the system, because any effort to reuse the same frequency would result in
interference.
The cellular concept was a major breakthrough in order to solve the problems of limited
user capacity and spectral congestion. Cellular system provides high capacity with a limited
frequency spectrum without making any major technological changes. It is a system-level
idea in which a single high-power transmitter is replaced with multiple low-power
transmitters, and small segment of the service area is being covered by each transmitter,
which is referred to as a cell. Each base station (transmitter) is allocated a part of the total
number of channels present in the whole system, and different groups of radio channels
are allocated to the neighboring base stations so that all the channels present in the system
are allocated to a moderately small number of neighboring base stations.

Cells using the same set of Radio channels

Fig. 1.13: Cellular Network
Frequency Reuse:
Conventional communication systems faced the problems of limited service area capability
and ineffective radio spectrum utilization. This is because these systems are generally
designed to provide service in an autonomous geographic region and by selecting radio
channels from a particular frequency band. On the other hand, the present mobile
communication systems are designed to offer a wide coverage area and high grade of
service. These systems are also expected to provide a continuous communication through
an efficient utilization of available radio spectrum. Therefore, the design of mobile radio
network must satisfy the following objectives i.e., providing continuous service, and wide
service area, while efficiently using the radio spectrum.
In order to achieve these objectives, the present mobile systems use cellular networks
which depend more on an intelligent channel allocation and reuse of channels throughout
the region. Each base station is allocated a set of radio channels, which are to be used in a
geographic area called a cell. Base stations in the neighboring cells are allocated radio
channel sets, which are entirely different. The antennas of base station antennas are
designed to get the required coverage within the specific cell.
By restricting the coverage area of a base station to within the cell boundaries, the same set
of radio channels can be used in the different cells that are separated from each other by
distances which are large enough in order to maintain interference levels within limits. The
procedure of radio sets selection and allocation to all the base stations present within a
network is called frequency reuse; Fig. 1.13 shows the frequency reuse concept in a cell in
a cellular network, in which cells utilize the same set of radio channels. The frequency
reuse plan indicates where different radio channels are used. The hexagonal shape of cell is
purely theoretical and is a simple model of radio coverage for each base station, although it
has been globally adopted as the hexagon permits the easy analysis of a cellular system.

Channel Reuse Schemes:

The radio channel reuse model can be used in the time and space domain. Channel reuse
in the time domain turns out to be occupation of same frequency in different time slots and
is also called Time Division Multiplexing. Channel reuse in the space domain is categorized
into:
a) Same channel is allocated in two different areas, e.g. AM and FM radio stations
using same channels in two different cities.
b) Same channel is frequently used in same area and in one system the scheme used is
cellular systems. The entire spectrum is then divided into K reuse sets.
Locating Co-channel Cells in a Cellular Network:
Cells, which use the same set of channels, are called co-channels cells. For determining the
location of co-channel cell present in the neighborhood, two shift parameters i and j are
used where i and j are separated by 600, as shown in Fig. 2.3 below. The shift parameters
can have any value 0, 1, 2...., n.
To find the location of nearest co-channel cell, mark the center of the cell as (0, 0) for which
co-channel cells are to be located. Define the unit distance as the distance of center of two
adjacent cells, and follow the two steps given below:
Step 1: Move i number of cells along i axis
Step 2: Turn 600 anti-clockwise and move j number of cells
The technique of locating co-channel cells using the preceding procedure is shown in Fig.
2.4 for i=3 and j=2. The shift parameters i and j measures the number of neighboring cells
between co-channel cells.

Fig. 1.15: Shift Parameters i and j in Hexagonal Network

 Fig. 1.14: K-Cell Reuse Pattern

Fig. 1.16: Locating Co-channel Cells when i=3 & j=2

The relationship between cluster size K and shift parameters i & j, is given below:
Let 'R' be the distance between the center of a regular hexagon to any of its vertex. A
regular hexagon is one whose all sides are also of equal length i.e. 'R'. Let 'd' be the distance
between the centre of two neighboring hexagons, and following steps are followed while
calculating the size of a cluster ‘K’.
Step 1: To show that d = 3R

P Q

O A B

Fig. 1.17: Distance Between two adjacent cells

From the geometry of the Fig. 2.5, OA = R and AB = R/2 (1.1)
Then, OB = OA + AB = R + R/2 = 3R/2 (1.2)

Then, in right-angled  OAP

OP = OA sin 600 = (1.3)

Let the distance between the centers of two neighboring hexagonal cells, OQ, be

denoted by ‘d’, then,

OQ = OP + PQ (where OP = PQ)

Therefore,

Hence, d = (1.4)

Step 2: Area of a small hexagon, Asmall hexagon W

The area of a hexagonal cell with radius R is given as

Asmall hexagon
= (1.5)

Step 3: To find the relation between D, d and shift parameters

Let ‘D’ be the distance between the center of a particular cell under consideration to the
center of the nearest co-channel cell.
 Fig. 1.18: Relationship between K and Shift Parameters (i & j)

Using cosine formula  XYZ in Fig. 1.18, we have

(1.6)
Step 4: To find the area of a large hexagon, Alarge hexagon
By joining the centers of the six nearest neighboring co-channel cells, a large hexagon is
formed with radius equal to D, which is also the co-channel cell separation. Refer Fig. 1.18
The area of the large hexagon having a radius D can be given as

Alarge hexagon = (1.7)

Using equation 1.6 Alarge hexagon = (1.8)

 Fig. 1.19
Step 7: To find the number of cells in the large hexagon (L)
Number of cells in large hexagon L = Alarge hexagon / Asmall hexagon (1.9)
Using equations 1.7&1.8we get
L = 3 x (i2 + j2 + i x j) (1.10)
Step 8: Find the correlation between L and cluster size K
It can be seen from Fig. 1.19, that the larger hexagon is created by joining the centers of co-
channel cells present in the first tier contains 7 cells of the central cluster plus 1/3rd of the
number of 7 cells of all the neighboring six clusters. Therefore, it can be calculated that the
larger hexagon consisting of the central cluster of K cells plus 1/3rd the number of the cells
connected with six neighboring clusters present in the first tier.

Fig. 1.20: Number of Clusters in the First Tier for N=7

Hence, the total number of cells enclosed by the larger hexagon is L = K + 6 x [(1 / 3) x K]
L=3xK (1.11)
Step 9: To establish relation between K and shift parameters from equation 1.11 and 1.10,
we get
3 x K = 3 x (i2 + j2 + i x j)
K = (i2 + j2 + i x j) (1.12)
The Table 1.1 shows the frequency reuse patterns along with the cluster sizes
Table 1.1: Frequency Reuse Pattern and Cluster Size

Frequency Reuse Pattern Cluster Size

(I, j) K = (i2 + j2 + i j)
(1, 1) 3

(2, 0) 4

(2, 1) 7

(3, 0) 9

(2, 2) 12

(3, 1) 13

(4, 0) 16

(2, 3) 19

(4, 1) 21

(5, 0) 25

Frequency Reuse Distance

To reuse the same set of radio channels in another cell, it must be separated by a distance
called frequency reuse distance, which is generally represented by D. Reusing the same
frequency channel in different cells is restricted by co-channel interference between cells.
So, it is necessary to find the minimum frequency reuse distance D in order to minimize the
co-channel interference. Fig. 1.21 illustrates the separation of cells by frequency reuse
distance in a cluster of 7 cells. In order to derive a formula to compute D, necessary
properties of regular hexagon cell geometry are first discussed.
 Fig. 1.21
The frequency reuse distance (D), which allows the same radio channel to be reused in co-
channel cells, depends on many factors:
 the number of co-channel cells in the neighborhood of the central cell
 the type of geographical terrain
 the antenna height
 the transmitted signal strength by each cell-site
Suppose the size of all the cells in a cellular is approximately same, and it is usually
calculated by the coverage area of the proper signal strength in every cell. The co-channel
interference does not depend on transmitted power of each, if the cell size is fixed, i.e., the
threshold level of received signal at the mobile unit is tuned to the size of the cell.
The co-channel interference depends upon the frequency reuse ratio, q, and is defined as
q=D/R (1.13)
Where D is the distance between the two neighboring co-channel cells, and R is the radius
of the cells. The parameter q is also referred to as the frequency reuse ratio or co- channel
reuse ratio. The following steps are used to find the relationship between frequency reuse
ratio q and cluster size K
Fig. 1.22 shows an array of regular hexagonal cells, where R is the cell radius. Due to the
hexagonal geometry each hexagon has exactly six equidistant neighbors.

7 2

6 1 3

5 4 d
Fig. 1.22: Distance between Two Adjacent Cells (d)
Let d be the distance between two cell centers of neighboring cells. Therefore, d = 3R
The relationship between D, d, and shift parameters is
D2 = 3 * R2 *(i2 + j2 + i X j)
As K = i2 + j2 + i * j
D2 = 3 * R2 * K
D2 = 3 * K
R2

(1.14)
As q = D/R q = 3K
Thus, the frequency reuse ratio q can be computed from the cluster size K. Table 1.2 shows
the frequency reuse ratios for different cluster sizes, K
As the D/R measurement is a ratio, if the cell radius is decreased, then the distance
between co-channels cells must also be decreased by the same amount, for keeping co-
channel interference reduction factor same. On the other hand, if a cell has a large radius,
then the distance between frequency reusing cells must be increased proportionally in
order to have the same D/R ratio.
As frequency reuse ratio (q) increases with the increase in cluster size (K), the smaller value
of K largely increase the capacity of the cellular system. But it will also increase the co-
channel interference. Therefore, the particular value of q (or K) is selected in order to keep
the signal-to-cochannel interference ratio at an acceptable level. If all the antennas
transmit the same power, then with the increase in K, the frequency reuse distance (D)
increases, and reduce the likelihood that co-channel interference may occur. Therefore, the
challenge is to get the optimal value of K so that the desired system performance can be
achieved in terms of increased system capacity, efficient radio spectrum utilization and
signal quality.

Cluster Size Frequency Reuse Ratio

K q =√3K
3 3.00
4 3.46
7 4.58
9 5.20
12 6.00
13 6.24
19 7.55
21 7.94
27 9.00
Table 1.2: Frequency Reuse Ratio and Cluster Size
COCHANNEL INTERFERENCE:
The frequency-reuse method is useful for increasing the efficiency of spectrum usage but
results in cochannel interference because the same frequency channel is used repeatedly in
different cochannel cells.
Higher values of “q”
 Reduces co-channel interference,
 Leads to higher value of “N” more cells/cluster,
 Less number of channels/cells,
 Less traffic handling capacity.
Lower values of “q”
 Increases co-channel interference,
 Leads to lower value of “N” fewer cells / cluster,
 More number of channels / cells,
 More traffic handling capacity.

COCHANNEL INTERFERENCE REDUCTION FACTOR :

Reusing an identical frequency channel in different cells is limited by cochannel interfer-
ence between cells, and the cochannel interference can become a major problem. Here we
would like to find the minimum frequency reuse distance in order to reduce this cochannel
interference.
Assume that the size of all cells is roughly the same. The cell size is determined by the
coverage area of the signal strength in each cell. As long as the cell size is fixed, cochannel
interference is independent of the transmitted power of each cell. It means that the received
threshold level at the mobile unit is adjusted to the size of the cell. Actually, cochannel
interference is a function of a parameter q defined as
q= D (1.15)
R
The parameter q is the cochannel interference reduction factor. When the ratio q increases,
cochannel interference decreases. Furthermore, the separation D in Eq. (1.15) is a function
of K I and C/I ,
D = f (K I, C/I) (1.16)

where K I is the number of cochannel interfering cells in the first tier and C/I is the
received carrier-to-interference ratio at the desired mobile receiver.3

(1.17)
In a fully equipped hexagonal-shaped cellular system, there are always six cochannel inter-
fering cells in the first tier, as shown in Fig. 1.23; that is, K I = 6. The maximum number of
KI in the first tier can be shown as six (i.e., 2π D/ D ≈ 6).
Cochannel interference can be experienced both at the cell site and at mobile units in the
center cell. If the interference is much greater, then the carrier-to-interference ratio C/I at
the mobile units caused by the six interfering sites is (on the average) the same as the C/I
received at the center cell site caused by interfering mobile units in the six cells. According
to both the reciprocity theorem and the statistical summation of radio propagation, the two
C/I values can be very close. Assume that the local noise is much less than the interference

level and can be neglected. C/I then can be expressed, from Eq. ), as

(1.18)
Where γ is a propagation path-loss slope5 determined by the actual terrain environment. In
a mobile radio medium, γ usually is assumed to be 4. K I is the number of cochannel
interfering cells and is equal to 6 in a fully developed system, as shown in Fig.1.23. The six
cochannel interfering cells in the second tier cause weaker interference than those in the
first tier.

FIGURE 1.23 Six effective interfering cells of cell 1

Therefore, the cochannel interference from the second tier of interfering cells is negli-gible.
Substituting Eq. (1.15) into Eq. (1.16) yields

(1.19)
where qk is the cochannel interference reduction factor with kth cochannel interfering cell

(1.20)
DESIRED C/I FROM A NORMAL CASE IN A OMNI DIRECTION ANTENNA SYSTEM:
ANALYTIC SOLUTION: There are two cases to be considered:
(1) The signal and cochannel interference received by the mobile unit and
(2) The signal and cochannel interference received by the cell site.
Both the cases are shown in Figure 1.24. Nm, and Nb are the local noises at the mobile
unit and the cell site, respectively. Usually, Nm and Nb are small and can be neglected as
compared with the interference level. The system is called a balanced system as long as the
received CIRs at both the mobile unit and the cell site are the same. In order to analyze the
system requirement, either of the cases can be chosen in a balanced system.

FIGURE 1.24 Cochannel interference from six interferers, (a) Receiving at the cell site; (b)
receiving at the mobile unit
In a balanced system, we can choose either one of the two cases to analyze the system
requirement; the results from one case are the same for the others.
Assume that all Dk are the same for simplicity, as shown in Fig. 1.24; then D = Dk , and q
= qk , and

(1.21)

(1.22)

(1.23)
In Eq. (1.23), the value of C/I is based on the required system performance and the
specified value of γ is based on the terrain environment. With given values of C/I and γ ,
the cochannel interference reduction factor q can be determined. Normal cellular practice is
to specify C/I to be 18 dB or higher based on subjective tests and the criterion described in
previous Sec. Because a C/I of 18 dB is measured by the acceptance of voice quality from
present cellular mobile receivers, this acceptance implies that both mobile radio multipath
fading and cochannel interference become ineffective at that level. The path-loss slope γ is
equal to about 4 in a mobile radio environment.
q = D/ R = (6 × 63.1)1/4 = 4.41 (1.24)
The 90th percentile of the total covered area would be achieved by increasing the
transmitted power at each cell; increasing the same amount of transmitted power in each
cell does not affect the result of Eq. (1.24). This is because q is not a function of transmitted
power. The computer simulation described in the next section finds the value of q = 4.6,
which is very close to Eq. (1.24). The factor q can be related to the finite set of cells K in a
hexagonal-shaped cellular system by

(1.25)
Substituting q from Eq. (1.18) into Eq. (1.19) yields
K=7 (1.26)
Equation (1.26) indicates that a seven-cell reuse pattern* is needed for a C/I of 18 dB. The
seven-cell reuse pattern is shown in Fig. 1.14.
Based on q = D/ R, the determination of D can be reached by choosing a radius R in Eq.
(1.24). Usually, a value of q greater than that shown in Eq. (1.24) would be desirable. The
greater the value of q, the lower the cochannel interference. In a real environment, Eq.
(1.19) is always true, but Eq. (1.21) is not. Because Eq. (1.24) is derived from Eq. (1.21), the
value q may not be large enough to maintain a carrier-to-interference ratio of 18 dB.

Co-channel Interference and System Capacity:

The channel reuse approach is very useful for increasing the efficiency of radio spectrum
utilization but it results in co-channel interference because the same radio channel is
repeatedly used in different co-channel cells in a network. In this case, the quality of a
received signal is very much affected both by the amount of radio coverage area and the co-
channel interference.
Co-channel interference takes place when two or more transmitters located within a
wireless system, or even a neighboring wireless system, which are transmitting on the same
radio channel. Co-channel interference happens when the same carrier frequency (base
station) reaches the same receiver (mobile phone) from two different transmitters.
This type of interference is generally generated because channel sets have been allocated to
two different cells that are nor far enough geographically, and their signals are strong
enough to cause interference to each other. Thus, co-channel interference can either modify
the receiver or mask the particular signal. It may also merge with the particular signal to
cause severe distortions in the output signal.
The co-channel interference can be evaluated by picking any particular channel and
transmitting data on that channel at all co-channel sites. In a cellular system with
hexagonal shaped cells, there are six co-channel interfering cells in the first tier. Fig. 1.25
shows a Test 1 which is set-up to calculate the co-channel interference at the mobile unit,
in this test mobile unit is not stationary but is continuously moving in its serving cell.
 First tier

Interfering
Mobile Cells

Serving
Cell

Fig. 1.25: Co-channel Interference Measurement at the Mobile Unit

In a small cell system, interference will be the major dominating factor and thermal noise
can be neglected. Thus the S/I can also be written as:

Where S/I = Signal to interference ratio at the desired mobile receiver, S = desired signal
power, I = Interference power, 2  5 is the propagation path-loss slope and  depends on
the terrain environment.
If we assume, for simplification, that Dk is the same for the six interfering cells, i.e., D = Dk,
then the formula above becomes:

(1.27)

(1.28)
For analog systems using frequency modulation, normal cellular practice is to specify an
S/I ratio to be 18 dB or higher based on subjective tests. An S/I of 18 dB is the measured
value for the accepted voice quality from the present-day cellular mobile receivers.

Using an S/I ratio equal to 18dB (101810  63.1 ) and  =4 in the Eq. (1.28), then
q  6  63.10.25  4.41 (1.28)
 Substituting q from Eq. (1.28) into Eq. (1.11) yields

(4.41)2
N  6.49  7 . (1.29)
3
Eq. (1.29) indicates that a 7-cell reuse pattern is needed for an S/I ratio of 18 dB.
Therefore, the performance of interference-limited cellular mobile system can be calculated
from the following results.
a) If the signal-to-interference ratio (S/I) is greater than 18 dB, then the system is said to
be correctly designed.
b) If S/I is less than 18 dB and signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) is greater than 18 dB, then the
system is said to be experiencing with a co-channel interference problem.
c) If both S/I and S/N are less than 18 dB and S/I is approximately same as S/N in a cell,
then the system has a radio coverage problem.
d) If both S/I and S/N are less than 18 dB and S/I is less than S/N, the system has both
co-channel interference and radio coverage problem.
Therefore, the reciprocity theorem can be used to study the radio coverage problem, but it
does not give accurate results when used for the study of co-channel interference problem.
Therefore, it is suggested to perform Test 2 in order to measure co-channel interference at
the cell-site. In Test 2 shown in Fig. 1.26, both the mobile unit present in the serving cell
and six other mobile units present in the neighboring cells are transmitting simultaneously
at the same channel.
First tier

Interfering Cells

Fig. 1.26: Co-channel Interference Measurement at the Cell-site

Co-channel Interference Reduction Methods:
Interference is major factor affecting the performance of cellular communication systems.
Sources of interference may consist of a different mobile working in the same or in the
neighboring cells, which are operating in the same frequency band that may leak energy
into the cellular band.
The co-channel interference can be reduced by the following methods:
a. Increasing the distance(D) between two co-channel cells, D As D increases, the strength
of interfering signal from co-channel interfering cells decreases significantly. But it is not
wise to increase D because as D is increased, K must also be increased. High value of K
means fewer number of radio channels are available per cell for a given spectrum. This
results into decrease of the system capacity in terms of channels that are available per cell.
b. Reducing the antenna heights
Reducing antenna height is a good method to minimize the co-channel interference in some
environment, e.g., on a high hill. In the cellular system design effective antenna height is
considered rather than the actual antenna height. Therefore, the effective antenna height
changes according to the present location of the mobile unit in such a difficult terrain.
When the antenna is put up on top of the hill, the effective antenna height gets more than
the actual antenna height. So, in order to minimize the co-channel interference, antenna
with lower height should be used without decreasing the received signal strength either at
the cell-site or at the mobile device. Similarly, lower antenna height in a valley is very
useful in minimizing the radiated power in a far-off high-elevation area where the mobile
user is believed to be present.

However, reducing the antenna height does not always minimize the co-channel
interference, e.g., in forests, the larger antenna height clears the tops of the longest trees in
the surrounding area, particularly when they are located very close to the antenna. But
reducing the antenna height would not be appropriate for minimizing co-channel
interference because unnecessary attenuation of the signal would occur in the vicinity of
the antenna as well as in the cell boundary if the height of the antenna is below the treetop
level.
c. Using directional antennas.
The use of directional antennas in every cell can minimize the co-channel interference if the
co-channel interference cannot be avoided by a fixed division of co-channel cells. This will
also improve the system capacity even if the traffic increases. The co-channel interference
can be further minimized by smartly setting up the directional antenna.
d. Use of diversity schemes at the receiver.

