M3.

LECTURE 1: REPRESENTATION IN VARIOUS MEDIA

REPRESENTATION IN VARIOUS MEDIA

In the field of media studies, representation is the way aspects of society, such as gender, age, or
ethnicity, are portrayed to the viewers or readers. Playing a pivotal role in shaping people’s
perceptions of diverse social groups and their identities, it is how media texts deal with and present
gender, age, ethnicity, national and regional identity, social issues, and events to an audience.
Furthermore, media texts have the power to shape an audience's knowledge and understanding
about these important topics.

Construction This is the way a media text is put together. In a film or television
programme, this includes the editing and choice of camera angles; in a
magazine or newspaper, it includes the layout and writing as well as the
choice of images.
Mediation This is the process everything goes through before it reaches an audience.
This can be how a film script is written and re-written before it makes it to
production, how newspaper or magazine photographs are cropped and
captioned, or how real life events—like a protest or a speech by a
politician—are portrayed in a news report.

Selection This refers to what has been selected for inclusion in a media text. This can
be particularly important in newspaper articles, where selecting certain facts
over others can change the angle of a story; what is omitted is sometimes as
important as what is included.
Anchorage These are the words that go along with images to give those pictures a
certain meaning in a specific context. This includes captions and headlines in
newspapers and taglines in adverts or on film posters.
Stereotypes These are a simplified representations of a person, groups of people or a
place, through basic or obvious characteristics—which are often
exaggerated. Stereotypes can be used to describe characters quickly, relying
on existing audience recognition. They are dangerous as they can lead
audiences to generalize about people or places.
Ideology These are ideas and beliefs, held by media producers, which are often
represented in their media texts.

In a newspaper, the ideology of the owner or senior editors could influence

the way certain stories are represented such as lending support to a
particular political party. In a documentary about asylum seekers, the
representation of their story could be influenced by the ideology of the
filmmaker or producer.

HOW ARE REPRESENTATIONS CONSTRUCTED?

Camera shots and angles A low angle camera shot can make someone seem more powerful
and in control than they really are.

A high angle shot of the same person may make them seem less
important or influential.
Editing Media producers can manipulate the emotions of the audience by
representing certain characters or situations through editing. For a
documentary style reality show, like Don't Tell the Bride, many hours
of film footage may have been recorded, but this footage is edited
down to fill a one hour broadcast. How it is edited will determine
how the characters are represented and how the audience respond
to them.

Reality shows like 'Don't Tell the Bride' edit down many hours of footage to create a
one hour programme.

Audio codes The representation of a person or fictional character can be

influenced through their dialogue; if they use slang or speak with a
strong accent, audiences will respond to that person in a very
different way than someone who speaks perfect English without the
trace of an accent. Music can also influence representation in a media
text. In a film scene, where a character is walking down a street, a
slow, sombre piece of music will create a very different
representation to a cheerful, upbeat tune.

Visual Codes Iconography (the visual images or symbols that appear in a scene) can
influence representation. For example, iconography can have a big
impact on a representation of femininity – a character carrying a
briefcase and wearing a smart suit creates a very different
representation of femininity than a character carrying a changing bag
and pushing a buggy.

Representation in print In print based media texts representation is constructed using:

• Layout and Design
• Language and Mode of Address
• Camera shots and angles in any photographs
• Visual codes
• Anchorage
In this poster for the film Brooklyn, there are The layout also emphasizes that the story has
representations of gender, place and the past. two sides which is represented by the two
The style of font used (design) along with the men pictured and the images behind them.
costumes worn by the three characters (visual
codes), and the colors used reflect the 1950s The left hand side of the poster features a
when the film is set. Taken together, the picture of Jim (Domnhall Gleeson): he is
colors and images are soft and warm, and pictured against the rugged Irish coast and is
represent the past in a nostalgic way; this is a looking down and to the left (visual codes). In
romantic, idealized representation of the past this way, he represents Eilis's past in Ireland.
(mode of address).
The right hand side features Tony (Emory
Gender is represented by the positioning of Cohen), Eilis’ love interest in America, and he
the three characters (layout): the main is looking up and to the right. He is pictured
character Eilis (Saoirse Ronan) is in the middle against the towering Brooklyn Bridge - this
of the poster and shown from a low angle represents Eilis' life in Amercia and maybe her
(camera shots), and she looks directly ahead future as well.
of her, over the heads of anyone looking at
the poster. The tag line at the top of the poster - ‘Two
countries, two loves, one heart’ - anchors
These elements combine to represent her as a (anchorage) the images and gives the
strong, confident female who is at the centre audience an idea of what the film is
of this story. representing: romantic love.

