Sequential Ray Tracing
Lecture 2
Sequential Ray Tracing
• Rays are traced through a pre-defined sequence of
surfaces while travelling from the object surface to
the image surface.
• Rays hit each surface once in the order
(sequence) in which the surfaces are defined.
Particularly well-suited to imaging systems (including
spectrometers).
• Numerically fast and extremely useful for the
design, optimization and tolerancing of such
systems.
• Aberrations evaluated using spot diagrams, ray fan
plots, OPD plots, geometrical image analysis and
MTF (physical optics) calculations.
February 15, 2016 Optical Systems Design 2
Example Imaging Systems
Double Gauss lens Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope
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Objectives: Lecture 2
At the end of this lecture you should:
1. Be able to use ZEMAX to design and optimise a
simple singlet lens to specified parameters.
2. Understand the use of meridional plane layouts,
spot diagrams, and ray fan plots to evaluate
performance.
3. Design and optimise a Cassegrain reflecting
telescope to specified parameters.
4. Understand the way that conic and higher order
surfaces are specified in ZEMAX.
5. Understand how to achromatise a doublet lens.
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Lens Data Editor (LDE)
the type of surface (Standard, Even
Surf: Type
Asphere, Diffraction Grating, etc)
an optional field for typing in surface
Comment
specific comments
surface radius of curvature (the inverse of
Radius
curvature) in lens units
the thickness in lens units separating the
Thickness vertex of the current surface to the vertex of
the following surface
the material type (glass, air, etc.) which
Material separates the current surface and the next
surface listed in the LDE
Coating any (anti-reflection) coating on surface
Semi-Diameter the half-size of the surface in lens units
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Singlet Lens Parameters
• Focal ratio is F/4.
• Glass is N-BK7.
• Effective focal length = 100mm.
• Field-Of-View = 10 degrees.
• Wavelength = 632.8nm (HeNe).
• Centre thickness of lens: 3mm to 12mm .
• Edge thickness of lens: minimum 2mm.
• Lens should be optimized for smallest RMS spot size
averaged over the field of view at the given
wavelength.
• Object is at infinity.
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System Settings
• Entrance Pupil Diameter (EPD) is the diameter of the
pupil in chosen lens units as seen from object
space.
• Effective focal length (efl) is distance along optical
axis from the effective refracting surface (principal
plane) to the paraxial focus.
• So EPD = 25mm.
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System Explorer (Setup)
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Lens Data & Solves
Optimize -> Quick
Focus
[Ctrl+Shift+Q]
N.B. use of comments field
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Performance Evaluation (Analyze)
Spots
Layout
Optical
Ray
Path
Fan
Difference
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Variables for Optimisation
• Thickness of lens
• Front radius of curvature
• Back focal distance (from Surface 2 to
IMA plane)
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Optimize Wizard (Default Merit Function)
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Final System Results (Optimize)
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More Optical Concepts
• Effective Refracting Surface
– Virtual surface at which entering and exiting rays meet.
A plane for paraxial (first order) rays close to the axis.
• Zones
– Annular regions of constant distance from the optical
axis. Can apply to lens surfaces, stops, pupils, objects &
images.
• Paraxial rays
– Rays close to the optical axis for which first order (linear)
equations can be used for the ray transport calculations.
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More Optical Concepts
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Tangential & Sagittal Planes
• Tangential plane is identical to the
meridional plane for an axially symmetric
system. Tangential rays lie within the
tangential plane.
• Sagittal plane is orthogonal to the
tangential plane and intersects it along
the chief ray. All sagittal rays are skew
rays. The sagittal pane changes its tilt
after each surface to follow the direction
of the chief ray.
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Tangential & Sagittal Planes
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Back Focal Length &
Effective Focal Length
• Back focal length (BFL) is the distance along the
optical axis from the vertex of the rear lens
surface to the on-axis paraxial focus for an
object at infinity.
• Effective focal length (EFL) is the distance along
the optical axis from the vertex of the effective
refracting surface to the on-axis paraxial focus
for an object at infinity.