The diversity scheme used at the receiving end of the antenna is an efficient technique for
minimizing the co-channel interference because any unwanted action performed at the
receiving end to increase the signal interference would not cause further interference. For
example, the division of two receiving antennas installed at the cell-site meeting the
condition of h/s=11, (where h is the antenna height and s is the division between two
antennas), would produce the correlation coefficient of 0.7 for a two-branch diversity
system. The two correlated signals can be combined with the use of selective combiner. The
mobile transmitter could suffer up to 7 dB minimization in power and the same
performance at the cell-site can be achieved as a non-diversity receiver. Therefore,
interference from the mobile transmitters to the receivers can be significantly reduced.
Trunking and Grade of Service (GoS) :
Trunking is the concept that allows large number of users to use a smaller number of
channels (or phone lines, customer service representatives, parking spots, public
bathrooms …) as efficiently as possible. It is clear that Trunking is based on statistics.
• The number of available channels in a trunked system is directly related to the probability
of call blocking during peak time. In some systems, because of high system demand, calls
that cannot be initiated are
o Blocked (caller will have to make the call later with not priority at all). Such systems are
sometimes called Blocked Calls Cleared systems.
o Queued (call is placed in a queue for several seconds until a free channel becomes
available). Such systems are sometimes called Blocked Calls Queued systems.
• Trunking and Queuing theories were first studied by a mathematician called Erlang

What is an Erlang?
One Erlang is defined as the amount of traffic intensity carrier by a channel that is
completely occupied
Therefore,1 Erlang = 1 call with a duration of 1 hour over a channel every hour
= 2 calls with a duration of 0.5 hours over the channel every hour
= 30 calls with a duration of 4 minutes over the channel every 2 hours (120 minutes)
A channel that carries 2 calls of duration 5 minutes each per hour carries (2*5 min/60 min
= 1/6 Erlangs)

Grade of Service (GOS)

The grade of service (GOS) is related to the ability of a mobile phone to access the trunked
mobile phone system during the busiest hour. To meet a specific GOS, the maximum
required capacity of the system must be estimated and the proper number of channels
must be allocated for the system
• GOS is a measure of the congestion of the system which is specified as the probability of a
call being blocked (Erlang B system) or the probability of a call being delayed beyond a
certain amount of time (Erlang C system).

Traffic Intensity
Each user in a trunked system generates a Traffic Intensity per User of U A Erlangs given
by
AU = λ ⋅H
where λ = average number of call request per unit time (Request Rate), and H = average
duration of a call (Holding Time).
For a system with U users, total offered traffic intensity A is (Offered Traffic Intensity)
U A =U ⋅ A =U ⋅λ ⋅H
 In a trunked system with C channels with traffic that is equally distributed among
them, Traffic Intensity per Channel C A is given by

When offered traffic intensity ( A) > Maximum capacity of system � carrier traffic becomes
limited due to limited capacity of the system.
To study the traffic capacity of a trunked system, we will assume the following three
assumptions:
A) There are memoryless arrivals of call requests: all users including users who had
blocked called may request a channel at any time. Also, because a user has just had a call
blocked, does not affect his decision in making another call or the time to make that other
call.
B) The probability of a user occupying a channel is exponentially distributed. So, longer
calls have lower probability.
C) There are a finite number of channels available in for trunking.

Based on these assumptions, it is found that the probability of a call getting blocked in an
Erlang B system is

and the probability of a call getting delayed for any period of time greater than zero is

The probability of a call getting delayed for a period of time greater than some T is
 = GOS (Erlang C for a delay of length or
longer)
Pr Delay > Pr Delay > 0 GOS (Erlang C for a delay of length or longer)
The average delay in this case is

Pr[Delay > 0] Avg

The following plots are for Pr[Blocking] in an Erlang B system and the Pr[Delay > 0] in an
Erlang C system for different number of trunked channels (C). These figures can be used to
simplify the computations in many problems related to system capacity and GOS.

The capacity of a trunked radio system in which blocked calls are lost is shown in Table.
Improving Capacity in Cellular Systems:
With the rise in the demand for wireless services, the number of radio channels allocated to
each cell could become inadequate in order to satisfy this increase in the demand.
Therefore, to increase the capacity (i.e. a cellular system can take up more calls) of a
cellular system, it is very important to allocate more number of radio channels to each cell
in order to meet the requirements of mobile traffic. Various techniques that are proposed
for increasing the capacity of a cellular system is as follows:
i. Cell splitting
ii. Cell sectoring
iii. Repeaters for extending range
iv. Micro zone method

Cell Splitting:
Cell splitting is a method in which congested (heavy traffic) cell is subdivided into smaller
cells, and each smaller cell is having its own base station with reduction in antenna height
and transmitter power. The original congested bigger cell is called macrocell and the
smaller cells are called microcells. Capacity of cellular network can be increased by creating
micro-cells within the original cells which are having smaller radius than macro-cells,
therefore, the capacity of a system increases because more channels per unit area are now
available in a network.

Fig. 1.27: Cell Splitting

Fig. 1.27 shows a cell splitting in which a congested cell, divided into smaller micro-cells,
and the base stations are put up at corners of the cells. The micro-cells are to be added in
such a way in order to the frequency reuse plan of the system should be preserved. For
micro-cells, the transmit power of transmitter should be reduced, and each micro-cell is
having half the radius to that of macro-cell. Therefore, transmit power of the new cells can
be calculated by analyzing the received power at the cell boundaries. This is required in
order to make sure that frequency reuse plan for the micro-cells is also working the same
way as it was working for the macro-cells.

Where Ptp is the transmit power of macro-cell PtN is the transmit power of macro-cell
n is the path loss exponent is the radius of macro and micro-cells.
In cell splitting, following factors should be carefully monitored;
1. In cell splitting, allocation of channels to the new cells (micro-cells) must be done
very cautiously. So, in order to avoid co-channel interference, cells must follow the
minimum reuse distance principle.
2. Power levels of the transmitters for new and old cells must be redesigned. If the
transmitter of the old cell has the same power as that of new cells, then the channels
in old cell interfere with the channels of new cell. But, if the power level of
transmitter is too low then it may result into in sufficient area coverage.
3. In order to overcome the problem of point (2); the channels of macro-cell is divided
into two parts. The channels in the first part are for the new cell and other part
consists of channel for the old cell. Splitting of cells is done according to the number
of subscribers present in the areas, and the power levels of the transmitters must be
redesigned according to the allocated channels to old and new cells.
4. Antennas of different heights and power levels are used for smooth and easy
handoff, and this technique is called Umbrella cell approach. Using this approach
large coverage area is provided for high speed users and small coverage area to low
speed users. Therefore, the number of call handoffs is maximized for high speed
users and provides more channels for slow speed users.
5. The main idea behind cell splitting is the rescaling of entire system. In cell splitting,
reuse factor (D/R) is kept constant because by decreasing the radius of cell (R) and,
at the same time, the separation between co-channels (D) is also decreased. So, high
capacity can be achieved without changing the (D/R) ratio of system.
Sectoring:
Another way of improving the channel capacity of a cellular system is to decrease the D/R
ratio while keeping the same cell radius. Improvement in the capacity can be accomplished
by reducing the number of cells in a cluster, hence increasing the frequency reuse. To
achieve this, the relative interference must be minimized without decreasing the transmit
power.
For minimizing co-channel interference in a cellular network, a single omni-directional
antenna is replaced with multiple directional antennas, with each transmitting within a
smaller region. These smaller regions are called sectors and minimizing co-channel
interference while improving the capacity of a system by using multiple directional
antennas is called sectoring. The amount up to which co-channel interference is minimized
depends on the amount of sectoring used. A cell is generally divided either into three 120
degree or six 60 degree sectors. In the three-sector arrangement, three antennas are
generally located in each sector with one transmit and two receive antennas. The placement
of two receive antennas provide antenna diversity, which is also known as space diversity.
Space diversity greatly improves the reception of a signal by efficiently providing a big target
for signals transmitted from mobile units. The division between the two receive antenna
depends on the height of the antennas above ground.
When sectoring technique is used in cellular systems, the channels used in a particular
sector are actually broken down into sectored groups, which are only used inside a
particular sector. With 7-cell reuse pattern and 120 degree sectors, the number of
interfering cells in the neighboring tier is brought down from six to two. Cell sectoring also
improves the signal-to-interference ratio, thereby increasing the capacity of a cellular
system. This method of cell sectoring is very efficient, because it utilized the existing system
structures. Cell sectoring also minimized the co-channel interference, with the use of
directional antennas, a particular cell will get interference and transmit only a fraction of
the available co-channel cells.
It is seen that the reuse ratio q = (NI*S/I) 1/n, where NI depends on the type of antenna
used. For an omni-directional antenna with only first-tier of co-channel interferer, the
number of co-channel interfering cells NI = 6, but for a 120 degree directional antenna, it is
2.

n = path loss exponent, NI = Number of co-channel interfering cells

q = frequency reuse ratio = D/R
Thus, S/I ratio increases with the increase in number of sectors, but at the cost of
additional handoff that might be required for the movement of a user from one sector to
another.
Microcell Zone Concept:
The micro-cell zone concept is associated with sharing the same radio equipment by
different micro-cells. It results in decreasing of cluster size and, therefore, increase in
system capacity. The micro-cell zone concept is used in practice to improve the capacity of
cellular systems To improve both capacity and signal quality of a cellular system, cell
sectoring depends upon correct setting up of directional antennas at the cell-site. But it
also gives rise to increase in the number of handoffs and trunking inefficiencies. In a 3-
sector or 6-sector cellular system, each sector acts like a new cell with a different shape
and cell. Channels allocated to the un-sectored cell are divided between the different
sectors present in a cell, thereby decreasing number of channels available in each sector.
Furthermore, handoff takes place every time a mobile user moves from one sector to
another sector of the same cell. This results in significant increase of network load on BSC
and MSC of the cellular system. The problem of channel partitioning and increase in
network load become very hard if all the 3 or 6-sectored directional antennas are placed at
the centre of the cell.
As shown in the Fig. 1.28, three directional antennas are put at a point, Z1, also called
zone-site, where three adjacent cells C1, C2, and C3 meet with each other. Z1, Z2 and Z3
are three zone-sites of the cell C1, and each zone-site is using three 135 degree directional
antennas. All the three zone-sites also behave as receivers, which also receive signals
transmitted by a mobile user present anywhere in the cell. All the three zone-sites are
linked to one common base station, as shown in Fig. 1.29. This arrangement is known as
Lee's micro-cell zone concept.

Fig. 1.28: Location of Zone-sites in Sectored Cells

 Fig. 1.29: Lee’s Microcell Zone Concept
Advantages of micro zone concept:
1. When the mobile user moves from one zone to another within the same cell,
the mobile user can keep the same channel for the call progress.
2. The effect of interference is very low due to the installation of low power
transmitters.
3. Better signal quality is possible.
4. Fewer handoffs when a call is in progress.
Repeaters for Range Extensions:
Wireless operators want to provide dedicated coverage for users located within buildings, or
in valleys or tunnels as these areas are sometimes very hard to reach. Radio re-
transmitters, also known as repeaters, are frequently used to provide coverage in such
areas where range extension capabilities are required. Repeaters are bidirectional devices,
as the signals can be concurrently transmitted to and received from a base station.

120° Cell Sectoring 60° Cell Sectoring

 APPENDIX:

Full Duplex Systems: are communication systems in which transmission between the mobile
and base stations occurs in both directions at the same time (transmit and receive at the same time)
such as cellular phone systems. The regular phone at your house is a type of full duplex systems
because you can talk and listen to other side talking at the same time.
Half Duplex Systems: are communication systems in which transmission between the mobile
and base stations occurs at different times (transmit and receive at different times) such as push-to-
talk systems.
Simplex Systems: are communication system in which transmission of information occurs in one
direction only such as a garage door opening system.
Forward Channel: is the communication channel used to transmit information from the base station
to the mobile station.
Forward Control Channel (FCC): is the channel used by the base station to inform mobile stations
of a call directed to them, and to instruct mobile stations of the voice channels they should use to
send and receive information.
Forward Voice Channel (FVC): is the channel used by the base station to transmit the voice
signal to the mobile station.
Reverse Channel: is the communication channel used to transmit information from the mobile
station to the base station.
Reverse Control Channel (RCC): is the channel used by the mobile station to Request from a
cellular tower to initiate a phone call.
Reverse Voice Channel (RVC): is the channel used by the mobile station to transmit the voice
signal to the base station.
Multiple Access Techniques: are methods by which multiple mobile stations in a
communication system request that part of the limited spectrum of the system be reserved for its
communication and then release the reserved spectrum once the communication is completed.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA): the system assigns different time slots to transmit/
receive information for each mobile station that would like to use the resources of the system.
Multiple mobile stations using the system transmit/receive information at the same frequency.
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA): the system assigns different frequency
slots to transmit/receive information for each mobile station that would like to use the resources of
the system. All mobile stations using the system transmit/receive information at the same time.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA): the system assigns different SPREADING
codes to transmit/receive information for each mobile station that would like to use the resources
of the system. Multiple mobile stations using the system transmit/receive information at the same
frequency and the same time. The different spreading codes assigned to different mobile stations are
orthogonal to allow the use of the same codes to extract the desired information from the spread
signal without the interference of transmissions of other mobile stations.
Call Blocking: occurs when more calls are initiated or received in a region or zone beyond the
number of channels (or phone lines) dedicated to that region or zone. In this situation, some calls will
be blocked.
Coverage Footprint: is the region around a base station in which a mobile stations will receive service
from that base station as long as it is in its coverage footprint. Once the mobile station leaves
the coverage footprint of a base station, its service will either be transferred to another base
station or it will loose coverage completely.
 UNIT – II
GROUND INCIDENT ANGLE, ELEVATION ANGLE, GROUND REFLECTION AND
REFLECTION POINT :
The ground incident angle and the ground elevation angle over a communication link are
described as follows. The ground incident angle 0 is the angle of wave arrival incidentally
pointing to the ground as shown in Fig. 3.1. The ground elevation angle is the angle of wave
arrival at the mobile unit as shown in Fig. 3.1

Figure 3.1 Representation of Ground Incident Angle θ and Ground Elevation Angle φ

Based on Snell’s law, the reflection angle and incident angle are the same. Since in graphical
display we usually exaggerate the hilly slope and the incident angle by enlarging the vertical
scale, as shown in Fig. 3.2, then as long as the actual hilly slope is less than 100, the
reflection point on a hilly slope can be obtained by following the same method as if the
reflection point were on flat ground. Be sure that the two antennas (base and mobile) have
been placed vertically, not perpendicular to the sloped ground. The reason is that the actual
slope of the hill is usually very small and the vertical stands for two antennas are correct.
The scale drawing in Fig. 3.2 is somewhat misleading however, it provides a clear view of the
situation.

Fig. 3.2 Ground reflection angle and reflection point

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE DIRECT PATH AND THE GROUND REFLECTED PATH :

Based on a direct path and a ground reflected path, the equation

Indicates a two-wave model which is used to understand the path-loss phenomenon in a
mobile radio environment. It is not the model for analyzing the multipath fading
phenomenon. In a mobile environment av = - 1 because of the small incident angle of the
ground wave caused by a relatively low cell-site antenna height. Thus,

, then

, thus

Where P is the power difference in decibels between two different path lengths and G is the
gain (or loss) in decibels obtained from two different antenna heights at the cell site. From
these measurements, the gain from a mobile antenna height is only 3 dB/oct, which is
different from the 6 dB/oct . Then

CONSTANT STANDARD DEVIATION ALONG A PATH-LOSS CURVE :

When plotting signal strengths at any given radio-path distance, the deviation from predicted
value. is approximately 8 dB.1012 This standard deviation of 8 dB is roughly true in many
different areas. The explanation is as follows. When a line-of-sight path exists, both the
direct wave path and reflected wave path are created and are strong. When an out-of-sight
path exists, both the direct wave path and the reflected wave path are weak. In either case,
according to the theoretical model, the 40-dB/dec path-loss slope applies. The difference
between these two conditions is the 1-mi intercept (or 1-km intercept) point. It can be seen
that in the open area, the 1-mi intercept is high. In the urban area, the 1-mi intercept is
low. The standard deviation obtained from the measured data remains the same along the
different path-loss curves regardless of environment.
Support for the above argument can also be found from the observation that the standard
deviation obtained from the measured data along the predicted path-loss curve is
approximately 8 dB. The explanation is that at a distance from the cell site, some mobile
unit radio paths are line-of-sight, some are partial line-of-sight, and some are out-of-sight.
Thus the received signals are strong, normal, and weak, respectively. At any distance, the
above situations prevail. If the standard deviation is 8 dB at one radio-path distance, the
same 8dB will be found at any distance. Therefore a standard deviation of 8 dB is always
found along the radio path as shown in Fig.3. The standard deviation of 8 dB from the
measured data near the cell site is due mainly to the close-in buildings around the cell site.
The same standard deviation from the measured data at a distant location is due to the great
variation along different radio paths.

Fig 3.3 An 8-dB local mean spread

MERITS OF POINT-TO-POINT MODEL :

The area-to-area model usually only provides an accuracy of prediction with a standard
deviation of 8 dB, which means that 68 percent of the actual path-loss data are within the
± 8 dB of the predicted value. The uncertainty range is too large. The point-to-point model
reduces the uncertainty range by including the detailed terrain contour information in the
path-loss predictions.

The differences between the predicted values and the measured ones for the point-to-point
model were determined in many areas. In the following discussion, we compare the
differences shown in the Whippany, N.J., area and the Camden-Philadelphia area. First, we
plot the points with predicted values at the x-axis and the measured values at the y-axis,
shown in Fig. 3.4. The 450 line is the line of prediction without error. The dots are data from
the Whippany area, and the crosses are data from the Camden-Philadelphia area. Most of
them, except the one at 9 dB, are close to the line of prediction without error.

The mean value of all the data is right on the line of prediction without error. The standard
deviation of the predicted value of 0.8 dB from the measured one.In other areas, the
differences were slightly larger. However, the standard deviation of the predicted value never
exceeds the measured one by more than 3 dB. The standard deviation range is much
reduced as compared with the maximum of 8 dB from area-to-area models.
The point-to-point model is very useful for designing a mobile cellular system with a radius
for each cell of 10 mi or less. Because the data follow the log-normal distribution, 68 percent
of predicted values obtained from a point-to-point prediction model are within 2 to 3 dB.
This point-to-point prediction can be used to provide overall coverage of all cell sites and to
avoid co-channel interference. Moreover, the occurrence of handoff in the cellular system
can be predicted more accurately.

The point-to-point prediction model is a basic tool that is used to generate a signal coverage
map, an interference area map, a handoff occurrence map, or an optimum system design
configuration, to name a few applications.

Fig.3.4. Indication of errors in point-to-point predictions under non obstructive

conditions.
FOLIAGE LOSS :
Foliage loss is a very complicated topic that has many parameters and variations. The sizes
of leaves, branches, and trunks, the density and distribution of leaves, branches, and
trunks, and the height of the trees relative to the antenna heights all be considered. An
illustration of this prv1em is shown in Fig. 3.5. There are three levels: trunks, branches,
and leaves. In each level, there is a distribution of sizes of trunks, branches, and leaves and
also of the density and spacing between adjacent trunks, branches, and leaves. The texture
and thickness of the leaves also count. This unique problem can become very complicated
and is beyond the scope of this book. For a system design, the estimate of the signal
reception due to foliage loss does not need any degree of accuracy.
Furthermore, some trees, such as maple or oak, lose their leaves in winter, while others,
such as pine, never do. For example, in Atlanta, Georgia, there are oak, maple, and pine
trees. In summer the foliage is very heavy, but in winter the leaves of the oak and maple
trees fall and the pine leaves stay. In addition, when the length of pine needles reaches
approximately 6 in., which is the half wavelength at 800 MHz, a great deal of energy can be
absorbed by the pine trees. In these situations, it is very hard to predict the actual foliage
loss.
However, a rough estimate should be sufficient for the purpose of system design. In tropic
zones, the sizes of tree leaves are so large and thick that the signal can hardly penetrate. In
this case, the signal will propagate from the top of the tree and deflect to the mobile receiver.
We will include this calculation also.
Sometime the foliage loss can be treated as a wire-line loss, in decibels per foot or decibels
per meter, when the foliage is uniformly heavy and the path lengths are short. When the
path length is long and the foliage is non uniform, then decibels per octaves or decibels per
decade are used. In general, foliage lose occurs with respect to the frequency to the fourth
power. Also, at 800 MHz the foliage Lou along the radio path is 40 dB/dec, which is 20 dB
more than the free- space loss, with the same amount of additional loss for mobile
communications. Therefore, if the situation involves both foliage loss and mobile
communications, the total loss would be 60 dB/dec (=20 dB/ dec of free-space loss +
additional 20 dB due to foliage loss + additional 20 dB due to mobile communication).