REPRESENTATION OF GENDER
The representation of gender is a powerful code in media texts.

Women Representations of women in the media have developed and changed with
time to reflect the cultural and sociological changes in society. However,
female stereotypes continue to appear in some media texts.

Representations of women are often defined by how men see women

(termed the 'male gaze'), or by how society expects women to look and
behave.
Many representations of women concentrate on sexuality and emotions.
Others focus on their relationships with their children or romantic partners.

Magazine front covers often include stereotypical representations of women.

 Although there are representations of women in the media that conform to
society's expectations there are also representations that aim to subvert and
challenge these constructions.

These positive representations offer a more realistic and refreshing view,

showing women as active rather than passive, as heroes not victims.

Men Representations of men have changed over the past two decades with the
emergence of the 'new man' or 'metrosexual', a man in touch with his
feminine side and interested in romance, fashion, health and fitness.

However, the main focus is still on the traditional idea of masculinity which is
strong, heroic, with the ability to outsmart life's problems and survive against
all odds.

This kind of masculine representation is seen in action-adventure characters

such as James Bond or Indiana Jones. Sometimes this heroic representation
of masculinity is challenged in action-adventures. In Skyfall, we see an ageing
James Bond, a more vulnerable hero. This is a more realistic representation
of masculinity and age.

The Big Bang Theory stars a group of scientists who are hyper-intelligent,
geeky and weedy. The show represents how Leonard, one of the weedy
scientists, manages to win the heart of Penny – despite him not being the
stereotypical tough, handsome guy who always gets the girl.
 David Beckham combines tradi3onal and modern male values.

David Beckham is a good example of someone who combines the aspects of a

'new man' (he is interested in fashion and is an active father to his children)
with the more traditional masculine values (his strength, attractiveness and
sporting skills).

Today many men are faced with unrealistic and aspirational representations
of masculinity in the media.

The front cover of men's lifestyle magazines can offer an unrealistic representation of
masculinity

The front covers of men's lifestyle magazines often depict a 'perfect man'
with great hair and a six pack of abs. As a result, many men are now under a
similar pressure to women, trying to con form to an ideal image.

REPRESENTATION OF AGE
Representations of age can influence how audiences respond to a character or real-life person in a
media text.

Young people When media texts represent people, they can be categorized according to
age, however it is easy to fall into stereotypical caricatures of lazy teenagers
or grumpy old people. Today it can be difficult to pigeon-hole people into
age groups, as the boundaries are becoming more blurred – for example,
video games are just as likely to be played by middle-aged adults as
teenagers.

Young people are often represented negatively in media texts, which can
cause controversy and stimulate debate. During the London riots, British
young people were portrayed by the print media as dangerous and hostile.
 This representation was based on the actions of a small number of people
and created an unfair stereotype.

When young people appear in positive representations in newspapers, it is

often because they have done something out of the ordinary, such as an
heroic act or an impressive sporting achievement. In comedy
representations, like Vicky Pollard in Little Britain, young people are often
shown as lacking in education and of low social class. This is reflected in their
clothes, the way they speak and the language they use.

This representation suggests that this is generally considered the dominant

representation of young people in the media, enough to encourage a parody.
Positive representations of young people in the media are much less
frequent because positive representations are not as dramatic or
entertaining.

The main media texts which offer positive representation of young people
are usually situations which allow them to represent themselves, within a
specific context. For instance, auditions on talent shows such as Britain's Got
Talent and The X Factor or celebrations of their good deeds on charity
programmes like Children in Need.

REPRESENTATION OF ETHNIC, NATIONAL AND REGIONAL IDENTITY

Ethnic, national or regional identity is reinforced or undermined by how it is represented in the
media. The United Kingdom is an ethnically diverse country; however this diversity is not always
reflected in the media. On TV, film, and on the front of glossy magazines, non-white faces are often
under-represented. Many people confuse ethnicity and race.

Ethnicity defined by culture, national customs, language or beliefs. Race can mean
physical characteristics that may be related to skin colour or other
physiological features. The media’s representation of ethnicity can prove very
powerful as it could be the only experience of other cultures that some
audiences will encounter.

If all representation of ethnicity in the media were balanced this would not be a problem. However
many representations can rely on negative stereotypes which may adversely affect the way others
then perceive a particular ethnic culture.

National identity based on the features of a specific country - its culture, traditions, language
and politics. Regional identity is also based on geographical area but can be
quite broad (someone could be from the North or the South of England) or
more specific (they could be Glaswegian or Cornish).