• BFL controls the longitudinal location of the focus
• EFL controls the transverse image scale at focus
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BFL, EFL & Aberrations
Dependence BFL EFL
With wavelength Longitudinal chromatic Lateral chromatic
aberration aberration
With pupil zone Spherical aberration Coma
With field zone Astigmatism & field Distortion
(focal plane) curvature
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Basic Zemax Analysis Tools
• Layout plots (cross-section/shaded)
• Spot diagrams
• Ray-aberration plot
• Optical path plot (OPD)
• Field curvature & distortion plot
• Point Spread Function (diffraction PSF)
• Modulation transfer funtion (MTF)
• Enclosed energy plot
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I: Layout
• Good for basic check of obvious
mistakes (e.g. data entry sign errors)
• Sanity check after optimisation e.g.
excessive surface curvatures,
inappropriate glass/air thicknesses,
negative edge thicknesses etc
• Check on mechanical vignetting
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I: Layout
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II: Spot Diagram
• Analog of the geometrical PSF
• Shows the intersection points where a
ray bundle which fills the entrance
aperture meets the image plane
• For polychromatic (white light) systems
these must be generated at
representative wavelengths
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II: Spot Diagram
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III: Ray Aberration Plots
• Spot diagrams give little information about which
parts of the entrance pupil particular rays pass
through
• A given ray passes through the entrance pupil at
a particular height P (-1<P<+1) and intercepts
the image plane at a separation Δh from the
chief ray
• Ray aberration plots (ray fan plots) present the
transverse ray height errors Δh as a function of
pupil zone height P
• Customary to present these separately for the
tangential (meridional) fan and the sagittal fan
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III: Ray Fan Plots
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III: Ray Fan Plots
• Slope of ray fan plot reflects whether image
plane is close to focus (inside focus → positive
slope and vice versa)
• If effective refractive surface is curved or image
surface is curved then ray fan plot also curved
• Behavior close to origin reflects whether image
plane is close to the paraxial focus
• Each Seidel aberration has a characteristic
appearance in the ray fan plot
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III: Ray Fan Plots
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Spherical Aberration
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Coma
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Astigmatism
0 deg 5 deg
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Field Curvature
0 deg 5 deg
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Distortion
0 deg 5 deg
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Longitudinal Colour
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Lateral Colour
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Glass Dispersion Curve
Dispersion:
n d −1
Vd =
n 2 − n1
d=587.6 nm
1=486.1 nm
€ 2=656.3 nm
[Abbé number]
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Abbé Diagram
Crown glass – low
dispersion
Flint glass – high
dispersion
Use easily
available glasses
when possible:
BK7, LLF1, F2,
SF2, SF57, SK16,
KzFSN4. CaFl
often used as
crown. Large Δn is
good.
Final optimization
is usually done on
actual melt data.
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Aspheric Surfaces
• Most optical surfaces are spherical
• By far the easiest surfaces to manufacture using
conventional polishing techniques
• General rotationally symmetric optical surface has
departure from plane (sag) given by:
ch 2 4 6 8 10
z= + Ah + Bh + Ch + Dh
1+[1−[(1+ k)c 2 h 2 ]1/2
where h2=x2+y2 is the axial height, c=1/R is the
surface curvature at the vertex, and k the conic
constant. A,B,C,D are 4th, 6th, 8th, 10th order coeffs.
k=0 -1<k<0 k=-1 k<-1 k>0
sphere prolate paraboloid hyperboloid oblate
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Cassegrain Telescope
• Start with a 30cm diameter F/2 spherical
primary (RoC=120cm) and a spherical
secondary. Adjust the radius of curvature of the
secondary to put the focus in the plane of the
primary
• Glass Type = MIRROR for reflecting surfaces;
distances change sign after each reflection
• Use a Quick-focus or M-solve to locate paraxial
focus and single variables in any optimization
• Now make primary a parabola (K=-1)
• Adjust conic constant on secondary to get best
on-axis performance
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Summary: Lecture 2
• Sequential ray tracing is the main mode of Zemax
for the design of optical systems.
• Zemax has a range of optimising tools to improve
the performance of the basic design.
• The major tools for assessing performance are the
layout plots, the spot diagrams and the ray fan
plots.
• All the main Seidel aberrations have
characteristic forms in these plots which can be
used to decide how to improve the design.
• Careful choice of glasses is required to remove
longitudinal and lateral colour effects.
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Exercises: Lecture 2
• Input the parameters of a 50mm diameter F/10
optimised (R1=265mm) achromatic doublet from
Lecture 4 of the Optical Engineering Course (Dr
Rolt). Take the lens thicknesses as 8mm (crown)
and 4mm (flint). Investigate the axial colour over
the wavelengths 0.486, 0.587 and 0.656 µm. Can
you improve the performance ?
• Investigate the performance of the Cassegrain
telescope for off-axis (1 deg) field points. What is
the main off-axis aberration ?
• Try to minimize this aberration by making both the
primary and secondary hyperbolic.
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