This situation would be the case if the foliage would line up along the radio path. A foliage
loss in a suburban area of 58.4 dB/dec is shown in Fig.3.6. As demonstrated from the above
two examples, close-in foliage at the transmitter site always heavily attenuates signal
reception. Therefore, the cell site should be placed away from trees

Fig.3.5. A characteristic of foliage environment

Fig.3.6. Foliage loss calculation in suburban areas

SMALL SCALE MULTIPATH PROPAGATION:

The multipath propagation of radio signals over a short period of time or to travel a distance
is considered to be the small scale multipath propagation. As every type of multipath
propagation results in generating a faded signal at receiver, the small scale multipath
propagation also results in small scale fading. Hence, the signal at the receiver is obtained
by combining the various multipath waves. These waves will vary widely in amplitude and
phase depending on the distribution of the intensity and relative propagation time of the
waves and bandwidth of the transmitted signal.
The three fading effects that are generally observed due to the small scale multipath
propagation are,
1. Fast variations in signal strength of the transmitted signal for a lesser distance or time
interval.
2. The variations in Doppler shift on various multipath signals are responsible for random
frequency modulation.
3. The time dispersed signals are resulted due to multipath propagation delays.

In order to determine the small scale fading effects, we employ certain techniques. They
are,
1. Direct RF pulse measurement
2. Spread spectrum sliding correlation measurement.
3. Swept frequency measurement.

The first technique provides a local average power delay profile.

The second technique detects the transmitted signal with the help of a narrow band receiver
preceded by a wide band mixer though the probing (or received) signal is wide band.
The third technique is helpful in finding the impulse response of the channel in frequency
domain. By knowing the impulse response we can easily predict the signal obtained at the
receiver from the transmitter.

EFFECT OF PROPAGATION OF MOBILE SIGNALS OVER WATER OR FLAT OPEN AREA:

Propagation over Water or Flat Open Area: Propagation over water or fiat open area is
becoming a big concern because it is very easy to interfere with other cells if we do not make
the correct arrangements. Interference resulting from propagation over the water can be
controlled if we know the cause. In general, the permittivity’s Er of seawater and fresh water
are the same, but the conductivities of seawater and fresh water are different. We may
calculate the dielectric constants Ec where Ec = Er - j60σλ. The wavelength at 850MHz is
0.35m. Then Eo (sea water) = 80 - j84 and Ec (fresh water)=80-jO.021.

However, based upon the reflection coefficients formula with a small incident angle both the
reflection coefficients for horizontal polarized waves and vertically polarized waves approach
1. Since the 180* phase change occurs at the ground reflection point, the reflection
coefficient is -1. Now we can establish a scenario, as shown in Fig. 3.7 Since the two
antennas, one at the cell site and the other at the mobile unit, are well above sea level, two
reflection points are generated. The one reflected from the ground is close to the mobile unit;
the other reflected from the water is away from the mobile unit. We recall that the only
reflected wave we considered in the land mobile propagation is the one reflection point which
is always very close to the mobile unit. We are now using the formula to find the field
strength under the circumstances of a fixed point-to-point transmission and a land-mobile
transmission over a water or flat open land condition.

Fig. 3.7.A model for propagation over water

Between fixed stations: The point -to-point transmission between the fixed stations over
the water or flat open land can be estimated as follows. The received power P, can be
expressed as (see Fig.3.8)

Fig. 3.8.Propagation between two fixed stations over water or flat open land.

φ is the phase difference caused by the path difference M between the direct wave and the
reflected wave, or

The first part of i.e. the free-space loss formula which shows the 20 dB/dec slope; that is,
a 20-dB loss will be seen when propagating from 1 to 10 km.

The complex reflection co-efficient and can be found from the formula

When the vertical incidence is small, θ is very small and

can be found from equation. Ec is a dielectric constant that is different for different media.
The reflection coefficient remains -1 regardless of whether the wave propagated over water
dry land, wet land, Ice, and so forth. The wave propagating between fixed stations is
illustrated in Fig. 3.8.

since _φ is a function of d and d can be obtained from the following calculation. The effective
antenna height at antenna 1 is the height above the sea level.

The effective antenna height at antenna 2 is the height above the sea level.
As shown in Fig. 3.8 where h1 and h2 are actual heights and H1and H2 are the heights of
hills. In general, both antennas at fixed stations are high, so the resection point of the wave
will be found toward the middle of the radio path. The path difference d can be obtained
from Fig. 3.8 as

Then

We can setup five conditions:

MOBILE-TO-MOBILE PROPAGATION:
In mobile-to-mobile land communication, both the transmitter and the receiver are in
motion. The propagation path in this case is usually obstructed by buildings and obstacles
between the transmitter and receiver. The propagation channel acts like a filter with a time-
varying transfer function H (f, t) which can be found in this section.

The two mobile units M1 and M2 with velocities V1 and V2 respectively are shown in Fig.
Assume that the transmitted signal from M1 is

Where a1i and a2i are random angles as shown in Fig.3.8. Now assume that the received
signal is the summation of n paths uniformly distributed around the azimuth.
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF ANTENNAS:
The operating conditions of an actual antenna (Fig.) can be expressed in an equivalent circuit
for both receiving (Fig b) and transmitting (Fig.c). In Fig. 3.9, Za is the antenna impedance;
Zl is the load impedance, and Zt is the impedance at the transmitter terminal.

From the transmitting end (obtaining free-space path-loss formula):

Power Pt originates at a transmitting antenna and radiate out into space. (Equivalent circuit
of a transmitting antenna is shown in Fig.3.9b.) Assume that an isotropic source Pt is used
and that the power in the spherical space will be measured as the power per unit area. Thus
power density, called the Poynting vector p or the outward flow of electromagnetic energy
through a given surface area, is expressed as

A receiving antenna at a distance r from the transmitting antenna with an aperture A will
receive power

Fig.3.9 (a) An actual antenna ;(b) equivalent circuit of transmitting antenna;(c)

equivalent circuit of a receiving antenna

Figure 3.9 is a schematic representation of received power in space.

From the above equation we can derive the free-apace path-lose formula because we know
the relationship between the aperture A and the gain G.

For a short dipole, G=1. Then

Substitution of the above equation yields the free-space formula

Fig.3.10 Received power in space

Sum-And-Difference Patterns - Engineering Antenna Pattern :

After obtaining a predicted field-strength contour we can engineer an antenna pattern to

conform to uniform coverage. Far different antennae pointing in different directions and with
different spacing’s, we can use any of a number of methods. If we know the antenna pattern
and the geographic configuration of the antennae, a computer program can help us to find
the coverage. Several synthesis methods can be used to generate a desired antenna
configuration.

General formula:

Many applications of linear arrays are based on sum-and-difference patterns. The main
beam of the pattern is always known as the sum pattern pointing at an angle θo. The
difference pattern produces twin main beams straddling θo. When 2N elements are in in
array, equi spaced by a separation d, the general pattern for both sum and difference is

For a sum pattern, all the current amplitudes are the same.

For a difference pattern, the current amplitudes of one side (half of the total elements) are
positive and the current amplitudes of the other side (half of the total elements) are
negative.

Most pattern synthesis problems can be solved by determining the current distribution In a
few solutions follow.

i) Synthesis of sum patterns:

Dolph-Chebyshev synthesis of sum patterns: This method can be used to reduce the level
of side lobes; however, one disadvantage of further reduction of side lobe level is broadening
of the main beam.
Taylor synthesis: A continuous line-source distribution or a distribution for discrete arrays
can give a desired pattern which contains a single main beam of a prescribed beam width
and pointing direction with a family of side lobes at a common specified level. The Taylor
synthesis is derived from the following equation, where an antenna pattern F(θ) is
determined from an aperture current distribution g(l)

Fig3.11 A symmetrical sum pattern (a) The aperture distribution for the two-antenna
arrangement; (b) The evolution of a symmetrical sum pattern with reduced inner side
lobes.

Symmetrical pattern: For production of a symmetrical pattern at the main beam, the
current-amplitude distribution g(l) is the only factor to consider. The phase of the current
distribution can remain constant. A typical pattern (Fig.3.11a) would be generated from a
current-amplitude distribution (Fig.3.11.b).

Asymmetrical pattern: For production of an asymmetrical pattern, both current amplitude

g(l) and phase arg g(1) should be considered.

ii) Synthesis of difference patterns (Bayliss synthesis):

To find a continuous line source that will produce a symmetrical difference pattern, with
twin main beam patterns and specified side lobes, we can set

For a desired difference pattern such as that shown in Fig.3.12.a, the current-amplitude
distributions g(l) should be designed as shown in Fig. 3.12b and the phase arg g(1) as shown
in Fig. 3.12c.
Fig.3.12 A symmetrical difference pattern (a) A modified Bayliss difference pattern;
(b,c) Aperture distribution for the pattern

Null-free patterns:
In mobile communications applications, field-strength patterns without nulls are preferred
for the antennas in a vertical plane. The typical vertical pattern of most antennas is shown
in Fig. 3.13a. The field pattern can be represented as

Where u = (2a/λ)(cos θ — cos θn). The concept is to add all (sin Пu)/(Пu) patterns at different
pointing angles as shown in Fig. 2.3a. K is the maximum signal level. The resulting pattern
does not contain nulls. The null-free pattern can be applied in the field as shown in Fig.
2.3b

Fig.3.13 Null-free patterns (a) Formation of a null-free pattern

 COVERAGE OMNIDIRECTIONAL ANTENNAS

High-Gain Antennas: There are standard 6-dB and 9-dB gain Omni-directional antennas.
The antenna patterns for 6-dB gain and 9-dB gain are shown in Fig.3.13

Start-Up System Configuration: In a start-up system, an Omni cell, in which all the
transmitting antennas are Omni directional, is used. Each transmitting antenna can
transmit signals from N radio transmitters simultaneously using a N-channel combiner or
a broadband linear amplifier. Each cell normally can have three transmitting antennas
which serve 3N voice radio transmitters simultaneously
Fig3.14. High-gain Omni directional antennas (a) 6 dB (b) 9 dB

Fig.3.15 Cell site antennas for Omni cells (a) for 3N channels; (b) for 6N channels

Each sending signal is amplified by its own channel amplifier in each radio transmitter, or
N channels (radio signals) pass through a broadband linear amplifier and transmit signals
by means of a transmitting antenna (see Fig.3.15a).
Two receiving antennas commonly can receive all 3N voice radio signals simultaneously.
Then in each channel, two identical signals received by two receiving antennas pass through
a diversity receiver of that channel. The receiving antenna configuration on the antenna
mast is shown in Fig.3.15 For serving 6N voice radio transmitters from six transmitting
antennas is shown in Fig.3.15.

Abnormal Antenna Configuration: Usually, the call traffic in each cell increases as the
number of customer’s increases. Some cells require a greater number of radios to handle
the increasing traffic. An Omni cell site can be equipped with up to 90 voice radios for AMPS
systems. In such cases six transmitting antennas should be used as shown in Fig. 3.2b. In
the meantime, the number of receiving antennas is still two. In order to reduce the number
of transmitting antennas, a hybrid ring combiner that can combine two 16-channel signals
is found. This means that only three transmitting antennas are needed to transmit 90 radio
signals. However, the ring combiner has a limitation of handling power up to 600 W with a
loss of 3 dB.
REDUCING INTERFERENCE WITH DIRECTIONAL ANTENNAS :

When the frequency reuse scheme must be used in AMPS, co-channel interference will
occur. The co channel interference reduction factor q = D/R = 4.6 is based on the
assumption that the terrain is flat. Because actual terrain is seldom flat, we must either
increase q or use directional antennas.

Directional Antennas: A 120◦-corner reflector or 120◦-plane reflector can be used in a 120◦

- sector cell. A 60◦-corner reflector can be used in a 60◦-sector cell. A typical pattern for a
directional antenna of 120◦ beam width is shown in Fig.3.16.

Fig.3.16. Typical 8dB directional antenna pattern (a) Azimuthal pattern of 8dB
directional antenna; (b) Vertical pattern of 8dB directional antenna
Fig.3.17 Directional antenna arrangement (a) 120◦ sector (45 radios); (b) 60◦
sector;(c) 120◦ sector (90 radios)

Normal Antenna (Mature System) Configuration:

1.K = 7 cell pattern (120◦sectors). In a K = 7 cell pattern for frequency reuse, if 333
channels are used, each cell would have about 45 radios. Each 120◦ sector would have one
transmitting antenna and two receiving antennas and would serve 16 radios. The two
receiving antennas are used for diversity (see Fig. 3.17a).

2. K = 4 cell pattern (60◦sectors). We do not use K = 4 in an Omni cell system because the
co-channel reuse distance is not adequate. Therefore, in a K = 4 cell pattern, 60◦ sectors are
used. There are 24 sectors. In this K = 4 cell-pattern system, two approaches are used.

a. Transmitting-receiving 60◦sectors. Each sector has a transmitting antenna carrying its

own set of frequency radios and hands off frequencies to other neighboring sectors or other
cells. This is a full K = 4 cell-pattern system. If 333 channels are used, with 13 radios per
sector, there will be one transmitting antenna and one receiving antenna in each sector. At
the receiving end, two of six receiving antennas are selected for angle diversity for each radio
channel (see Fig.3.17b).

b. Receiving 60◦sectors. Only 60◦-sector receiving antennas are used to locate mobile units
and handoff to a proper neighboring cell with a high degree of accuracy. All the transmitting
antennas are Omni directional within each cell. At the receiving end, the angle diversity for
each radio channel is also used in this case.

Abnormal Antenna Configuration: If the call traffic is gradually increasing, there is an

economic advantage in using the existing cell systems rather than the new splitting cell
system (splitting into smaller cells). In the former, each site is capable of adding more radios.
In a K = 7 cell pattern with 120◦ sectors, two transmitting antennas at each sector are used
(Fig.3.17c). Each antenna serves 16 radios if a 16-channel combiner is used. One
observation from Fig. 3.17c
The two transmitting antennas in each sector are placed relatively closer to the receiving
antennas than in the single transmitting antenna case. This may cause some degree of
desensitization in the receivers. The technology cited can combine 32 channels in a
combiner; therefore, only one transmitting antenna is needed in each sector. However, this
one transmitting antenna must be capable of withstanding a high degree of transmitted
power. If each channel transmits 100 W, the total power that the antenna terminal could
withstand is3.2 kW.The 32-channel combiner has a power limitation which would be
specified by different manufacturers. Two receiving antennas in each 120◦ sector remain the
same for space diversity use.
SPACES-DIVERSITY ANTENNAS

Two-branch space-diversity antennas are used at the cell site to receive the same signal with
different fading envelopes, one at each antenna. The degree of correlation between two fading
envelopes is determined by the degree of separation between two receiving antennas. When
the two fading envelopes are combined, the degree of fading is reduced. Here the antenna
setup is shown in Fig. 3.18a.

Equation is presented as an example for the designer to use.

η = h/D = 11 (8.13-1)

Where h is the antenna height and D is the antenna separation. From Eq., the separation d
≥ 8λ is needed for an antenna height of 100 ft (30 m) and the separation d ≥ 14λ is needed
for an antenna height of 150 ft (50 m). In any Omni cell system, the two space-diversity
antennas should be aligned with the terrain, which should have a U shape as shown in
Fig.3.18b. Space-diversity antennas can separate only horizontally, not vertically; thus,
there is no advantage in using a vertical separation in the design.

Fig.3.18.Diversity antenna spacing at cell site: (a) n=h/d (b) Proper arrangement with
two antennas

UMBRELLAS-PATTERN ANTENNAS
In certain situations, umbrella-pattern antennas should be used for the cell-site antennas.

Fig.3.19Vertical-plane patterns of quarter-wavelength stub antenna on infinite

ground plane (solid) and on finite ground planes several wavelengths in diameter
(dashed line) and about one wavelength in diameter (dotted line).

i) Normal Umbrella-Pattern Antenna:

For controlling the energy in a confined area, the umbrella-pattern antenna can be developed
by using a monopole with a top disk (top-loading) as shown in Fig. 3.19. The size of the disk
determines the tilting angle of the pattern. The smaller the disk, the larger the tilting angle
of the umbrella pattern.
ii) Broadband Umbrella-Pattern Antenna:
The parameters of a Discone antenna (a bio conical antenna in which one of the cones is
extended to 180◦ to form a disk) are shown in Fig.3.19a. The diameter of the disk, the length
of the cone, and the opening of the cone can be adjusted to create an umbrella-pattern
antenna.
iii) Interference Reduction Antenna:
A design for an antenna configuration that reduces interference in two critical directions
(areas) is shown in Fig.3.20 The parasitic (insulation) element is about 1.05 times longer
than the active element.
iv) High-Gain Broadband Umbrella-Pattern Antenna: A high-gain antenna can be
constructed by vertically stacking a number of umbrella-pattern antennas as shown in
Fig.3.20b.

Fig.3.20 Discone antennas (a) Single antenna; (b) An array of antenna

MINIMUM SEPARATION OF CELL-SITE RECEIVING ANTENNAS

Separation between two transmitting antennas should be minimized to avoid the inter
modulation. The minimum separation between a transmitting antenna and a receiving
antenna is necessary to avoid receiver desensitization. Here we are describing a minimum
separation between two receiving antennas to reduce the antenna pattern ripple effects. The
two receiving antennas are used for a space-diversity receiver.
Because of the near field disturbance due to the close spacing, ripples will form in the
antenna patterns (Fig.3.21). The difference in power reception between two antennas at
different angles of arrival is shown in Fig. 3.21. If the antennas are located closer; the
difference in power between two antennas at a given pointing angle increases. Although the
power difference is confined to a small sector, it affects a large section of the street as shown
in Fig. 3.21.

If the power difference is excessive, use of space diversity will have no effect reducing fading.
At 850 MHz, the separation of eight wavelengths between two receiving antennas creates a
power difference of ±2 dB, which is tolerable for the advantageous use of a diversity scheme.
 Fig.3.21. Antenna pattern ripple effect

MOBILE ANTENNAS

The requirement of a mobile (motor-vehicle–mounted) antenna is an Omni-directional

antenna that can be located as high as possible from the point of reception. However, the
physical limitation of antenna height on the vehicle restricts this requirement. Generally,
the antenna should at least clear the top of the vehicle. Patterns for two types of mobile
antenna are shown in Fig.3.22.

Fig.3.22. Mobile antenna patterns (a) Roof mounted 3-dB-gain collinear antenna
versus roof-mounted quarter-wave antenna, (b) Window-mourned “on-glass” gain
antenna versus roof-mounted quarter-wave antenna.

Roof-Mounted Antenna:

The antenna pattern of a roof-mounted antenna is more or less uniformly distributed around
the mobile unit when measured at an antenna range in free space as shown in Fig.3.22. The
3-dBhigh-gain antenna shows a 3-dBgain over the quarter-wave antenna. However, the gain
of the antenna used at the mobile unit must be limited to 3 dB because the cell-site antenna
is rarely as high as the broadcasting antenna and out-of-sight conditions often prevail. The
mobile antenna with a gain of more than 3 dB can receive only a limited portion of the total
multipath signal in the elevation as measured under the out-of-sight condition.
 Fig.3.23 Vertical angle of signal arrival

Glass-Mounted Antennas:

There are many kinds of glass-mounted antennas. Energy is coupled through the glass;
therefore, there is no need to drill a hole. However, some energy is dissipated on passage
through the glass. The antenna gain range is 1 to 3 dB depending on the operating
frequency. The position of the glass-mounted antenna is always lower than that of the roof-
mounted antenna; generally there is a 3-dBdifference between these two types of antenna.
Also, glass mounted antennas cannot be installed on the shaded glass found in some motor
vehicles because this type of glass has a high metal content.

Mobile High-Gain Antennas:

A high-gain antenna used on a mobile unit has been studied. This type of high-gain antenna
should be distinguished from the directional antenna. In the directional antenna, the
antenna beam pattern is suppressed horizontally; in the high-gain antenna, the pattern is
suppressed vertically.
To apply either a directional antenna or a high-gain antenna for reception in a radio
environment, we must know the origin of the signal. If we point the directional antenna
opposite to the transmitter site, we would in theory receive nothing. In a mobile radio
environment, the scattered signals arrive at the mobile unit from every direction with equal
probability. That is why an Omni directional antenna must be used.
The scattered signals also arrive from different elevation angles. Lee and Brandt used two
types of antenna, one λ/4 whip antenna with elevation coverage of 39◦ and one 4-dB-gain
antenna (4-dB gain with respect to the gain of a dipole) with elevation coverage of 16◦ and
measured the angle of signal arrival in the suburban Keyport-Matawan area of New Jersey.
There are two types of test: a line-of-sight condition and an out-of-sight condition. In Lee
and Brandt’s study, the transmitter was located at an elevation of approximately 100 m (300
ft) above sea level.
The measured areas were about 12 m (40 ft) above sea level and the path length about 3 mi.
The received signal from the 4-dB-gain antenna was 4 dB stronger than that from the whip
antenna under line-of-sight conditions. This is what we would expect.
However, the received signal from the 4-dB-gain antenna was only about 2 dB stronger than
that from the whip antenna under out-of-sight conditions. This is surprising. The reason for
the latter observation is that the scattered signals arriving under out-of- sight conditions
are spread over a wide elevation angle. A large portion of the signals outside the elevation
angle of 16◦ cannot be received by the high-gain antenna.
 We may calculate the portion being received by the high-gain antenna from the measured
beam width. For instance, suppose that a 4:1 gain (6 dBi) is expected from the high-gain
antenna, but only 2.5:1 is received.
Therefore, 63 percent of the signal is received by the 4-dB-gain antenna (i.e., 6 dBi) and 37
percent is felt in the region between 16 and 39◦.