Representations of national and regional identity often focus on certain stereotypical characteristics
and customs associated with the nation or region. For example, that the French are romantic,
Italians are the best cooks, or the Irish are friendly.
M3. LECTURE 2, PART 1: FORMING INFORMED OPINIONS OR THESIS STATEMENTS

FORMING INFORMED OPINIONS OR THESIS STATEMENTS

The topic of under-representation of minority groups in various media, as discussed previously, is
intricately connected to the act of viewing a documentary about minority groups. Watching such a
documentary serves as a means of increasing awareness and understanding of the issues related to
under-representation. It can provide you with valuable insights into the experiences, challenges, and
perspectives of these marginalized communities.

In turn, viewing a documentary about minority groups can be a pivotal step in forming informed
opinions and thesis statements. It equips you with the knowledge and context necessary to analyze
and reflect on the issues presented in the documentary. It encourages you to critically examine the
under-representation of these groups in media and how this lack of representation perpetuates
stereotypes and inequality. In this part of the module, you are to use your knowledge of concepts on
representation and under-representation in preparation for gaining refined knowledge about how
informed opinions or thesis statements may best be made.

M3. LECTURE 2, PART 2: THE THESIS STATEMENT AND ITS PURPOSES

THE THESIS STATEMENT AND ITS PURPOSES

In the process of crafting a well-structured argument or research project, formulating an informed

opinion or thesis statement is a foundational task. It encapsulates the core argument or perspective
that the entire work will revolve around, providing clarity and purpose to the endeavor.

A thesis statement is a concise and clear statement that articulates the main argument or point of
view in an essay, research paper, or any written work. It serves the following purposes:

A. Guide—it is like a road sign that serves as a guide that tells what the focus of the whole text is.

B. Main Point—it tells readers about the overall message of the whole text.

However, do note that while the main idea provides the topic or summary of each paragraph, the
thesis statement is responsible for providing the main point of the whole text, not just a single
paragraph.

In order to get a clearer picture of what a thesis statement is, consider the following essential
components of a thesis statement. These components must be satisfied, achieved, or found in a
statement before it can be considered a thesis:

• Length—it has to be 1 to 2 sentences in terms of length.

• Location—it is embedded or found in the first paragraph of the whole paper.
• Topic—it announces the topic, issue, or area of concern to be tackled.
• Argument/ side/ opinion/ claim—it contains an argument, informed opinions/ beliefs, sides
or claims about the topic
• Testable/ defendable—it can be proven as or defended to be true or false depending on
evidence; it is NOT a fact that can no longer be negated (e.g., the sun can be found at the
center of the solar system, being orbited by planets).
Example:
The persistent issue of food insecurity in urban communities emphasizes the urgent need for
comprehensive policies, community-driven initiatives, and equitable access to nutritious and
affordable food sources. These measures aim for the reduction of dependency on food aid programs
and promotion of long-term food sovereignty.

Topic: It clearly identifies the topic, which is "the persistent issue of food insecurity in urban
communities."

Arguments/sides/opinions/claims: It presents three arguments or claims, including:

1. Comprehensive policies, community-driven initiatives, and equitable access to nutritious
and affordable food sources: This argument emphasizes the need for multi-pronged
solutions to address food insecurity. It is arguable because different stakeholders may have
varying opinions on the most effective strategies to achieve food security. The discussion
can center around which policies and initiatives are most suitable and effective.

2. Reduction of dependency on food aid programs: This argument raises questions about the
effectiveness of existing food aid programs and whether they are contributing to long-term
solutions or perpetuating dependency. It's arguable as opinions may differ on how best to
transition away from reliance on aid programs.

3. Promotion of long-term food sovereignty: The idea of food sovereignty is a subject of

ongoing debate in the field of food policy. Some argue that it empowers communities, while
others may have reservations about its feasibility and impact. This argument is arguable
because it involves differing perspectives on what long-term food sovereignty entails and
how it can be achieved.
M3. LECTURE 2, PART 3: PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUES AND PARTS OF A
SELECTED REFERENCE TO SUPPORT THEM

PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUES AND

PARTS OF A SELECTED REFERENCE TO SUPPORT THEM
An informed opinion or thesis statement may be further supported to become a complete academic
paper serving various purposes. These techniques of supporting and developing the thesis statement
are as follows:

INTRODUCTION

Introduction—these are the first few paragraphs in any academic paper. It serves two purposes:
(1) identify what the topic and the thesis statement/s are; and
(2) prove the importance of the topic and validity of the author’s thesis statement related to the
topic

For an introduction to effectively serve its purposes, there are various techniques in paragraph
development that writers can use separately or in combination:

1. FACTUAL INFORMATION—this technique comes in the form of including details that have
already been proven and tested to be true or deemed to be logical.