Therefore, a 2- to 3-dB-gain antenna (4 to 5 dBi) should be adequate for general use. An

antenna gain higher than 2 to 3 dB does not serve the purpose of enhancing reception level.
Moreover, measurements reveal that the elevation angle for scattered signals received in
urban areas is greater than that in suburban areas.
 Example problem 3.1
When the cell-site antenna height is 30 m (100 ft), the mobile unit 8 km (5 m) away sees
this cell-site effective antenna height as 60 m. Now if the antenna height is changed to 45
m, then find the changed effective antenna height seen by the same mobile unit.
Solution: Given
Old cell site antenna height, h1 = 30 m;New cell site antenna height, h′1 = 45 m
Effective antenna height seen by the mobile unit, he = 60 m;
The new cell-site effective antenna height, h′e seen from the mobile unit can be derived
h′e = he + (h′1 − h1) = 60 + (45 − 30) = 75 m
Example problem 3.2:From Figure 3.5, find the antenna height gain for both cases (a)
and (b).
Solution : In case (a) ha = 100 m; h′a = 140 m ; Δh = 40 m
In case (b) ha = 100 m; h′a = 300 m ; Δh = 200 m
The antenna height gain (ΔG) measurement for case (a) and case (b) is given by
Gain = ΔG = 20log (he/ha)
For case (a) ΔG = 20log (40/100) = −8 dB (negative gain value)
For case (b) ΔG = 20log (200/100) = 6 dB (positive gain value)

Figure 3.5 Antenna height gain

From the above example, it is evident that as the mobile unit travels along the road
according to the land profile whether hilly or quasi-flat terrain the gain value changes. In
addition, the effective antenna height changes as the mobile unit moves.
If the changes in antenna height gain are not considered as the mobile travels then the
path loss slope will 8 dB standard deviation. Otherwise it would be in range 2–3 dB.
 Example problem 3.3
A cell-site transmitter generates a + 15 dBm RF signal and is connected to an antenna
using an RF coaxial cable that induces a 3-dB loss. The cable has two connectors at its
either end that induce a loss of 2 dB each. What is the signal level at the input of the
antenna?
Solution :Data given:
The RF output signal level of cell-site transmitter = + 15 dBm
Signal loss due to one connector of RF coaxial cable = 2 dB
Step 1. To determine total loss in cable connectors
Number of connectors on a coaxial cable = 2
Therefore, signal loss due to both connectors = 2 × 2 = 4 dB
Step 2. To determine signal loss due to cable and connectors
Signal loss due to RF coaxial cable = 3 dB
Total signal loss due to cable and connectors = 3 dB × 4 dB = 7 dB
Step 3. To determine signal level at the input of the antenna
Signal level at the input of the antenna = +15 dBm − 7 dB = + 8 dBm
Example problem 9.2
A cell-site transmitter generates a + 12 dBm RF signal and is connected to an antenna
using an RF coaxial cable that induces a 2-dB loss. The cable has two connectors at its
either end that induce a loss of 3 dB each. What is the signal level at the input of the
antenna?
Solution:Data given:
The RF output signal level of cell-site transmitter = +15 dBm
Signal loss due to one connector of RF coaxial cable = 2 dB
Step 1. To determine total loss in cable connectors
Number of connectors on a coaxial cable = 2
Therefore, signal loss due to both connectors = 2 × 3 = 6 dB
Step 2. To determine signal loss due to cable and connectors
Signal loss due to RF coaxial cable = 3 dB
Total signal loss due to cable and connectors = 3 dB + 6 dB = 9 dB
Step 3. To determine signal level at the input of the antenna
Signal level at the input of the antenna = + 12 dBm − 9 dB = + 3 dBm
Exercise problems
1. A cell-site transmitter generates a + 10 dBm RF signal and is connected to an antenna
using an RF coaxial cable that induces a 1-dB loss. The cable has two connectors at its
either end that induce a loss of 3 dB each. What is the signal level at the input of the
antenna? (Ans: 3 dBm)
2. A cell-site transmitter generates a +11 dBm RF signal and is connected to an antenna using
an RF coaxial cable that induces a 2-dB loss. The cable has two connectors at its either
end that induce a loss of 2 dB each. What is the signal level at the input of the antenna?
(Ans: 5 dBm)
3. A cell-site transmitter generates a −9 dBm RF signal and is connected to an antenna using
an RF coaxial cable that induces a 3-dB loss. The cable has two connectors at its either
end that induce a loss of 1 dB each. What is the signal level at the input of the antenna?
(Ans: −14 dBm).
 Objective type questions and answers
1. Foliage areas are
a) natural terrains c) open areas
b) man-made structures d) urban areas
2. In a standard local mean spread, in the curve of signal strength versus
distance from transmitting antenna, the measured standard deviation would be
a) 18 dB c) 8 dB
b) 5 dB d) 0.8 dB
3. Foliage loss is due to
a) tall buildings c) tall trees, leaves, etc.
b) indoor structures d) outdoor structures
e)
4. A cell site located at a height covers a signal in
a) smaller arean c) short-distance propagation
b) larger area d) long-distance propagation
5. The gradual bending of rays due to changing effective dielectric constant of
atmosphere is the following effect
a) troposphere reflection c) moistness
b) troposphere refraction d) diffraction
6. Signal coverage can be found by ——— and generally applied to ———
a) coverage prediction models, end system c) point-to-point, end system
b) coverage prediction models, start up system d) point-to-point model, terrain contour
7. The path that is not obstructed by terrain profile and man-made structure is
a) non-obstructive path c) line-of-sight path
b) indirect path d) none
8. Consider the following statements and mention whether it is true or false:
o In man-made structures, there are sparse structures
o In man-made structures, there are dense man-made structures
a) first statement is true c) both are true
b) second statement is true d) both are false
9. In mobile-to mobile-propagation, the propagation channel acts as
a) repeater c) filter
b) attenuator d) amplifier
Answers: 1. (a), 2. (c), 3. (c), 4. (b), 5. (b), 6. (b), 7. (c), 8. (c), 9. (c).
Objective type questions and answers
1. In space diversity antennas, if h is the height of antenna and d is separation
distance, then efficiency η is
a) η = h2/d b.η = h/d c.η = h/d2 d.η = (h/d)2
2. Several vertically stacked umbrella pattern can form a(n)
a) abnormal antenna c) interference reduction antenna
b) high-gain antenna d) mobile antenna
3. Minimum separation of cell-site receiving antennas will have one of the
following advantage
a) can avoid intermodulation c) Reduces noise
b) reduces ISI d) controls distortion
4. The two-branch space diversity antennas can ——— in mobile communication
a) reduce fading c) reduce gain
b) increase fading d) increase ISI
5. The gain of glass-mounted antennas will be
a) 1–10 dB c) 4 dB
b) 3 dB d) 7 dB
6. Separation between two transmitting antennas at the same cell site should
be minimized to avoid
a) co-channel interference c) intermodulation
b) adjacent channel interference d) receiver desensitization
7. In abnormal antenna configuration, an omni cell-site is equipped with 45
channels, for which ………….. transmitting antennas are used.
a) 13 c) 3
b) 5 d) 9
8. One transmitting antenna for two receiving antennas is applied in directional
antenna arrangement. Then the type of cell sectoring is a …….
a) 60° sector c) 30° sector
b) 120° sector d) 90° sector
9. Cellular base-station receiving antennas are usually mounted in such a way
so as to obtain ——— diversity.
a. frequency c. space
b. polarization d. horizontal
10. The radiation resistance of a half-wave dipole antenna situated in free space
and fed at the centre is approximately
a) 50 Ω c) 300 Ω
b) 70 Ω d) 1 M Ω
Answers: 1. (a), 2. (b), 3. (a), 4. (a), 5. (b), 6. (c), 7. (c), 8. (b), 9. (c), 10. (b).
 UNIT-III
Interference
2.1 Introduction
In electronics and communications, especially in the field of telecommunications,
interference is anything which alters, modifies, or disrupts a signal as it travels along a
channel between a source and a receiver. The term typically refers to the addition of
unwanted signals to a useful signal. In a communication environment, there exist both
noise-limited and interference-limited environments. Point-to-point communication
suffers from noise-limited situations, whereas mobile radio environment is interference
limited as several transmitters and receivers are involved in the system.
Sources of interference include another mobile in the same cell, a call in progress in a
neighboring cell, another base station operating in the same frequency band, and any
non-cellular system which leaks energy into the cellular frequency band. The two major
types of system-generated cellular interferences are co-channel interference (CCI) and
adjacent-channel interference (ACI). Although interfering signals are often generated
within a cellular system, in practice they are difficult to control. The chapter introduces
the two types of interferences and estimates the interference levels of either type. It also
introduces the concept of a diversity receiver.

2.2 Types of interferences

Interference in mobile communications is of two types:
 Co-channel interference
 Adjacent-channel interference
The co-channel interference (CCI) is crosstalk from two different radio transmitters
using the same frequency. In cellular mobile communications (GSM & LTE [Long Term
Evolution] systems, for instance), frequency spectrum is a valuable resource which is
divided into non-overlapping spectrum bands that are assigned to different cells. The
CCI arises in the cellular mobile networks due to the phenomenon of frequency reuse.
Thus, besides the intended signal from the cell, signals at the same frequencies (co-
channel signals) arrive at the receiver from undesired transmitters located (far away) in
some other cells and lead to a deterioration in the receiver performance.
The adjacent-channel interference (ACI), also known as inter-channel interference, is the
interference caused by extraneous power from a signal in an adjacent channel. An ACI
may be caused by inadequate filtering, such as incomplete filtering of unwanted
modulation products in frequency modulation (FM) systems, improper tuning, or poor
frequency control, in either the reference channel or the interfering channel, or in both.
The problem can be particularly serious if an adjacent channel user is transmitting in a
very close range to a subscriber’s receiver, while the receiver attempts to receive a base
station on the desired channel. This is referred to as the near-far effect, where a nearby
transmitter (which may or may not be of the same type as that used by the cellular
system) captures the receiver of the subscriber. Alternatively, the near-far effect occurs
when a mobile close to a base station transmits on a channel close to one being used
by a weak mobile. The base station may have difficulty in discriminating the desired
mobile user from the “bleed over” caused by the close adjacent-channel mobile.

2.3 Co-channel interference areas in a system

The received voice quality is affected by the grade of coverage and the amount of CCI. In
order to detect channel interference areas in a cellular system, we have to perform two
tasks, discussed in the following.
 2.3.1 To find the co-channel interference area from a mobile receiver
The CCI can be measured by selecting any one channel (as interference is equal in all
the channels) and transmitting on that channel to all co-channel sites at night while
the mobile receiver is moving in one of the co-channel cells. Co-channel or inter-
channel interference is denoted as carrier-to-interference ratio (CIR) or signal-to-
interference ratio (SIR).
We now look out for any change detected by a field-strength recorder in the mobile unit
and compare the data with the condition of no co-channel sites being transmitted. This
test must be repeated as the mobile unit moves in every co-channel cell. To facilitate
this test, we can install a channel-scanning receiver in a car.
Suppose one channel (f1) which receives the signal level (no co-channel condition),
another channel (f 2) which receives the interference level (six-co-channel condition is
the maximum), and a third channel receives f3, which is not transmitting in the air.
Therefore, the noise level is recorded only in f3 (see Fig. 2.1).

Figure 2.1 CCI at the mobile unit

Carrier-to-interference ratio, C/I = f1 − f3 ; Carrier-to-noise ratio, C/N = f2 − f3
The following four conditions are used to compare the results.
 If C/I > 18 dB throughout most of the cell, the system is properly designed for capacity.
 If C/I < 18 dB and C/N > 18 dB in some areas, it is an indication of the presence of
CCI.
 If C/N and C/I are both less than 18 dB and C/N = C/I in a given area, it is an
indication of a coverage problem.
 If C/N and C/I are both less than 18 dB and C/N > C/I in a given area, there is a
coverage problem and CCI.
2.3.2 To find the co-channel interference area which affects a cell site
Reciprocity theorem is not applicable for CCI. Hence, the second task should be
performed. In this task, we record the signal strength at every co-channel cell site while a
mobile unit is travelling either in its own cell or in one of the co-channel cells shown in
Figure 2.2.First, we find the areas in an interfering cell in which the top 10 per cent level
of the signal transmitted from the mobile unit in those areas is received at the desired site
(Jth cell in Fig. 2.2). This top 10 per cent level can be distributed in different areas in a
cell. The average value of the received top 10 per cent level signal strength is used as the
interference level from that particular interfering cell. The mobile unit also travels in
different interfering cells. Up to six interference levels are obtained from a mobile unit
running in six interfering cells. We then calculate the average of the bottom 10 per cent
level of the signal strength which is transmitted from a mobile unit in the desired cell (Jth
cell) and received at the desired cell site as a carrier reception level.
Then we can re-establish the CIR received at a desired cell, say, the Jth cell, site as follows.

Figure 2.2 CCI at the cell site

Where: CJ is the desired carrier power from Jth cell base station I is the CCI
Ii is the interference power caused by the ith interfering co-channel cell base station
The number of co-channel cells in the system can be less than six. We then compare

and determine the CCI condition, which will be the same as that in task 1. NJ is the noise
level in the Jth cell assuming no interference exists.
2.4 Estimation of co-channel interference level
For a given cell size, the number of customers that a cellular system can support is
maximized if the cluster size is minimum.
The factor that limits the extent to which cluster size can be reduced is the CCI. This is
because reducing the cluster size has the effect of reducing the frequency reuse ratio,

Where: q is the frequency reuse factor; R is the radius of cell; D is the reuse distance
N is the cluster size or number of cells in the cluster;
With increase in q, spatial separation of co-channel cells increases leading to a decrease
in CCI. With decrease in q, N decreases leading to an increase in the number of replicas of
the cluster (M), which results in an increase in channel capacity (C); however, the CCI
increases.
In earlier days, in order to determine minimum signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and SIR that
would meet the quality-of-service objectives, simulators were used to conduct tests. The
results of these early studies determined that these quality objectives could be met under
the following conditions
 If the SNR is no less than 18 dB over 90 per cent of the coverage area for cells limited by
receiver noise
 If the SIR is no less than 17 dB over 90 per cent of the coverage area for cells limited by
interference.
Figure 2.3 begins our analysis by considering the interference from the nearest co-
channel base stations. It is assumed that the receiver noise is negligible compared to the
interference and also the reference base station is in the centre of the diagram.

Figure 2.3 First-tier CCI sources

From the reference base station, it is considered that a mobile unit is located on the cell
boundary at a distance equal to the cell radius R. This is the farthest point that a mobile
unit should be from its serving base station. The nearest co-channel sources are mobile
units in the co-channel cells and are all approximately at the reuse distance D from the
reference base station.
The SIR C/I is given by Equation (2.2) with j = 6 interference sources

Where: P1 is the desired signal power from desired base station

Pj is the interference power caused by Jth interfering co-channel cell base station.
Now if all of the mobile units have the same parameters and the environment is uniform
in all directions, then P 2 = P3 = … = P7
The SIR C/I at the desired mobile receiver is given by

Let Di be the distance between the ith interferer and the mobile. The received interference,
Ii, at a given mobile due to ith interfering cell is proportional to (Di)-γ, where γ is the path-
loss exponent and depends upon the terrain environment and 2 ≤ γ ≤ 5.
The received signal power, C is proportional to r-γ where r is the distance between the
mobile and serving base stations. The C/I at the desired mobile receiver is approximated
by

When the mobile is located at the cell boundary (i.e., r = R) and CCI from the second and
other higher tiers is neglected, this means that Ni = 6 and using (Di) ≡ D for i = 1, 2, …, Ni,
we have
 and

Using Equations (2.2) and (2.5), we have

Example problem 2.1

Suppose, as in the AMPS system, that a SIR of 18 dB is required. The path-loss exponent
is γ = 4.0. Considering only the nearest CCI sources, find the minimum cluster size.
Solution
Given γ = 4.0,SIR (dB) = 18 dB which implies signal to interference = 63.1.

Using Equation (2.6), we have

Therefore, N = 6.29 ∼ 7.
Table 2.1 includes a column of values of SIR assuming that the path-loss exponent γ = 2.
Only first-tier interference is taken into account, as the first-tier interference
predominates. In the presence of a deep fade, or when no first-tier sources are present,
interference from second or further tiers may be noticeable.
Table 2.1 Approximate signal-to-interference ratio for several reuse ratios with γ = 4

Where N = i2 - j2 - ij and q =
Figure 2.2 shows the geometry of the second and third CCI tiers. The second-tier radius
is the center-to-centre distance between large hexagons, that is,
 Figure 2.4 First-, second-, third-tier CCI
From the geometry, the third-tier radius is simply double the side of a large hexagon,
that is, R3 = 2D
For a path-loss exponent of γ = 4, interference from the second tier is

Where : is the level of interference from the first tier.

Equation (2.8) indicates that the interference from the second tier is 9.52 dB below the
level of interference from the first tier. Similarly, the interference from the third tier is
12 dB below the first-tier level. This method is applicable even when there is the need
to consider additional tiers of interference.
2.5 Real-time co-channel interference measurement
The frequency-reuse method is useful for increasing the efficiency of spectrum usage
but results in cochannel interference because the same frequency channel is used
repeatedly in different cochannel cells. Application of the cochannel interference
reduction factor q= D/R = 4.6 for a seven-cell reuse pattern (K = 7).In most mobile radio
environments, use of a seven-cell reuse pattern is not sufficient to avoid cochannel
interference. Increasing K > 7 would reduce the number of channels per cell, and that
would also reduce spectrum efficiency. Therefore, it might be advisable to retain the
same number of radios as the seven-cell system but to sector the cell radially, as if
slicing a pie. This technique would reduce cochannel interference and use channel
sharing and channel borrowing schemes to increase spectrum efficiency.
Real time co-channel interference measured at mobile radio transceiver:
When the carriers are angularly modulated by the voice signal and the RF frequency
difference between them is much higher than the fading frequency, measurement of the
signal carrier-to-interference ratio C/I reveals that the signal is
Design of antenna system:
Design of an Omnidirectional Antenna System in the Worst Case:
The value of q = 4.6 is valid for a normal interference case in a K=7 cell pattern. In this
section we would like to prove that a K=7 cell pattern does not provide a sufficient
frequency re-use distance separation eyen when an ideal condition of flat terrain is
assumed. The worst case is at the location where the weakest signal from its own cell
site but strong interferences from all interfering cell sites. In the worst case the mobile
unit is at the cell boundary R, as shown in Fig.2.5. The distances from all six cochannel
interfering sites are also shown in the figure: two distances of D - R, two distances of D,
and two distances of D + R.
Following the mobile radio propagation rule of 40 dB/dec, we obtain

Then the carrier-to-interference ratio is

Fig.2.5. Cochannel interference (a worst case)

Where q=4.6 is derived from the normal case. Substituting q=4.6 into above eqn. we
obtain C/I =54 or 17 dB, which is lower than 18 dB. To be conservative, we may use
the shortest distance D – R for all six interferers as a worst case; then we have
 (A70434) CELLULAR AND MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS (2018) UNIT-II
In reality, because of the imperfect site locations and the rolling nature of the terrain
configuration, the C/I received is always worse than 17 dB and could be 14 dB and
lower. Such an instance can easily our in a heavy traffic situation; therefore, the
system must be designed around the C/I of the worst case. In that case, a cochannel
interference reduction factor of q=4.6 is insufficient.
Therefore, in an omnidirectional-cell system, K = 9 or K 12 would be a correct choice.
Then the values of q are

Substituting these values in the equation

Design of antenna system; Design of a Directional Antenna System:

When the call traffic begins to increase, we need to use the frequency spectrum
efficiently and avoid increasing the number of cells K in a seven-cell frequency reuse
pattern. When K increases, the number of frequency channels assigned in a cell must
become smaller (assuming a total allocated channel divided by K) and the efficiency of
applying the frequency reuse scheme decrease.
Instead of increasing the number K in a set of cells, let us keep K =7 and introduce a
directional antenna arrangement. The cochannel interference can be reduced by using
directional antenna. This means that each cell is divided into three or six sectors and
uses three or six directional antennas at a base station. Each sector is assigned a set of
frequencies (channels). The interference between two cochannel cells decreases as
shown Fig.2.6
Directional antennas in K=7 cell patterns:
Three sector case: The three-sector case is shown in Fig.2.6 To illustrate the worst
case situation, two cochannel cells are shown in Fig. 2.6(a). The mobile unit at position
E will experience greater interference in the lower shaded cell sector than in the upper
shaded cell-sector site. This is because the mobile receiver receives the weakest signal
from its own cell but fairly strong interference from the interfering cell.
In a three-sector case, the interference is effective in only one direction because the
front-to-back ratio of a cell-site directional antenna is at least 10 dB or more in a
mobile radio environment. The worst-case cochannel interference in the directional-
antenna sectors in which interference occurs may be calculated. Because of the use of
directional antennas, the number of principal interferers is reduced from six to two
(Fig.2.6). The worst case of C/I occurs when the mobile unit is at position E, at which
point the distance between the mobile unit and the two interfering antennas is roughly
D + (R/2); however, C/I can be calculated more precisely as follows. The value of C/I
can be obtained by the following expression (assuming that the worst case is at position
E at which the distances from two interferers are D + 0.7R and D).
 Fig.2.6 interfering cells shown in a seven cell system (two-tiers

Fig.2.7 Determination of C/I in a directional antenna system. (a)Worst case in a 120

directional antenna system (N=7); (b) worst case in a 60 directional antenna system
(N=7)
Let q=4.6; then we have
The C/I received by a mobile unit from the 120° directional antenna sector system
expressed in Eq. above greatly exceeds 18 dB in a worst case. Equation above shows
that using directional antenna sectors can improve the signal-to-interference ratio, that
is, reduce the cochannel interference. However, in reality, the C/I could be 6 dB weaker
than in Eq. given above in a heavy traffic area as a result of irregular terrain contour
and imperfect site locations. The remaining 18.5 dB is still adequate.
Six-sector case: We may also divide a cell into six sectors by using six 60°-beam
directional antennas as shown in Fig.2.6 In this case, only one instance of interference
can occur in each sector as shown in Fig.2.6 Therefore, the carrier-to-interference ratio
in this case is which shows a further reduction of cochannel interference. If we use the
same argument as we did for Eq. above and subtract 6 dB from the result of Eq. the
remaining 23 dB is still more than adequate. When heavy traffic occurs, the 60°-sector
configuration can be used to reduce cochannel interference. However, fewer channels
are generally allowed in a 60° sector and the trunking efficiency decreases. In certain
cases, more available channels could be assigned in a 60° sector.
Directional antenna in K = 4 cell pattern:
Three-sector case: To obtain the carrier-to-interference ratio, we use the same
procedure as in the K = 7 cell-pattern system. The 120° directional antennas used in
the sectors reduced the interferers to two as in K = 7 systems, as shown in Fig.2.8. We
can apply Eq. here. For K = 4, the value of q = 3.46; therefore, Eq. becomes

If, using the same reasoning used with Eq. above, 6 dB is subtracted from the result of
Eq. above, the remaining 14 dB is unacceptable.

Six-sector case: There is only one interferer at a distance of D + R shown in Fig.2.8.

With q=3.46, we can obtain If 6 dB is subtracted from the above result, the remaining
20 dB is adequate.

Fig. 2.8 Interference with frequency reuse pattern K=4.

Under heavy traffic conditions, there is still a great deal of concern over using a K =4
cell pattern in a 60° sector.
Comparing K =7 and N =4 systems:
A K =7 cell pattern system is a logical way to begin an omnicell system. The co-channel
reuse distance is more or less adequate, according to the designed criterion. When the
traffic increases, a three sector system should be implemented, that is, with three 120°
directional antennas in place. In certain hot spots, 60° sectors can be use d locally to
increase the channel utilization.
If a given area is covered by both K=7 and K=4 cell patterns and both patterns have a
six-sector configuration, then the K=7 system has a total of 42 sectors, but the K=4
system has a total of only 24 sectors and, of course, the system of K=7 and six sectors
has less cochannel interference.
One advantage of 60° sectors with K=4 is that they require fewer cell sites than 120
sectors with K=7. Two disadvantages of 60 deg sectors are that (1) they require more
antennas to he mounted on the antenna mast and (2) they often require more frequent
handoffs because of the increased chance that the mobile units will travel across the
six sectors of the call. Furthermore, assigning the proper frequency channel to the
mobile unit in each sector is more difficult unless the antenna height at the cell site is
increased so that the mobile unit can be located more precisely. In reality the terrain is
not flat, end coverage is never uniformly distributed; in addition, the directional
antenna front-to-back power ratio in the field is very difficult to predict. In small cells,
interference could become uncontrollable; then the use of a K = 4 pattern with 60 deg
sectors in small cells needs to be considered only for special implementations such an
portable cellular systems or narrow beam applications. For small cells, a better
alternative scheme is to use a K =7 pattern with 120° sectors plus the underlay-overlay
configuration.

Antenna parameters and their effects:

Lowering the Antenna Height: Lowering the antenna height does not always reduce
the co-channel interference. In some circumstances, such as on fairly flat ground or in
a valley situation, lowering the antenna height will be very effective for reducing the
cochannel and adjacent-channel interference, However, there are three cases where
lowering the antenna height may or may not effectively help reduce the interference.

On a high hill or a high spot: The effective antenna height, rather than the actual
height, is always considered in the system design. Therefore, the effective antenna
height varies according to the location of the mobile unit. When the antenna site is on a
bill, as shown in Fig. 2.9(a), the effective antenna height is h1 + H.

Fig. 2.9.Lowering the antenna height (a) on a high hill and (b) in a valley

If we reduce the actual antenna height to 0.5h1, the effective antenna height becomes
0.5h1 + H. The reduction in gain resulting from the height reduction is

If h1<<H, then the above equation becomes

This simply proves that lowering antenna height on the kill does not reduce the
received power at either the cell site or the mobile unit.
In a valley: The effective antenna height as seen from the mobile unit shown in Fig.
2.9(b) is he1, which is less than the actual antenna height h1. If he1= 2/3 h1, and the
antenna is lowered to ½ h1, then the new effective antenna height is

Then the antenna gain is reduced by

This simply proves that the lowered antenna height in a valley is very effective in
reducing the radiated power in a distant high elevation area. However, in the area
adjacent to the cell-site antenna the effective antenna height is the same as the actual
antenna height. The power reduction caused by decreasing antenna height by half is
only

In a forested area: In a forested area, the antenna should clear the tops of any trees in
the vicinity, especially when they are very close to the antenna. In this case decreasing
the height of the antenna would not be the proper procedure for reducing cochannel
interference because excessive attenuation of the desired signal would occur in the
vicinity of the antenna and in its cell boundary if the antenna were below the treetop
level.

Diversity Techniques:
Diversity: It is the technique used to compensate for fading channel impairments. It is
implemented by using two or more receiving antennas. While Equalization is used to
counter the effects of ISI, Diversity is usually employed to reduce the depth and
duration of the fades experienced by a receiver in a flat fading channel.

These techniques can be employed at both base station and mobile receivers. Spatial
Diversity is the most widely used diversity technique.

Spatial Diversity Technique‐A Brief Description

In this technique multiple antennas are strategically spaced and connected to common
receiving system. While one antenna sees a signal null, one of the other antennas may
see a signal peak, and the receiver is able to select the antenna with the best signal at
any time. The CDMA systems use Rake receivers which provide improvement through
time diversity.

KINDS OF DIVERSITY:
TABLE:
Types of Diversity:

MACROSCOPIC DIVERSITY MICROSCOPIC DIVERSITY

•Prevents Large Scale fading. •Prevents Small Scale fading.
•Large Scale fading is caused by •Small Scale fading is caused by multiple
shadowing due to variation in both the reflections from the surroundings. It is
terrain profile and the nature of the characterized by deep and rapid amplitude
surroundings. fluctuations which occur as the mobile
Large Scale fading is log normally moves over distances of a few wavelength.
distributed signal. •This fading is prevented by selecting an
•This fading is prevented by selecting antenna which gives a strong signal that
an antenna which is not shadowed
when others are, this allows increase in
the signal‐to‐noise ratio.
The receiver branch having the highest instantaneous SNR is connected to the
demodulator. The antenna signals themselves could be sampled and the best one sent
to a single demodulation

Maximal ratio combining:

The signals from all of the M branches are weighted according to their signal voltage to
noise power ratios and then summed

Feedback or scanning diversity: the signal, the best of M signals, is received until it
falls below threshold and the scanning process is again initiated

Polarization diversity: Theoretical model for polarization diversity

RAKE Receiver:

Fig. 16 An M-branch (M-finger) RAKE receiver implementation.

Each correlator detects a time shifted version of the original CDMA transmission, and
each finger of the RAKE correlates to a portion of the signal which is delayed by at least
one chip in time from the other finger.
2.7 Non-co-channel interference
Two major types of non-CCI discussed in this section are as follows:
 Adjacent-channel interference
 Near-end to far-end ratio interference

2.7.1 Adjacent-channel interference

The ACI can be classified as either in-band or out-of-band interference. The term in-
band is applied when the centre of the interfering signal bandwidth falls within the
bandwidth of the desired signal. The term out-of-band is applied when the centre of
the interfering signal bandwidth falls outside the bandwidth of the desired signal.
In the mobile radio environment, the desired signal and the adjacent-channel signal
may be partially correlated with their fades. When ACI is compared with CCI at the
same level of interfering power, the effects of the ACI are always less.
ACI can be eliminated on the basis of the channel assignment, the filter
characteristics, reduction of near-end to far-end ratio interference, and also by
keeping frequency separation between each channel as large as possible, avoiding
the use of adjacent channels in neighbouring cell sites, and so on. ACI includes
next-channel (the channel next to the operating channel) interference and
neighbouring-channel (more than one channel away from the operating channel)
interference. It can be reduced by frequency assignment.

2.7.1.1 Next-channel interference

For any particular mobile unit, the next-channel interference affecting it cannot be
caused by transmitters in the common cell site but must originate at several other
cell sites. This is due to the fact that any channel combiner at the cell site must
combine the selected channels, normally 21 channels (630 kHz), or at least 10
channels away from the desired one. Without proper system design, next-channel
interference will arrive at the mobile unit from other cell sites. In addition,
interference can be caused by a mobile unit initiating a call on a control channel in
a cell with the next control channel at another cell site. Next-channel interference
reduction methods use the receiving end. Filters with a sharp falloff slope can help
to reduce all the ACI, including the next-channel interference.
2.7.1.2 Neighbouring-channel interference
Neighbouring-channel interference is another type of ACI that is unique to the
mobile radio system. It is caused by the channels that are several channels away
from the desired channel. In general, a fixed set of channels is assigned to each cell
site.

To reduce inter-modulation products, a sufficient amount of band isolation

between channels is required for a multi-channel combiner if all the channels are
simultaneously transmitted at one cell-site antenna. Evolving technologies are
focusing on using multiple antennas instead of one antenna at the cell site with the
assumption that band separation requirements can be resolved.
2.7.1.3 Transmitting and receiving channels interference
Transmitting and receiving channels interference is another type of ACI caused by
the transmitting channels. This is because the transmitting channels are so strong
that they can mask the weak signals received from the receiving channels. This
effect can be reduced by the following means:
 In FDMA and TDMA systems, a guard band of 20 MHz is used to separate the
transmitting and receiving channels.
 The duplexer can be used but it only provides an isolation of around 30–20 dB.
 By band isolation.

2.7.2 Near-end to far-end ratio interference

A type of interference which occurs only in mobile communication systems is the
near-end to far-end type of interference. This kind of interference appears when the
distance between a mobile unit and the base station transmitter becomes critical
with respect to another mobile transmission that is close enough to override the
desired base station signal. This phenomenon occurs when a mobile unit is
relatively far from its desired base station transmitter at a distance d0, but close
enough to its undesired nearby mobile transmitter at a distance d1, and d1 > d0
(refer Fig. 2.6).
The problem in such a situation is whether the two transmitters will transmit
simultaneously at the same power and frequency, thus masking the signals
received by the mobile unit from the desired source by the signals received from the
undesired source. In addition, this type of interference can take place at the base
station when signals are received simultaneously from two mobile units that are at
unequal distances from the base station. The power difference due to the path loss
between the receiving location and the two transmitters is called the near-end to
far-end ratio interference and is expressed by the ratio of path loss at distance d1 to
the path loss at distance d0.
This form of interference is unique to mobile radio systems. It may occur both
within one cell and within cells of two systems.

2.7.2.1 In one cell

When mobile station A is located close to the base station, and at the same time
mobile station B is located far away from the same base station (e.g., at the cell
boundaries), mobile station Acauses ACI to the base station and mobile station B
(Fig. 2.6). The C/I at mobile station B is expressed by the following equation:

Where γ is the path-loss slope

d0 is the distance from base station to desirable mobile station A
d1 is the distance from base station to undesirable mobile station B

Figure 2.6 Near-far interference in one cells

Since d0 > d1, from Equation (2.9) we obtain C/I < 1. This means that the
interfering signal is stronger than the desired signal. This problem can be rectified if
the filters used for frequency separation have sharp cut-off slopes. The frequency
separation can be expressed as follows:
Frequency band separation is 2G−1B; where

B is the channel bandwidth,L is the filter cut-off slope.

2.7.2.2 In cells of two systems
If two different mobile operators cover an area, ACI may occur if the frequency
channels of the two systems are not properly coordinated.
In Figure 2.7, two different mobile radio systems are depicted.
Mobile station A is located at the cell boundaries of system A, but very close to base
station B. In addition, mobile station B is located at the cell boundaries of system B,
but very close to base station A. Interference may occur at base station A from
mobile station B and at mobile station B from base station A. The same interference
will be introduced at base station B and at mobile station A.
This form of interference can be eliminated if the frequency channels of the two
systems are properly coordinated, as mentioned earlier. If such a case occurs, two
different systems operating in the same area may have co-located base stations.
 Figure 2.7 Near-far interference in cells of two systems

2.8 Estimation of adjacent-channel interference levels

A receiver in the cellular system must be designed to receive all channels in the
cellular system band, as a telephone connection may be assigned to any of the
possible channels. By using a highly selective filter, the receiver separates one
channel from another. The pass band bandwidth of the filter is equal to the
bandwidth of the channel.
To prevent signals in the adjacent channels from passing to the demodulator, the
filter must cut off sharply at the pass band edges. A “brick wall” filter, which cuts
off abruptly and completely at the pass band edges, is impossible to realize. In
addition, sharp cut-off filters may be too expensive for mass consumer markets. For
both analog and digital implementations, the performance of a filter is very sensitive
to small errors in the component or coefficient values.

ACI can be a problem, even with highly selective channel filtering. There are a few
strategies available for dealing with this problem. A common strategy is to avoid
using adjacent channels in the same market area. This strategy is used in both AM
and FM broadcasting and in television. In cellular systems, however, the number of
channels available translates directly into the number of customers and in turn into
revenue. Channels are too valuable to be set aside for interference avoidance.

With the dynamic control of the power in a mobile unit transmitter, less power can
be transmitted when it is nearer the base station than it does when it is at a cell
edge. In modern cellular systems, to maintain a constant received power level at a
base station, a mobile unit’s transmitted power is adjusted in 1 dB increments
every few milliseconds, as the mobile unit moves over the cell’s coverage area.
Finally, channel partition can be made so that adjacent channels are assigned to
the same cell or to cells that are immediate neighbours. This will guarantee that an
interference source cannot get physically close to a base station receiver. However,
the available channels will be divided up among a relatively small number of cells
when cluster sizes are small. In this case, it may be difficult to avoid assigning
adjacent channels to the same or nearby cells, and ACI may significantly limit how
small the clusters can be made.
Effects on coverage and interference by power decrease and Antenna height decrease
Effects of cell site components :
Channel Combiner:
1. A Fixed Tuned Channel Combiner: At the travelling side, a fixed tunable combined
unit is used. In every cell site, a channel combiner circuit is installed. The transmitted
channels have to be combined based on the following two criteria,
a) The signal isolation between the radio channels must be maximum
b) The insertion loss should be minimum. However, the usage of channel combiner
can be avoided by feeding each channel to its corresponding antenna.
But, if there are I6 channels available in a cell site, there will be requirement of 16
antennas for operation which is bottle neck for real time functionalities. It is not
economical to hive huge hardware setups. Thus, a conventional combiner can he used,
which has 16 channel combining capacity and it is based on the frequency subset of 16
channels of cell site.
The channel combiner would be responsible for each of the 16 channels to exhibit a 3 dB
loss due to the signal insertion in to the channel combiner. The signal isolation would be
17dB, if every channel is separated from its neighboring channels by 630 kHz frequency.

2. Tunable Combiner: Tunable combiner is also referred as frequency agile combiner.

The frequency agile combiner is an advanced combiner circuit with additional features. It
can return any frequency in real time by remote control device, namely microprocessor.
This combiner is essentially a waveguide resonator with a tuning bar facility. A motor
makes the tuning bar to rotate and once the motor starts rotating, the Voltage Standing
Wave Ratio (VSWR) can be measured.

The controller unit has self-adjusting feature and it accepts an optimum value of VSWR
as the motor complete, a full turn. The controller is compatible only with dynamic
frequency assignment.

The cell-sites should be flexible to change their operating frequency ‘f’ that is controlled
by MTSO/MSC. Thus, we can use this frequency agile combiner in the cell site
transceiver setup.

3. Ring Combiner: Ring combiner is used to combine two groups of channels to give one
output. This combiner has an insertion loss of 3 dB. For example, using a ring combiner
two 16 channel groups into one 32 channel output. Even 64 channels can be used with
this combiner if two antennas arc available in the cell site. In case of low transmitter
power more than one ring combiner can be used for combining. However, the demerits of
ring combiners are.
a) It reduces adjacent-channel separation.
b) They may be affected from the problem of power limitations.

Demultiplexer at the Receiving End

The main theme of using demultiplexer at the receiver end is to reduce the non co-
channel interference. A 16:1 demultiplexer is used in between the pre-amplifier stage
and filter stage as shown in figure 10.16 below.

Particularly, 16:1 demultiplexer is used in order to receive 16 channels from a single

antenna. The output of each antenna reaches demultiplexer after passing through a 25
dB gain amplifier. The total split loss of demultiplexer output and due to 16 channels is
given by.

S =10 log 16
= 12.04
S =12.04 dB
Care must be taken such that the intermodulation product at the demultiplexer output
is 65 dB down and the space diversity antennas connected to an umbrella filter must
have a 55 dB rejection from other systems band, otherwise in case. if a dummy mobile
unit is close to the cell site then the preamplifier generates intermodulation frequency at
the amplifiers output which may lead to cross talk.
 Example problem 2.1
If signal-to-noise interference ratio of 15 dB is required for a satisfactory forward channel
performance of a cellular system, what is frequency reuse factor and cellular size that
should be used for maximum capacity if the path-loss exponent is (a) γ = 4 and (b) γ = 3?
Assume that there are six co-channel cells in the first tier and all of them are at the same
distance from the mobile. Use suitable approximations.
Solution
1. Path-loss exponent γ = 4
First, let cluster size N = 7

And
Since this is greater than minimum required , N = 7 can be used.
2. Path-loss exponent γ = 3

Let N = 7
which is less than minimum required , hence we need to use larger N.
∴ Next possible value of N = 12 for i = j = 2. (N = i2 - j2 - ij)
For N = 12,

Since this is greater than minimum required , N = 12 is used.

Example problem 2.2
If signal-to-noise interference ratio of 20 dB is required for a satisfactory forward channel
performance of a cellular system, what is the frequency reuse factor and the cellular size
that should be used for maximum capacity if the path-loss exponent is (a) γ = 6 and (b) γ
= 4? Assume that there are six co-channel cells in the first tier and all of them at the
same distance from the mobile. Use suitable approximations.
Solution
1. Path-loss exponent γ = 6
First, let cluster size N = 7.

and

Since this is greater than minimum required , N = 7 can be used.

2. Path-loss exponent γ = 4
Let N = 7

which is less than minimum required , hence we need to use larger N.

Next possible value of N = 12 for i = j = 2 (N = i2 - j2 - ij)
For N = 12,
 which is less than minimum required hence we need to use larger N. Continue this for
lager values of N until is greater than the minimum required.

Objective type questions and answers

1. Anything which alters, modifies, or disrupts a signal as it travels along a channel between
a source and a receiver is called as
1. noise
2. interference
3. crosstalk
4. deterioration in receiver
2. For hexagonal cellular systems, the interference that results from the first tier is
1. next-channel interference
2. near-end to far-end interference
3. co-channel interference
4. adjacent-channel interference
3. Co-channel interference can be reduced by
1. decreasing D/R
2. increasing co-channel interference ratio, q
3. reducing number of channels
4. increasing cluster size (N)
4. Adjacent-channel interference is caused by signals from
1. same frequencies
2. same cell site
3. neighbouring frequencies
4. neighbouring cell site
5. Adjacent-channel interference is reduced if the separation between adjacent
channels in a cell is
1. maximum
2. minimum
3. unaltered
4. doubled
6. Co-channel interference limits the extent to which
1. cluster size can be reduced
2. transmit power can be used
3. co-channel interference ratio can be increased
4. number of channels that can be used in a cell site
7. Interference caused by the channels that are several channels away from the desired
channel is known as
1. next-channel interference
2. transmitting and receiving channel interference
3. neighbouring-channel interference
4. intra-channel interference
Answers: 1. (b), 2. (c), 3. (b), 2. (c), 5. (a), 6. (a), 7. (c).
Key equations
1. Carrier-to-interference ratio received at a desired cell

2. Frequency reuse ratio.

3. The signal-to-interference ratio C/I is given by equation with J = 6 interference

sources

4. The signal-to-interference ratio C/I at the desired mobile receiver is given by

5. Frequency band separation 2G-1B

 UNIT-IV
INTRODUCTION TO FREQUENCY MANAGEMENT

The function of frequency management is to divide the total number of available

channels into subsets which can be assigned to each cell either in a fixed fashion or
dynamically (i.e., in response to any channel among the available channels). The terms

Frequency management and channel assignment often create some confusion.

Frequency management refers to designating setup channels and voice channels (done
by the FCC), numbering the channels (done by the FCC), and grouping the voice
channels into subsets (done by each system according to its preference).

Channel assignment refers to the allocation of specific channels to cell sites and
mobile units. A fixed channel set consisting of one more subsets is assigned to a cell
site on a long-term basis. During a call, a particular channel is assigned to a mobile
unit on a short- term basis. For a short-term assignment, one channel assignment per
call is handled by the mobile telephone switching office (MTSO). Ideally channel
assignment should be based on causing the least interference in the system. However,
most cellular systems cannot perform this way.

4.1 NUMBERING THE RADIO CHANNELS

The total number of channels in the year (January 1988) is 832. But most
mobile unit systems are still operating on 666 channels. Therefore we describe the 666
channel numbering first. A channel consists of two frequency channel bandwidths, one
in the low band and one in the high band. Two frequencies in channel 1 are 825.030
MHz (mobile transmit) 870.030 MHz (cell-site transmit). The two frequencies in
channel 666 are 844.98 MHz (mobile transmit) and 898 MHz (cell-site transmit). The
666 channels are divided into two groups: block A system and block B system. Each
market (i.e., each city) has two systems for a duopoly market policy. Each block has
333 channels, as shown in Fig.4.1.

The 42 set-up channels are assigned as follows.

Channels 313-333 block A

Channels 334-354 block B

The voice channels are assigned as follows.

block
Channels 1-312 (312 voice channels) A
block
Channels 355-666 (312 voice channels) B
 Fig.4.1. Frequency management chart

These 42 set-up channels are assigned in the middle of all the assigned channels
to facilitate scanning of those channels by frequency synthesizers. In the new additional
spectrum allocation of 10 MHz (sec Fig. 4.2.), an additional 166 channels are assigned.
Since a 1 MHz is assigned below 825 MHz (or 870 MHz) in the future, additional4
channels will be numbered up to 849 MHz (or 894 MHz) and will then circle back. The
last channel number is 10423. There are no Channels between channels 799 and 991.

Fig.4.2. New additional spectrum allocation

 4.2 GROUPING INTO SUBSETS

The number of voice channels for each system is 312. We can group these into any
number of subsets. Since there are 21 set-up channels for each system, it is logical to
group the 312 channels into 21 subsets. Each subset then consists of 16 channels. In
each set, the closest adjacent channel is 21 channels away, as shown in Fig.4.1. The 16
channels in each subset can be mounted on a frame and connected to a channel
combiner. Wide separation between adjacent channels is required for meeting the
requirement of minimum isolation. Each 16- channel subset is idealized for each 16-
channel combiner. In a seven- cell frequency-reuse cell system each cell contains three
subsets, iA+iB+iC, where i is an integer from 1 to 7. The total number of voice channels in
a cell is about 45. The minimum separation between three subsets is 4 channels. If six
subsets are equipped in an omnicell site, the minimum separation between two adjacent
channels can be only three (21/6> 3) physical channel bandwidths.

For example, 1A+1B+1C+4A+4B +4 C or 1A+1B+1C+5A+5B+5C

4.3 SET-UP CHANNELS

Set-up channels also called control channels are the channels designated to setup
calls. We should not be confused by fact that a call always needs a set-up channel. A
system can be operated without set-up channels. If we are choosing such a system all the
333 channels in each cellular system (block A or block B) can be voice channels; however
each mobile unit must then scan 333 channels continuously and detect the signaling for
its call. A customer who wants to initiate a call must scan all the channels and find an idle
(unoccupied) one to use.

In a cellular system, we are implementing frequency-reuse concepts. In this case

the set-up channels are acting as control channels. The 21 set-up channels are taken out
from the total number of channels. The number 21 is derived from a seven-cell frequency-
reuse pattern with three 120◦ sectors per cell, or a total of 21 sectors, which require 21
set-up channels. However, now only a few of the 21 setup channels are being used in each
system. Theoretically, when cell size decreases the use of set-up channels should increase.
Set-up channels can be classified by usage into two types: access channels and paging
channels.

An access channel is used for the mobile-originating calls and paging channels for
the land originating calls. For this reason, a set-up channel is sometimes called an access
channel‘and sometimes called a paging channel.‘ Every two- way channel contains two 30-
kHz bandwidth. Normally one set-up channel is also specified by two operations as a
forward set-up channel (using the upper band) and a reverse set-up channel (using the
lower band). In the most common types of cellular systems, one set-up channel is used for
both access and paging. The forward set-up channel functions as the paging channel for
responding to the mobile-originating calls. The reverse set-up channel functions as the
access channel for the responder to the paging call. The forward set-up channel is
transmitted at the cell site, and the reverse set-up channel is transmitted at the mobile
unit. All set-up channels carry data information only.
4.3.1. Access channels:
In mobile-originating calls, the mobile unit scans its 21 set-up channels and
chooses the strongest one. Because each set-up channel is associated with one cell, the
strongest set-up channel indicates which cell is to serve the mobile-originating calls. Th.
mobile unit detects the system information transmitted from the cell site.
Also, the mobile unit monitors the Busy/Idle status bits over the desired forward
setup channel. When the idle bits are received, the mobile unit can use the corresponding
reverse set-up channel to initiate a call.Frequently only one system operates in a given
city; for instance, block B system might be operating and the mobile unit could be set to
―preferable A system.‖
When the mobile unit first scans the 21 set-up channels in block A, two conditions can
occur.
1.If no set-up channels of block A are operational, the mobile unit automatically switches
to block B.
2. If a strong set-up signal strength is received but no message can be detected, then the
scanner chooses the second strongest set-up channel. If the message still cannot be
detected, the mobile unit switches to block B and scans to block B set-up channels.

The operational functions are described as follows:

1. Power of a forward set-up channel [or forward control channel (FOCC)]: The power
of the set-up channel can be varied in order to control the number of incoming calls served
by the cell. The number of mobile-originating calls is limited by the number of voice
channels in each cell site, when the traffic is heavy, most voice channels are occupied and
the power of the set-up channel should be reduced in order to reduce the coverage of the
cell for the incoming calls originating from the mobile unit. This will force the mobile units
to originate calls from other cell sites, assuming that all cells are adequately overlapped.
2. The set-up channel received level: The setup channel threshold level is
determined in order to control the reception at the reverse control channel (RECC). If the
received power level is greater than the given set-up threshold level, the call request will be
taken.
3. Change power at the mobile unit: When the mobile unit monitors the strongest
signal strength from all Set-up channels and selects that channel to receive the messages,
there are three types of message.
a. Mobile station control message. This message is used for paging and consists of
one, two, or four words -DCC, MIN, SCC and VMAX.

b. System parameter overhead message. This message contains two words,

including DCC, SID, CMAX, or CPA.

c. Control-filler message. This message may be sent with a system parameter

overhead message, CMAC—a control mobile attenuation code (seven levels).
4. Direct calls retry. When a cell site has no available voice channels, it can send a
direct call-retry message through the set-up channel. The mobile unit will initiate, the call
from a neighboring cell which is on the list of neighboring cells in the direct call-retry
message.
 4.3.2. Paging channels:
Each cell site has been allocated its own setup channel (control channel). The assigned
forward set-up channel (FOCC) of each cell site is used to page the mobile unit with the
same mobile station control message.
Because the same message is transmitted by the different set-up channels, no simulcast
interference occurs in the system. The algorithm for paging & mobile unit can be
performed in different ways. The simplest way is to page from all the cell sites. This can
occupy a large amount of the traffic load. The other way is to page in an area
corresponding to the mobile unit phone number. If there is no answer, the system tries to
page in other areas. The drawback is that response time is sometimes too long.
When the mobile unit responds to the page on the reverse set-up channel, the cell site
which receives the response checks the signal reception level and makes a decision
regarding the voice channel assignment based on least interference in the selected sector
or underlay-overlay region.

There are three channel assignment strategies in cellular system:

A. Fixed channel assignment:
1. In fixed channel assignment each cell is permanently allocated predetermined group
of channels. Any call attempt within cell can only be served by unused channels in that
particular cell.
2. If all channels are occupied, the call is blocked and subscriber does not receive
service.
3. Borrowing technique where a cell is allowed to borrow channels from a neighboring
cell if all channels are already occupied is always used with this type of strategy. Mobile
Base station (MSC) monitors the function of base station including borrowing ensuring
that borrowing does not interfere with any call in progress in donor cell.
B. Dynamic channel assignment:
1. In dynamic channel assignment strategy, voice channels are not allocated
permanently.
2. Entire pool of frequency channels lies with MSC and each time a call request is made,
the serving base station requests a channel from the MSC. Switch then allocates a
channel to the requested cell following a algorithm.
3. MSC allocates frequency channels on dynamic basis if that frequency channel is not
presently in use in the cell or any other cell which falls within the minimum restricted
distance of frequency reuse to avoid co-channel interference.
4. It reduces chances of blocking which increases trunking capacity of system as all
available channels are accessible to all cells.
5. In this MSC has to collect real time data on channel occupancy, traffic distribution,
radio signal strength indication of all channels on continuous basis, thus increasing the
computational load on MSC.
 C.Hybrid channel assignment:

4.4 FIXED CHANNEL ASSIGNMENT

Adjacent-Channel Assignment: Adjacent-channel assignment includes neighboring-
channel assignment and next-channel assignment. The near-end–far-end (ratio)
interference can occur among the neighboring channels (four channels on each side of the
desired channel). Therefore, within a cell we have to be sure to assign neighboring
channels in an Omni-directional-cell system and in a directional-ante-cell system properly.
In an Omni-directional-cell system, if one channel is assigned to the middle cell of
seven cells, next channels cannot be assigned in the same cell. Also, no next channel
(preferably including neighboring channels) should be assigned in the six neighboring sites
in the same cell system area (Fig. 4.3a). In a directional-antenna-cell system, if one
channel is assigned to a face, next channels cannot be assigned to the same face or to the
other two faces in the same cell. Also, next channels cannot be assigned to the other two
faces at the same cell site (Fig. 4.3b). Sometimes the next channels are assigned in the
next sector of the same cell in order to increase capacity. Then performance can still be in
the tolerance range if the design is proper.

Fig.4.3 Adjacent channel assignment (a) Omni direction antenna cells ;(b) Directional antenna cells
 4.5 CHANNEL SHARING

Channel sharing is a short-term traffic-relief scheme. A scheme used for a

seven-cell three-face system is shown in Fig. 4.4. There are 21 channel sets, with
each set consisting of about 16 channels. Figure 4.4 shows the channel set numbers.
When a cell needs more channels, the channels of another face at the same cell site can
be shared to handle the short-term overload. To obey the adjacent-channel assignment
algorithm, the sharing is always cyclic. Sharing always increases the trunking efficiency of
channels.

Since we cannot allow adjacent channels to share with the nominal channels in the
same cell, channel sets 4 and 5 cannot both be shared with channel sets 12 and 18,
a indicated by the grid mark. Many grid marks are indicated in Fig.4.4 for the same
reason. However, the upper subset of set 4 can be shared with the lower subset of set 5
with no interference. In channel-sharing systems, the channel combiner should be flexible
in order to combine up to 32 channels in one face in real time. An alternative method is to
install a standby antenna.

Fig.4.4. Channel sharing algorithm

4.6 CHANNEL BORROWING
Channel borrowing is usually handled on a long-term basis. The extent of
borrowing more available channels from other cells depends on the traffic density
in the area. Channel borrowing can be implemented from one cell-site face to another
face at the same cell site. In addition, the central cell site can borrow channels from
neighboring cells. The channel-borrowing scheme is used primarily for slowly-growing
systems. It is often helpful in delaying cell splitting in peak traffic areas. Since cell
splitting is costly, it should be implemented only as a last resort.
Channel borrowing in sectored system:
Advantage of Sectorization:
The total number of available channels can be divided into sets (subgroups)
depending on the Sectorization of the cell configuration: the 120◦-sector system, the 60◦-
sector system, and the 45◦-sector system. In certain locations and special situations, the
sector angle can be reduced (narrowed) in order to assign more channels in one sector
without increasing neighboring-channel interference. Sectorization serves the same
purpose as the channel-borrowing scheme in delaying cell splitting. In addition, channel
coordination to avoid co-channel interference is much easier in sectorization than in cell
splitting. Given the same number of channels, trunking efficiency decreases in
Sectorization.

Sectorized Cells: There are three basic types.

1.The 120◦-sector cell is used for both transmitting and receiving Sectorization. Each
sector has an assigned a number of frequencies. Changing sectors during a call requires
handoffs.
2. The 60◦-sector cell is used for both transmitting and receiving Sectorization.
Changing sectors during a call requires handoffs. More handoffs are expected for a 60◦
sector than a 120◦ sector in areas close to cell sites (close-in areas).
3.The 120◦ or 60◦-sector cell is used for receiving Sectorization only. In this case, the
transmitting antenna is Omni directional. The number of channels in this cell is not sub-
divided for each sector. Therefore, no handoffs are required when changing sectors. This
receiving-Sectorization-only configuration does not decrease interference or increase the
D/R ratio; it only allows for a more accurate decision regarding handing off the calls to
neighboring cells.
4.4 UNDERLAY-OVERLAY ARRANGEMENT
In actual cellular systems cell grids are seldom uniform because of varying traffic
conditions in different areas and cell-site locations.
Overlaid Cells: To permit the two groups to reuse the channels in two different cell-reuse
patterns of the same size, an under laid small cell is sometimes established at the same
cell site as the large cell (see Fig. 4.5a). The doughnut (large) and hole (small) cells are
treated as two different cells. They are usually considered as neighboring cells.

Fig.4.5. Under laid-overlaid cell arrangements. (a) Underlay-overlay in omnicell;

(b) Underlay-overlay in Sectorized cell; (c) Two level handoff scheme.

The use of either an Omni directional antenna at one site to create two sub ring areas or
three directional antennas to create six subareas is illustrated in Fig. 4.5 b. As seen in
Fig.4.5, a set of frequencies used in an overlay area will differ from a set of frequencies
used in an underlay area in order to avoid adjacent-channel and co-channel interference.

The channels assigned to one combiner—say, 16 channels—can be used for overlay, and
another combiner can be used for underlay.

Implementation:
The antenna of a set-up channel is usually Omni directional. When an incoming
call is received by the set-up channel and its signal strength is higher than a level L, the
under laid cell is assigned; otherwise, the overlaid cell is assigned. The handoffs are
implemented between the under laid and overlaid cells. In order to avoid the unnecessary
handoffs, we may choose two levels L1 and L2 and L1 > L2 as shown in Fig. 4.5 (c). When
a mobile signal is higher than a level L1 the call is handed off to the under laid cell. When
a signal is lower than a level L2 the call is handed off to the overlaid cell. The channels
assigned in the under laid cell have more protection against co-channel interference.
4.8 NON FIXED CHANNEL ASSIGNMENT STRATEGY

1. Fixed Channel Assignment: The fixed channel assignment (FCA)

algorithm is the most common algorithm adopted in many cellular systems.
In this algorithm, each cell assigns its own radio channels to the vehicles
within its cell.

2. Dynamic Channel Assignment: In dynamic channel assignment

(DCA), no fixed channels are assigned to each cell. Therefore, any
channel in a composite of N radio channels can be assigned to the
mobile unit. This means that a channel is assigned directly to a mobile
unit. On the basis of overall system performance, DCA can also be used
during a call.

3. Hybrid Channel Assignment: Hybrid channel assignment (HCA) is a

combination of FCA and DCA. A portion of the total frequency channels will
use FCA and the rest will use DCA.

4. Borrowing Channel Assignment: Borrowing channel assignment (BCA)

uses FCA as a normal assignment condition. When all the fixed channels are
occupied, then the cell borrows channels from the neighboring cells.

5. Forcible-Borrowing Channel Assignment: In forcible-borrowing channel

assignment (FBCA), if a channel is in operation and the situation warrants it,
channels must be borrowed from the neighboring cells and at the same time,
another voice channel will be assigned to continue the call in the neighboring
cell. There are many different ways of implementing FBCA. In a general
sense, FBCA can also be applied while accounting for the forcible borrowing
of the channels within a fixed channel set to reduce the chance of co-channel
assignment in a reuse cell pattern. The FBCA algorithms based on assigning
a channel dynamically but obeying the rule of reuse distance.The distance
between the two cells is reuse distance, which is the minimum distance at
which no co-channel interference would occur. Very infrequently, no channel
can be borrowed in the neighboring cells. Even those channels currently in
operation can be forcibly borrowed and will be replaced by a new channel in
the neighboring cell or the neighboring cell of the neighboring cell. If all the
channels in the neighboring cells cannot be borrowed because of interference
problems, the FBCA stops.
Example problem 4.1
A full-duplex wireless cellular system is allocated a total spectrum of 20 MHz and each
simplex channel has 25 kHz RF bandwidth. Determine the following:
1. Total number of full-duplex channels available.
2. Number of channels per cell site if K = 4 cell reuse pattern is employed.
Solution;Given data:
Total allocated RF spectrum bandwidth = 20 MHz
Channel bandwidth per simplex channel = 25 KHz
1. To determine number of full-duplex channel
Channel bandwidth per simplex channel = 25 kHz
Number of channels in a duplex link = 2
Therefore, duplex channel bandwidth = 25 × 2 = 50 kHz
Number of full-duplex channels = total bandwidth/duplex channel bandwidth
Number of full-duplex channels = 20 MHz/50 kHz
Hence, total number of duplex channels = 400 channels.
2. To determine number of channels per cell site
Number of cells in one cluster, K = 4 (given)
Number of channels per cell site = total number of channels/K = 400/4 =100.
Hence, number of channels per cell-site = 100 channels.

Example problem 12.2

A full-duplex wireless cellular system is allocated a total spectrum of 25 MHz and each
simplex channel has 15 kHz RF bandwidth. Determine the following:
1. Total number of full-duplex channels available.
2. Number of channels per cell site if K = 7 cell reuse pattern is employed.
Solution : Given data: Total allocated RF spectrum bandwidth = 25 MHz
Channel bandwidth per simplex channel = 15 KHz
1. To determine number of full-duplex channel
Channel bandwidth per simplex channel = 15 kHz
Number of channels in a duplex link = 2
Therefore, duplex channel bandwidth = 15 × 2 = 30 kHz
Number of full-duplex channels = total bandwidth/duplex channel bandwidth
Number of full-duplex channels = 25 MHz/30 kHz
Hence, total number of duplex channels = 833 channels.
2. To determine number of channels per cell site
Number of cells in one cluster, K = 7 (given)
Number of channels per cell site = total number of channels/K = 833/7 =119.
Hence, number of channels per cell site = 119 channels.
 Example problem 12.3
Calculate the number of set-up and voice channels per cell for a cellular system having a
total spectrum allocation of 60 MHz which uses two 25 kHz simplex channels to provide
full duplex set-up and voice channels. Assume that the system is designed with nine-cell
frequency-reuse pattern and 1 MHz of the total spectrum is exclusively allocated for set-up
channels.
Solution : Given data:
Total allocated RF spectrum bandwidth = 60 MHz
Channel bandwidth per simplex channel = 25 kHz
Number of cells in one cluster = 9
Allocated RF bandwidth for set-up channels = 1 MHz
To determine duplex channel bandwidth
o Channel bandwidth per simplex channel = 25 kHz
o Number of channels in a duplex link = 2
o Therefore, duplex channel bandwidth = 25 × 2 = 50 kHz
To determine number of full-duplex channels
o Number of full-duplex channels = Total bandwidth/duplex channel bandwidth
o Number of full-duplex channels = 60 MHz/50 kHz
o Hence, total number of duplex channels = 1,200 channels
To determine total number of set-up channels
o Duplex channel bandwidth = 50 kHz (As calculated in Step 1)
o Total number of available set-up channels = 1 MHz/50 kHz = 20
To distribute number of set-up channels per cell
o Total available 20 number of set-up channels can be distributed among nine cells in a
cluster as 7 cells can have 2 set-up channels each, and remaining 2 cells can then have 3 set-
up channels each which means a total (7 × 2 + 2 × 3 ) of 20 set-up channels in a system.
To determine total number of voice channels
o Available RF bandwidth for voice channels = 60 MHz – 1 MHz= 59 MHz
o Total number of available voice channels = 59 MHz/50 kHz = 1180
To distribute number of voice channels per cell
o Total 1180 number of available voice channels can be distributed among nine cells in a
cluster as 8 cells can have 131 voice channels each, and remaining 1 cell can then have
132 voice channels which means a total (8 × 131 + 1 × 132) of 1180 voice channels in a
system.
Objective type questions and answers:

1. The main function of the frequency management is

1. increasing gain
2. increasing power
3. dividing total number of channels into subsets
4. adding the given number of channels

2. Numbering the channel is done by the following channel

1. RVC
2. RCC
3. FVC
4. FCC
3. What basis in a fixed channel set that consists of one or more subsets is assigned to
a cell site?
1. short-term basis
2. in dynamic basis
3. long-term basis
4. temporary basis
4. What is the method of channel assignment to a mobile unit during call in progress?
1. short-term basis
2. in dynamic basis
3. long-term basis
4. temporary basis
5. Allocation of specific channels to a cell site is known as
1. frequency management
2. frequency allotment
3. channel assignment
4. channel modelling
6. What is the other name of set-up channels?
1. reverse channels
2. forward channels
3. control channels
4. traffic channel
7. In set-up channels every two-way channel contains a ——— bandwidth.
8. In normal case, ——— set-up channels can be used for paging and accessing.
9. All the set-up channels carry only ———.
10. The access channel can be designated by ——— as a channel apart from set-up
channels in the cell site.
Answers: 1. (c), 2. (d), 3. (c), 4. (a), 5. (c), 6. (c), 7. 30 MHz, 8. One, 9. Data information, 10.
MTSO.
 UNIT – V
Hand-off Technologies
5.1 Introduction
In a cellular environment, a large geographical area is divided into small areas each covered
by a cell site or base station (BS). When a mobile originates a call, a dedicated circuit has to
be established between the mobile and the called party. The first link of the circuit is a
wireless link between the mobile and the closest BS. The second link is established between
the BS and mobile switching centre (MSC), which can be through a wireless or a wired
media. When a mobile phone user moves from one cell (one base station) to another cell
(another base station) continuation of an active call is one of the most important quality
measurements in the cellular systems. Call-handoff or handover is the process where a call-
in-progress is seamlessly transferred from one cell BS to another (via a channel change)
while maintaining the call’s connection to the cellular system via the MSC. Generally, a
handoff is performed when the quality of the link between the BS and the mobile terminal
on the move is decreasing.
The switching of an ongoing call to a different channel or cell (base station) is known as
handover or handoff.
Handoff is divided into three main categories: hard, soft, and softer handoffs. Hard handoff
is characterized by break-before-make and soft handoff is characterized by make-before-
break. In hard handoffs, current resources are released before new resources are used. In
soft handoffs, both resources exist and new resources are used during the handoff process.
Softer handoff refers to a mobile that communicates with two sectors within the cell.
All the handoff forms enable the cellular phone to be connected to a different cell or
different cell sector. Handoffs used in GSM phones which use time division multiple access
(TDMA) technology are different from code division multiple access (CDMA) system. These
are performed in slightly different ways and are available under different conditions.
Various handoff types, exact implementation, and specific handoff procedures are
discussed in this chapter.
5.2 Handoff
Mobility is the most important feature of a wireless cellular communication system. Even
though the mobile phone users are moving inside the cells, they are able to communicate
with other users or callers. Each cell has a BS which provides frequency channels to the
mobile phones. The BSs are also known as cell sites. All the BSs are linked to the MSCs
which are responsible for controlling the calls and acting as a gateway to other networks.
When an active user (say mobile phone using a frequency channel) reaches the boundary of
the cell, it needs to change its current frequency channel to another belonging to the
neighbour cell without any interruption to the call.
The network procedure, which switches a connection of a call made by a mobile phone, from
one BS or cell to another, is called a handover or handoff.
The handoff transfers the ongoing calls through the communication channels in terms of
time slot (TDMA), frequency band (FDMA), code word (CDMA), or a hybrid scheme to a new
BS.
Why handoff? : The handoff procedure is a very important parameter in cellular networks
that affects connection quality and also the phone call continuity.
The purposes of handoff are as follows:
 If the quality of a communication has become worse than a threshold, a decision of
handoff is made for rescuing connection.
 It keeps a continuous communication with a moving mobile that is it avoids call
termination.
 It improves the cellular network performance by reducing the call drop rate and the
congestion rate.
 It frees up some capacity for other users.
5.2.1 Handoff parameters
The following basic parameters are needed to determine whether a handoff is required or
not.
1. Signal strength of the BS with which communication is being made.
2. Signal strengths of the surrounding BSs.
3. Availability of channels.
The handoff parameters are measured in the following way:
1. Signal strengths of BSs are measured by the mobile devices.
2. Channel availability status is known at the cellular network.
3. Cellular network makes the decision about when the hand over is to take place in
which channel of which cell.
5.2.2 Handoff process in cellular mobile communication
The mobile phone continuously monitors the signal strength of the surrounding BSs,
including the one which is currently using, and it feeds this information back. When the
strength of the signal from the current BS starts to fall to minimum acceptable level, the
cellular network looks at the reported strength of the signals from other BSs reported by
the mobile. It then checks for channel availability, if it finds a channel, it informs the new
BS to reserve a channel for the incoming mobile. When ready, the current BS passes the
information for the new channel to the mobile. When the mobile on the new channel sends
a message, it informs to the network that it has arrived. If this message is successfully sent
and received then the network shuts down communication with the mobile on the old
channel, freeing it up for other users, and all communication takes place on the new
channel. Handoff process in GSM is illustrated with an example in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1 Handoff between BS1 and BS2 (Cell 1 to Cell 2)

In Figure 5.1, handoff takes place when the mobile is moving from BS1 to BS2. When the
mobile is moving from BS1 towards BS2 the signal strength of BS1 reduces to minimum
acceptable level or threshold and the signal strength of BS2 is dominated. Then the call
automatically connects to BS2, that is call is transferred without any interruption.
Handoff situation will become worsen if the number of mobile users per cell increases. With
the increased rate of mobile users per cell, a big cell can be divided into more number of
smaller cells. Hence, more number of handoff situations occurs.
5.2.3 Simple handoff algorithm
The simple handoff algorithm is based on the received signal strength (RSS) and the
threshold. In this algorithm a threshold “T” is to be defined at a set level, that is above the
minimum acceptable signal level.
T (dBm) = Minimum acceptable signal strength level (dBm) + δth (dB) (5.1)
When the RSS falls below the threshold “T”, a handoff is initiated. The following are several
design tradeoffs in this algorithm:
1. The additive term “δth” cannot be too large as it will result in too many dropped calls
due to the signal dropping below an acceptable level before the handoff is completed.
2. At the same time the “δth” cannot be too small as it will result in too many handoffs,
by putting burden on MSC.
3. Averaging of the received signal level must be performed, to ensure the dropping of
the call below the threshold is not just too momentary fading. However, averaging
introduces a delay in processing.

Figure 5.2 Handoff process between serving cell and neighbour cell
This trade-off must be used in the design of the system. In 1G cellular network the handoff
time is often on the order of 10 s and “δth” is typically set between 6 and 12 dB. With 2G
TDMA systems, handoff time is often on the order of 1 to 2 s and “δth” is typically set
between 0 and 6 dB. Figure 5.2 illustrates the handoff process between serving cell and
neighbour cell.
It is observed from the figure that the handoff process between the serving cell and the
neighbour cell is based on the RSS of the BSs which follows Equation (5.1). The handoff
does not occur, if the RSS of the neighbouring cell is more than the serving cell. If the RSS
of serving cell falls below the threshold or handoff margin, then handoff takes place.
5.2.4 Handoff scenarios
Depending on the BS and MSC arrangement of the cellular network the handoff may occur
in the following scenarios, based on the movement of a mobile station (MS).

Figure 5.3 Classifications of handoffs

1. Inter-carrier handoff: Handoff between one channel of a BS to another (within the
same BS) when there is too much traffic in the first channel.
2. Intra-BSC handoff: Handoff between cells (base transceiver stations) under the
control of the same base station controller (BSC).
3. Inter-BSC handoff: Handoff between cells under the control of different BSCs, but
belonging to the same MSC.
4. Inter-MSC handoff: Handoff between cells under the control of different MSCs.
5. Intra-network handoff: The handoff carried out when the MS moves across the border
of cells managed by two MSCs, which are relatively free, in order to prevent
interruption in communication.
6. Inter-network handoff: The handoff due to roaming across GSM networks of two
wireless operators in which the real-time communication will be interrupted and the
connection will have to be re-established.
5.2.5 Types of handoffs
Handoffs can be classified based on three decisive factors, the natures of handoff, the
purposes of handoff, and the algorithms of handoff. These classifications are further
classified into various handoffs as shown in Figure 5.3 and each one is explained in the
following sections.
5.3 Classification based on natures of handoff
In this classification, the handoff mechanism is usually categorized as follows:
 Hard handoff
 Soft handoff
5.3.1 Hard handoff
A hard handoff is also known as break-before-make handoff.
Usually, a mobile phone communicates with one BS in a given cell. In hard handoff, as the
mobile crosses the border to another cell, the communication between mobile and BS is
first broken before the communication is started between mobile and the other BS. As a
consequence, the transition is not smooth. Although there is generally a short break in
transmission, this is normally short enough and not to be noticed by the user.
Figure 5.4 illustrates the hard handoff between BS1 and BS2. In Figure 5.4(a) the dark
(solid) line indicates connection between BS1 and mobile. The dotted line indicates no
connection and request for establishing new connection with BS2, which indicates the
mobile before handoff. In Figure 5.4(b) the dark line indicates connection between BS2 and
mobile, similarly the dotted line indicates no connection with BS1, which indicates the
mobile after handoff.

Hard handoff can be seamless or non-seamless. Seamless handoff means the handoff that
is not perceptible to the user. In general, a handoff that requires a change of the carrier
frequency (inter-frequency handoff) is always performed as hard handoff.

A hard handoff can be practically employed with more efficiency in frequency-division

multiple access (FDMA) and TDMA network access schemes. In FDMA, different frequency
ranges are used for adjacent channels in order to minimize the channel interference. So
when the mobile moves from one BS to another BS, it becomes impossible for it to
communicate with both BSs (since different frequencies are used).
Analogue AMPS, GSM, and D-AMPS are the examples of the cellular mobile systems where
hard handoff is implemented. Hard handoff implementation is also fairly simple. The MS
performs a handoff when the signal strength of a neighbouring cell exceeds the signal
strength of the current cell with a given threshold.

Hard handoff is less expensive to implement and is more spectral (network bandwidth)
efficient, particularly in heavy data traffic environments.
Hard handoff process in GSM systems
Based on location and usage there are four different types of handoff used in the GSM
system:

1. Handoff between channels in the same cell - inter-carrier handoff. In this case, the
mobile is diverted to a different traffic channel within the same cell. This channel is
generated with a different frequency or time slot. The decision about the handoff is
made by the BSC that controls the cell.
2. Handoff between cells (base transceiver stations) under the control of the same BSC
- intra-BSC handoff. This handoff takes place when a mobile user moves from one
cell into a neighbouring cell both are controlled by the same BSC. The
communication with the old cell is discontinued as soon as the connection is
established with the new cell. This process is controlled by the BSC.
3. Handoff between cells under the control of different BSCs, but belongs to the same
MSC - inter-BSC handoff.
4. Handoff between cells under the control of different MSCs - inter-MSC handoff.
 Figure 5.4 Hard handoff between BS1 and BS2
The first two types of handoff involve only one BSC without involving the MSC, except for
notifying the completion of the handoff. To save the signalling bandwidth, they are
managed by the BSC. The last two types of handoff are managed by the MSCs. An
important aspect of GSM is that the original MSC is solely responsible for the most call-
related functions, with the exception of subsequent inter-BSC handoffs under the control of
the new MSC.
In GSM systems, the handoff can be initiated by either the mobile or the MSC. During its
idle time slots, the mobile scans the broadcast control channel up to 16 neighbouring cells
and forms a list of the six best cells for possible handoff based on the RSS. This information
is passed to the BSC and MSC, at least once per second and this is used by the handoff
algorithm.
5.3.2 Soft handoff
The soft handoff is also known as make-before-break handoff.

In soft handoff, the handoff from one BS to another occurs in a smooth manner. In this the
MS keeps its communication with the original BS, until it establishes a connection with the
other BSs. The excess connections are given up only when the new link has the sufficient
quality.
In soft handoff, unlike hard handoff, for smooth transition of a call from one cell to another,
the mobile continues to talk to both the cells. The soft handoff between two BSs (BS1 and
BS2) is illustrated in Figure 5.5. As the mobile moves from cell A (BS1) to cell B (BS2), at
some point the communication is broken with the old BS of cell A. During this handoff
process, the MS remains in communication with the original cell as well as with the new
cell. The handoff is completed when the mobile selects the best BS as the target. Soft
handoff is more careful in selecting the target BS, because the target BS needs to provide
the strongest signal among the available BSs.

Figure 5.5 Soft handoff between BS1 and BS2

 Normally soft handoff can be used when cells operated on the same frequency are changed.
The new 3G technologies use CDMA where it is possible to have neighbouring cells on
the same frequency. This opens the possibility of having a form of handoff where it is
not necessary to break the connection. In UMTS most of the handoffs that are
performed are intra-frequency soft handoffs.
Soft handoff process in CDMA systems :
Soft call-handoffs are different from hard call-handoffs. The soft handoff allows both
the original cell and one to two new cells to service a call during the handoff transition.
This is achieved because all the cell sites are transmitting the same frequency, unlike an
analogue system where each cell site has a unique set of frequencies. In CDMA
wireless systems, 35% to 45% of the capacity of each BS can be reserved for soft handoff
processing.
CDMA systems require a GPS receiver and antenna at every BS. The GPS antennas
synchronize all cell sites to one timing source. This is an absolute necessity for soft
handoffs because timing is critical among the multiple sites that may simultaneously
handle a call during the soft handoff process.

The sequence of events in a soft handoff is as follows:

1. After a mobile call is initiated, the MS continues to scan the neighbouring cells to
determine the strongest signals than that of the original cell.
2. When this happens, the MS knows that the call has entered a new cell’s coverage
area such that a handoff can be initiated.
3. The MS transmits a control message to the MSC, which states that the mobile is
receiving a stronger signal from the new cell site, and the mobile identifies that new
cell site.
4. The MSC initiates the handoff by establishing a link to the MS through the new cell
while maintaining the link to the old cell that was managing the call.
5. Although the MS is located in the transition region between the two cell sites, the
call is supported by communication through both cells. This eliminates the ping-
pong effect of repeated requests to handle the call back and forth between two cell
sites.
6. The original cell site will discontinue handling the call only when the MS is firmly
established in the new cell.
Comparison of hard handoff and soft handoff
The comparison of hard handoff and soft handoff is illustrated in the Figure 5.6.

It is shown that in soft handoff, the connection with new cell is established before the
connection with old cell is disconnected. Whereas, in the hard handoff before making the
connection with new cell the connection with old cell becomes weaker and will break soon.
CDMA cellular systems such as IS-95 use soft handoff, while TDMA cellular systems such
as GSM and D-AMPS typically use hard handoff.
 Figure 5.6 Comparison of hard handoff and soft handoff
Advantages of soft handoff
1. Soft handoff reduces/eliminates the “ping-pong” effect which results in
1. fewer load on the network from handoff signalling and overhead
2. smoother user communications without the “clicks” when speech
transmissions are stopped momentarily during handoffs
2. The soft handoff results in less delay and equivalent to “instantaneous” macroscopic
selection diversity. This is accomplished by instantaneous switching to the best BS
signal during a soft handoff (uplink), and avoids the additional interference
associated with handoffs. Hence,
1. Keeping BS separations and transmitter powers (BS and user) fixed, the
overall uplink interference is reduced, leading to
1. better communication quality for a given number of users
2. more users (i.e. greater capacity) for the same required EC/I0 (ratio of
received energy per chip to the total received spectral density)
3. smaller required uplink transmitter powers, further reducing uplink
interference
2. Keeping required outage probability and BS separation fixed, the system fade
margins are reduced. This leads to smaller required downlink transmitter
powers and downlink interference.
3. Keeping the same required outage probability and fade margins, BS
separation increases.
3. Soft handoff imposes fewer time constraints on the network. There is a longer mean
queuing time to get a new channel from the target BS, so this helps to reduce the
blocking probability or probability of dropped calls.
Disadvantages of soft handoff
1. Additional network resources are used during soft handoffs.
2. Soft handoff is more complex and expensive to implement.
3. Downlink interference (to other users) increases when soft handoff is in progress.
4. Forward interference increases with soft handoff since several BSs can connect to
the same MS. This increase in forward interference can become a problem if the
handoff region is large, such that there are many MSs in soft handoff mode.
5.4 Classification based on purposes of handoff
In this classification the handoff can be of three types: intra-cell handoff, inter-cell handoff,
and inter-system handoff. The classification is based on network view and is shown in
Figure 5.9.
1. If the mobile unit is assigned a new channel within the same BS or cell is referred to
as intra-cell handoff. This is done to avoid interference or channel quality reasons.
2. If the connection to a mobile unit is transferred over the cell boundary to a new cell
or BS, the handoff is known as inter-cell handoff. Inter-cell handoff is mainly due to
weak signal or bad channel quality or traffic loading balancing reasons.
3. If the handoff takes place between two MSCs of different cellular systems is known
as inter-system handoff.

Figure 5.9 Classification based on purposes of handoff

These three handoff types are explained in detail in the following sections.
5.4.1 Intra-cell handoff

The demand for wireless service is increasing day by day and the number of frequencies
assigned to a cell became insufficient to support the required number of mobile
subscribers. Thus, a cellular design technique is referred to as cell sectoring, where a single
omni-directional antenna is replaced with several directional antennas at the BS. In
general, a cell is sectorized into “n” number of sectors. A cell with three sectors is shown in
Figure 5.10. In this case, the total 360° of cell area is sectored into three 120° individual
areas and the handoff in between sector-to-sector is called as intra-cell handoff.
The handoff between two sectors of a cell is known as intra-cell handoff.
5.4.2 Inter-cell or inter - BS handoff
The most basic form of handoff is when a phone call is in progress is redirected from its
current (source) cell channel to a new (target) cell channel. In terrestrial networks the
source and the target cells may be served from two different cell sites or from one and the
same cell site. Such a handoff, in which the source and the target are different cells is
called inter-cell handoff as shown in Figure 5.11.

Figure 5.10 Intra-cell handoff

Figure 5.11 Inter-cell handoff

The purpose of inter-cell handoff is to maintain the call as the subscriber is moving out of
the area covered by the source cell and entering the area of the target cell.
The inter-cell handoff switches a call in progress from one cell to another cell, and the intra-
cell handoff switches a call in progress from one physical channel of one cell to another
physical channel of the same cell.
Figure 5.12 illustrates the combination of intra-cell and inter-cell handoffs.
5.4.3 Inter-system handoff
The handoff which takes place when a mobile moves away from one system controlled by
an MSC and enters into another system controlled by a different MSC is called as inter-
system handoff. Inter-system handoff may be between two same type systems or between
two different systems.
As shown in Figure 5.13, the mobile initially in a system (say CDMA) controlled by MSC-A
is moving from one place to another place. While it is moving, it enters into another region
where there is no availability of its own system service and in that region another system
(say GSM) is working which is controlled by MSC-B. In this case, when the signal strength
is decreasing MSC-A searches for new MSC of its own system and if there is no MSC of its
own, then it makes a handoff request to another system MSC-B to provide handoff so as to
avoid the dropped call.

Figure 5.12 Intra-cell and inter-cell handoff

Figure 5.13 Inter-system handoff or Inter-MSC handoff (The new and the old BSs are
connected to different MSCs)
 To perform inter-system handoff, the MSCs need to have special kind of software since the
handoff is between different systems and every system will have its own procedure for
communication and the software will have to provide required interface between two
systems. Inter-system handoff is a very essential technology to perform smooth handoffs
between various systems so as to increase the quality of communication.
5.5 Handoff schemes based on algorithms of handoff (handoff protocols)
The mobile unit and the BS are connected via radio links which carry data as well as
signalling information. There are three different handoff strategies based on algorithms of
handoff, which have been proposed for transferring the connection to a new BS.
 MCHO (mobile-controlled handoff)
 NCHO (network-controlled handoff)
 MAHO (mobile-assisted handoff)
Since the number of handoffs increases with decreasing cell size, it will be an almost
impossible task to make a handoff decision for every mobile by one central switch
(centralized). Moreover, in microcells the connection between MS and BS can deteriorate
very quickly. Fast handoff decisions required in such situations can be achieved more
readily by decentralizing the handoff decision process.
5.5.1 Mobile-controlled handoff (MCHO)
In this case, the mobile phone is the only entity which measures the handoff criteria and
makes a decision based on them. The MSC is not involved in the handoff process resulting
in reduced burden on the MSC. The mobile has to choose the optimum BS based on the
measurements. Since the handoff process is implemented in the mobile itself, the delay is
usually smaller with a typical value of 0.1 s and is suitable for microcellular systems.
In this strategy, the mobile continuously monitors the radio signal strengths and quality of
surrounding BSs. A handoff can be initiated if the signal strength of the serving BS is lower
than that of another BS by a certain threshold. Then the mobile requests the target BS for
a channel with the lowest interference and handoff mechanism will take place. In such a
case, the MS does not have any information about the signal quality of other users, but
handoff must not cause interference to other users. MCHO is the highest degree of handoff
decentralization. Some of the advantages of handoff decentralization are as follows:
 Handoff decisions can be made fast.
 MSC does not have to make handoff decisions for every mobile, which is a very
difficult task for the MSC of high-capacity microcellular systems (radius < 1 km).
An example of a MCHO-based handoff control network is the standard for cordless phones in
Europe - digital European cordless telephone (DECT).
5.5.2 Network-controlled handoff (NCHO)
NCHO is a centralized handoff protocol. In this type of handoff the network (surrounding
BSs, the MSC or both) makes a handoff decision based on measurements of the RSSs of
mobile and the interferences from different BSs. The signal-to-interference ratio (SIR) is
measured by means of a supervisory audio tone (SAT). If the mobile is measured to have a
weaker signal in its old cell, while a stronger signal in a neighbouring cell, then a handoff
decision could be made by the network to switch BS from the old cell to the new cell. Such
a type of handoff in general takes 100–200 ms and produces a noticeable “interruption” in
the conversation.
However, overall delay of such a type of handoff is in general in the range of 5–10 s.
Thus, this type of handoff is not suitable to a rapidly changing environment and to a high
density of users due to the associated delay.
The NCHO is widely used in the first-generation cellular systems, such as AMPS,
Total Accesses Communications System (TACS) and Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT). In
NCHO, the MSC is solely in charge of the handoff process and the MSs are completely
passive.
5.5.3 Mobile-assisted handoff (MAHO)
MAHO is a variant of NCHO strategy. To improve the handoff reaction time and to reduce
the handoff administration load of the MSC, the handoff decisions should be distributed
towards the mobile phones. One way to achieve this could be to let the mobile phones make
the measurements and the MSC make the decisions.

In the MAHO strategy, the network (BS and/or MSC) directs the mobile to measure the
signal strengths from the surrounding BSs and to report those measurements back to the
network. The network then uses these measurements to determine where a handoff is
required with which channel. The delay in this protocol starting from the handoff initiation
till the handoff execution is around 1 s. This time may still be too long to avoid dropping a
call due to street corner effect.
Some examples of present cellular networks which implement MAHO are the GSM system
and the IS-95 system.
Comparison of MAHO and MCHO performances:
There would not be a major difference in the performance between MAHO and MCHO, if all
signaling on the air interface were error free. The critical difference is that in MAHO a
handoff request is transmitted from the BS to the MS. If that message is not received
correctly the call may be dropped. Also if new BSs are not identified or recent measurement
reports are missing, the handoff request might be delayed causing a call dropout.
5.6 Handoff initiation techniques
Handoff initiation means when a handoff should be initialized. It is the process of deciding
when to request a handoff. Handoff decision is based on RSS from current BS and
neighboring BSs. Initiation of the handoff may begin when the signal strength at the mobile
received from BS2 is greater than that of BS1.
When the mobile is moving from one BS (BS1) to another (BS2), the mean signal strength of
BS1 decreases as the mobile moves away from it. Similarly, the mean signal strength of
BS2 increases as the mobile approaches it. The signal strength measures the signal levels
averaged over a chosen amount of time. The following are different methods for handoff
initiation:
 Relative signal strength
 Relative signal strength with threshold
 Relative signal strength with hysteresis
 Relative signal strength with hysteresis and threshold
 Prediction techniques
5.6.1 Relative signal strength
This method prefers the strongest signal received by BS at all times. The selection depends
upon a mean measurement of the received signal. In Figure 5.14, the handoff would occur
at position A. The RSSs of current BS (BS1) and one neighbouring BS (BS2) are shown in
Figure 5.15. The RSS gets weaker as mobile unit goes away from BS1 and gets stronger as
it gets closer to the BS2 as a result of signal propagation.
A major problem with this approach is that the received signals of both BSs often fluctuate
if the mobile is moving and cause it to rapidly switch links with either BS. The BSs bounce
the link with the mobile back and forth. This phenomenon is called ping-ponging. Due to
this ping-pong effect, several handoffs can be requested while BS1’s RSS is still sufficient to
serve mobile unit to cause unnecessary handoffs.
To avoid unnecessary handoffs, a better method is to use the averaged signal levels relative
to a threshold and hysteresis margin for handoff initiation is to be used.
Ping-pong handoff
Ping-pong handoff is an undesirable effect that frequently occurs during handoffs. It is a
handoff made to neighboring cell, but it returns to the original cell after a short time (<10 s)
due to power budget criterion. A handoff is mainly executed on the basis of this criterion in
cells with good radio coverage and only minimal disruption due to interference. To avoid
such “ping-pong” effect the MS is allowed to continue maintaining a radio link with the
current BS, until the signal strength from BS2 exceed that of BS1 by some pre-specified
threshold (handoff margin) value H. Besides transmitting power, the handoff also depends
on the mobility of the MS. In normal operation, a threshold (H) of 5–10 dB is used to
prevent minor variation in signal level of different BSs from causing a handoff. Strong
shadow fading caused by large obstacle can cause up to 30 dB. If such an obstacle is found
in the line-of-sight (LOS) of the serving BS but not of the neighbouring station, it is possible
that a handoff may be triggered. As soon as the MS moves out of the shadowing area the
level again become normal and handoff takes place to the original cell. A medium and high
mobility MS results in handoff to a neighbouring station back to the original BS within a
short period of time (<10 s) (ping-pong handoff).

Figure 5.14 Illustration of handoff initiation techniques

 Figure 5.15 Handoff mechanism based on signal strength measurement between two base
stations
Handoff is only possible theoretically between points A and C, but is recommended at point
B because that is where the level of BS2 has first fallen below the allowable hysteresis value
h, in other words sufficiently above that of BS. Due to propagation-related signal level
fluctuations at the receiver, the curved characteristics shown only apply to the statistical
average as shown in Figure 5.14. Therefore, the location of a handoff is randomly
distributed in the area around B.
5.6.2 Relative signal strength with threshold

This method introduces a threshold value, T1, (Figure 5.14) to overcome the ping-pong
effect. The handoff is initiated if BS1’s RSS is lower than the threshold value and at the
same time BS2’s RSS is stronger than BS1’s. So according to this method the handoff
request is issued at point B as shown in Figure 5.14.

Effect of threshold value

The effect of the threshold depends on its relative value compared to the signal strengths of
point A. If the threshold is higher than this value, say T1, this scheme performs exactly like
the relative signal strength scheme, so the handoff occurs at position A. If the threshold is
lower than this value, say T2, the mobile unit would delay handoff until the current signal
level crosses the threshold at position B. In the case of T3, the delay may be so long that the
mobile unit drifts too far into the new cell.

5.6.3 Relative signal strength with hysteresis

This scheme allows a user to handoff only if the new BS is sufficiently stronger (by a
hysteresis margin, “h” in Figure 5.14) than the current one. In this case, the handoff would
occur at point C, which results in ping-pong effect (the repeated handoff between two BSs
caused by rapid fluctuations in the RSSs from both BSs).
5.6.4 Relative signal strength with hysteresis and threshold

This scheme hands a MS over to a new BS only if the current signal level drops below a
threshold and the target BS is stronger than the current one by a given hysteresis margin.
In Figure 5.14, the handoff would occur at point D if the threshold is T3.

In this method, we combine both the threshold and hysteresis value so as to reduce
number of unnecessary handoffs. The handoff is requested when the BS1’s RSS is below T1
(Figure 5.16) and BS2’s RSS is stronger than BS1’s by the hysteresis value (point C in
Figure 5.16). If we would choose a lower threshold level than T1 (but higher than T2, then
the handoff initiation would be somewhere at the right of point C (left of point D).

Figure 5.16 Traditional handoff algorithms using RSS, threshold and hysteresis
5.6.5 Prediction techniques
Prediction techniques base the handoff decision on the expected future value of the RSS.
These techniques have been proposed to indicate a better result, which means reduction of
unnecessary handoffs than previous approaches.

The salient features of the above five traditional handoff algorithms which are based on the
RSS or received power “P” are given below:
 RSS (choose a BS (BSnew) if Pnew > Pold)
 RSS plus threshold (if Pnew > Pold and Pold < T)
 RSS plus hysteresis (Pnew > Pold + H)
 RSS, hysteresis, and threshold (Pnew > Pold + H and Pold < T)

5.7 Delaying handoff

A handoff could be delayed if no available cell could take the call. One of the advantages of
a delayed handoff is to make the handoff occur at the proper location. The situations
needed to delay the handoff procedure instead of starting are the following:
  When call traffic is heavy, the switching processor is loaded heavily such that a lower
number of handoffs would help the processor to handle call processing more
efficiently.
 When the mobile unit is located at a signal-strength hole within a cell but not at the
boundary.
 When the mobile unit approaches a cell boundary but no channels in the new cell
are available (neighboring cells are busy).
The following are the two approaches for delaying handoffs:
1. Implementing a two-level handoff
2. Queuing the handoff calls
Queuing of handoff approach is more effective than a two-level handoff.
5.7.1 Implementing a two-level handoff procedure
In this approach, based on the RSS, two handoff request levels and a threshold
level are defined first. Then average signal strength can be taken as a function
of time. Let us consider L1 and L2 are two handoff levels and “x” is the threshold
level as shown in Figure 5.21.
When the RSS drops below the first handoff level L1 (Figure 5.21a), a handoff
request is initiated but does not take place immediately. At this stage for every 5 s
handoff request is made and handoff takes place if the new signal from adjacent
cell is stronger. The basic advantage with this is when the mobile unit is in low
signal area (e.g. may be a hole), where actually handoff is not needed, after few
seconds the RSS may increase above L1. Similarly, if a neighboring cell is busy, the
handoff is needed to delay. In both cases waiting for some time is good instead of
starting the handoff immediately. If the handoff reached level L2 (as shown in
Figure 5.21(b)), handoff takes place immediately without considering any condition.
Even after second level (L2) if no neighboring cells (BSs) are available, then
the call continues until the RSS drops below the threshold level “X”(shown in
Figure 5.21(c)) and after the threshold level the call is dropped since no handoff will
take place.
5.7.2 Queuing the handoff calls
Queuing is another way of delaying handoffs. The queuing handoff scheme
queues the handoff calls. If the BS finds all the available channels occupied in the
target cell, a handoff request is put in the queue. If a channel is released when the
queue for handoff requests is not empty, the channel is assigned to request on the
top of the queue. If the RSS from the current BS falls below the receiver
threshold level prior to the mobile being assigned a channel in the target cell, the
call is forced to terminate.
Queuing new calls results in increased handoff blocking probability. The
probability of a successful handoff can be improved by queuing handoff requests
at the cost of increased new call blocking probability. This results in a decrease in
the ratio of carried-to-admitted traffic since new calls are not assigned a channel
until all the handoff requests in the queue are served.
Figure 5.21 Implementation of two-level handoff scheme. (a) Handoff at first threshold L1
(b) Handoff at second threshold L2 (c) Dropped call
Queuing is possible due to the overlap region between the adjacent cells in which MS can
communicate with more than one BS. If handoff requests occur uniformly, queuing is not
needed. Queuing is effective only when handoff requests arrive in large number at a time.
Queuing is more effective in macrocell structures since the large area of macro cells allow
the MS to wait some time for handoff before signal quality drops to an unacceptable level.
However, the effectiveness of queuing decreases for microcells due to stricter time
requirements. The combination of queuing and channel reservation can be employed to
obtain better performance.
The general model for handoff queuing as shown in Figure 5.22 where
Tm = mean rate of channel holding time
AH = arrival rate of handoff calls (calls per second)
AO = arrival rate of originating calls (calls per second)
N = number of channels
In this model N channels are allotted for both originating calls (calls in the cell which do not
needed any kind of handoff means they remain in the same cell) and handoff calls. Arrival
rate information of both originating and handoff calls can be given to MSC which can allow
 blocking probability of handoff calls as well as originating calls. Here, we discuss
only handoff calls.
The MSC will queue the requests of handoff calls instead of rejecting them if the new
cell sites are busy. A queuing scheme becomes effective only when the requests for
handoffs arrive at the MSC in batches or bundles. Here, there are three different
situations considered and blocking probability for both handoff calls and originating calls
obtained are given below:
1. Without queuing
2. Queuing originating calls only
3. Queuing handoff calls only

Figure 5.22 A general system model for handoff queuing

Let us consider the following notations which are used in all three cases.
a = (AO + AH) T
b1 = AO T
b2 = AH T
T = average calling time in seconds, including new calls and handoff calls in each cell
MO = size of queue for originating calls
MH = size of queue for handoff calls
Without queuing
If there is no queuing procedure used to control originating calls as well as handoff calls
then the blocking probability (B0) for either an originating call or a handoff call is

Queuing origination calls only

In this case, queuing is done for originating calls but not for handoff calls. The blocking
probability for originating calls is

The blocking probability for handoff calls is

Queuing handoff calls only
In this case, queuing is done for handoff calls and no queuing procedure for originating
calls. The blocking probability for originating calls is

The blocking probability for handoff calls is

In general, it is better to queue only the handoff calls so that it will give a decreased
blocking probability of handoff calls and it should not affect the originating calls. Similarly,
queuing of originating calls will give an increased blocking probability on handoff calls.
5.8 Forced handoff
A forced handoff is defined as a handoff which would normally occur but is prevented from
happening or a handoff that should not occur is forced to happen.
5.8.1 Controlling handoff
The cell site can assign a low handoff threshold in a cell to keep a mobile unit in a cell
longer or assign a high handoff threshold level to request a handoff earlier. The MTSO also
can control a handoff by making either a handoff earlier or later after receiving a handoff
request from a cell site.
5.8.2 Creating a handoff
In this case the cell site does not request a handoff but the MTSO finds that some cells are
too congested while others are not. Therefore, the MTSO can request cell sites to create
early handoffs for those congested cells. In other words, a cell site has to follow the MTSO’s
order and increase the handoff threshold to push the mobile units at the new boundary
and to handoff earlier.
5.8.3 POWER DIFFERENCE handoff

5.9 Dropped calls and dropped call rate

In mobile communication, it is always needed to reduce the number of dropped calls to
increase the quality of service. The possibility that a call will drop due to the poor signal of
the assigned voice channel is called as “dropped call”.
If the phone cannot find an alternative cell to move in order to take over the call, the call is
lost. Co-channel and adjacent-channel interference can also be responsible for dropped
calls in a wireless network. Neighboring cells with the same frequencies interfere with each
other, deteriorating the quality of service and producing dropped calls.
One of major reason of dropped calls is improper handoff, a proper timely handoff is one of
the procedures to reduce dropped calls. During handoff between two cells due to an
imbalance of traffic between the two cell site areas, it cannot accept the additional traffic of
the call then there is a chance of call dropping.
The dropping probability is defined as the percentage of handoff attempts that are denied
because of insufficient resources in the cell into which the mobile is moving.
The number of dropped calls in cellular system is dependent on the dropped call rate. The
dropped call rate is dependent on the following factors:
 The channel capacity
 Level of traffic in the system (highly populated areas such as metro cities and
business areas have more chances of handoffs and so the dropped call rate
increases).
 Voice quality
 Probability that the signal below the receiver threshold (δ)
 Probability that the signal below the specified co-channel interference level (μ)
5.9.1 Channel capacity

Channel capacity is directly proportional to bandwidth of the system. If bandwidth is more,

then more number of channels (users) can be allotted. With the increase in channels,
adjacent- channel interference also increases and so signal-to-interference ratio decreases.
This leads to poor signal quality and increased dropped call rate.
There is a relation between channel capacity, the number of voice channels, and the signal-
to-noise ratio as given below:
The radio capacity

where N = total number of channels

S/I = required SIR ratio for designing a system.
The Equation (5.10) is obtained based on six co-channel interferers which occur in busy
traffic (i.e. a worst case). From the equation if the channel capacity is increased the voice or
information (signal) quality will decrease since (S/I) will decrease. As a consequence
dropped call rate will increase.
5.9.2 Level of traffic in the system
Highly populated areas such as metro cities, business areas, railway stations, and so on
have more chances of handoffs since high rate of mobility from one cell to another. So in
such regions dropped call rate will become high and number of dropped calls will be more.
Traffic intensity is the measurement of traffic generated by a user during the busy hour
(BH). The total number of voice calls originated or terminated in a mobile during the BH is
called voice traffic arrival rate and voice traffic is generally represented by the unit called
Erlang. Erlang is defined as a voice call of one hour duration. Each voice call is held for
certain duration. The average duration of all voice calls is called holding time of a call.
Similarly, departure rate can be considered as “1/T”.
If R represents the arrival rate of voice calls during a BH (call/s)and T represents average
holding time of a call (in seconds), the total BH voice traffic is given by RT. Then,

5.9.3 Receiver threshold (δ) and co-channel interference level (μ)

(If we consider a whole cellular system, the general formula for dropped call rate D will be
given as

and Dn = 1 − Xn (5.13)
where
Dn = the probability of a dropped call when the call has gone through n handoffs and

X = (1 − δ) (1 − μ) (1 − θζ) (1 − β)2 (5.14)

δ = probability that the signal is below the specified receiver threshold (in a noise limited
case)
μ = probability that the signal is below the specified co-channel interference level (in
interference-limited case)
ζ = probability that no channel is available for handoff when moving into a new cell
θ = probability that the call will return to the original cell
β = probability of blocking circuits between BSC and MSC during handoff

αn = the weighted value for those calls having “n” handoffs, and
N = the highest number of handoffs for those calls
In general, the values of ζ, θ, and β are assumed to be very small and can be neglected.
Hence, we can take
X = (1 − δ) (1 − μ) (5.15)
Now we are able to deduce the expressions of dropped call rate for the following two cases:
1. Noise-limited system, μ → 0.
2. Interference-limited system, δ → 0.
Noise-limited system, μ → 0
Here, we are considering only noise limited system, so the effect of receiver threshold signal
can be considered and also assumed that there will not be any co-channel interference. In
such a case, since μ → 0 the expression for dropped call rate is

Interference-limited system, δ → 0
Here, we consider only interference-limited system, so the effect of co-channel interference
can be considered and also assumed that there will not be any kind of noise which is
introducing in the system. In such a case, since δ → 0 and the expression for dropped call
rate is
Example problem 5.1
In a cellular system the number of channels at the cell site is 60. The call holding time is
0.024 h. The number of originating calls attempted per hour is 1,834, and the number of
handoff calls attempted per hour is 62. Calculate the blocking probability of the system
when queuing is done for originating calls only, if the queue size is 5.
Solution :Given parameters are:Number of channels, N = 60
Call holding time, T = 0.024 h;Mean rate of originating calls, AO = 1,834
Mean rate of handoff calls, AH = 62;Queue size of originating calls, MO = 5
Then, a = (AO + AH) T = (1,834 + 62) × 0.024 = 45.504;And b1 = AO × T = 1,834 × 0.024 = 44.016

;
When queuing of originating calls is done then blocking probability of originating calls can
be given calculated as

Example problem 5.2

In a system the number of channels at the cell site is 50. The call holding time is 0.022 h.
The number of originating calls attempted per hour is 2,035, and the number of handoff
calls attempted per hour is 32.
Calculate the blocking probability of
1. originating calls
2. handoff calls when queuing is done for handoff calls only and the queue size is 4.
Solution : Given parameters are:
Number of channels, N = 50;Call holding time, T = 0.022 h
Mean rate of originating calls, AO = 2,035
Mean rate of handoff calls, AH = 32;Queue size of originating calls, MH = 4
α = (AO + AH) T== (2,035 + 32) × 0.022 = 45.474
and b2 = AH × T= 32 × 0.022 = 0.704
When queuing only the handoff calls,

Blocking probability of originating calls

1. Blocking probability of handoff calls

 Example problem 5.3
In a cellular system, the measurements of arrival rate of data during busy hour (BH)
is found to be 150 calls per second. The average holding time of the call is measured at
120 s. Find the estimated traffic in Erlang and the departure rate per second for the
system? Solution : Given parameters are
Call holding time, T = 120 s
Arrival rate of data, R = 150 s

Then traffic in Erlangs,

and departure rate, = 1/T
1/120 = 0.00833
Example problem 5.4
In a system the probability that the signal below the specified receiver threshold is 20 per
cent and the probability that the signal above the specified co-channel interference level is
15 per cent. Then what is the probability of a dropped call when the call has gone through
three handoffs?
Solution : Given parameters are:
δ = 20% = 0.2;μ = 15% = 0.15;Number of handoffs, n = 3
From the given data the constant “X” can be evaluated as
X = (1 − δ) (1 − μ)= (1 − 0.2) (1 − 0.15)= 0.8 × 0.85 = 0.68
Then the probability of a dropped call when call has gone through three handoffs can be
given as
Dn = 1 − Xn = 1 − 0.683 = 1 − 0.3144 = 0.68
Objective type questions and answers
1. In normal handoff procedure the handoff request is based on ———
1. power level
2. signal strength
3. peak current
4. time delay
2. Generally, the soft handoff procedure involves ——— number of cell-site(s).
1. 1 2.3 3.6 4.several
3. In ———, a call communication link uses only one channel at any moment.
1. softer handoff
2. soft handoff
3. hard handoff
4. intra-cell handoff
4. Creating handoff is requested by ———
1. PSTN 2.MTSO 3. BSC 4.cell site

5. The radio capacity for the lower voice quality ———

1. remains unaffected
2. decreases
3. approaches to zero
4. increases
6. The decentralized handoff protocol that distributes the handoff decision process.
1. Network-controlled handoff
2. Mobile-assisted handoff
3. Soft handoff
4. Mobile-controlled handoff
7. The cellular networks that uses the NCHO protocol is ———
1. GSM
2. ETACS
3. USDC
4. AMPS
8. The overall handoff delay in mobile-assisted handoff algorithm is typically ———
1. 5–10 s
2. 1 s
3. 2–3 s
4. less than 1 s
9. The relation between channel capacity and bandwidth of the system is ———
1. directly proportional
2. inversely proportional
3. both a & b
4. none
10. One of the main probable reasons of call drop is ———
1. co-channel interference
2. handoff
3. external noise
4. channel assignment
Answers: 1. (b), 2. (d), 3. (c), 4. (b), 5. (d), 6. (b), 7. (d), 8. (b), 9. (a), 10. (b).