Example:
Until recently, estradiol, the primary hormone secreted by the ovary, has been thought to
predominantly influence reproductive functions.

Thesis Statement: It is now known that this pleiotropic hormone has profound effects on plasticity
in the developing and adult brain (McEwen et al., 1995). Recent clinical studies demonstrate that
estradiol replacement in postmenopausal women ameliorates cognitive dysfunction (Sherwin. 1994;
Robinson et al., 1994; Henderson et al., 1996) and decreases the incidence and rate of
neurodegeneration associated with diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (Henderson et al., 1996;
Paganini-Hill and Henderson, 1994: Brenner et al., 1994).

Guided analysis of the above-given example:

1. What factual pieces of information are included in the paragraph?
a. The hormone from the ovary called the estradiol influences reproductive functions.
b. It also affects plasticity of the developing and adult brain.
c. Its replacement among menopausal women lessens brain-related problems such as
Alzheimer’s.

2. How can the so-called factual pieces of information be checked for their validity or truthfulness?
a. Citations which include those by McEwen et al. (1995), Sherwin (1994), Robinson et al.,
(1994), etc. can be counterchecked.

3. How do the so-called factual pieces of information contribute to the effectiveness of the given
introduction?
a. The paragraph introduces the hormone estradiol as a potential preventive source of
medication/ medicine against Alzheimer’s and other similar diseases—ailments that affect
many and are seen to still be unpreventable or incurable until the present times.
 2. ANECDOTE—this technique comes in the form of including retellings of relevant personal
experiences or experiences by other people.

Example:
We sat on the edge of the bed together, the day's end ritual drawing to a close. I gently stroked her
bent arthritic spine with the loving intent to ease the pain from the hours spent in immobility,
moving only from the chair to the bathroom, to the dining table and back again to the chair. Her
physical care for this day was complete. She relaxed under the soft touch of my hand and suddenly
said: “You are such a good mother." I was jolted out of my reverie to reply: “Excuse me, Mom." Our
eyes met, we laughed spontaneously and heartily, embraced and in that instantaneous moment
transcended the mundane tasks of caring and entered into a special moment of togetherness--a
mutual caring, compassion and recognition.

Thesis Statement: This moment was not one of role reversal but one of experiencing the meaning
of caregiving and receiving. Several days later, I shared this experience in a qualitative research class
discussion in phenomenology. The class participants were visibly moved, and shared recognition of…

Guided analysis of the above-given example:

1. What experiences are included in the paragraph?
a. generally an encounter between a patient and his/ her nurse or caregiver

2. For what topic/s may the experiences be most relevant?

a. in showing the essence or meaning of caregiving and receiving
b. in discussing phenomenology (as mentioned in the paragraph itself)
c. in gaining insights about maintaining proper nurse-patient relationships and care of patients

3. Why might the experience of the person who shared his/ her encounter be relevant to the topics
covered by the introduction?
a. He/ she is probably a nurse/ caregiver who has had firsthand experience in caring for
patients.

3. DEFINITION—this technique comes in the form of giving meaning to, providing examples of,
or describing of relevant concept/s.

Example:
Cancer is the uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells inside the body with the potential to
cause death.

[1] In America, it is the main cause of death in children aged 14 years or less.[2] In Indonesia, the
2013 Basic Health Research data state that 0.5% of total cancer patients are children aged 14 years
or less.[3] Children suffering from cancer at the end of their lives need comfort, but it is rarely
fulfilled.[4] The uncomfortable conditions experienced by children are related to pain, dyspnea,
digestive problems, and neurological changes. [3] Nurses' management of pain or other symptoms is
part of the multidisciplinary model of providing comfort. [6] Nurses' understanding of what comfort
means to children at the end of their lives affects the intervention of comfort provided to increase
the children's quality of life. [Z]
Thesis Statement: Therefore, exploring the nurses' understanding on the essence and meaning of
children's comfort at the end of their life is a study necessarily conducted.

Guided analysis of the above-given example:

1. What concepts are given meaning, provided with examples, or described in the introductory
paragraph?
a. cancer
b. uncomfortable conditions related to cancer experienced by children such as pain, dyspnea,
digestive problems, and neurological changes
c. nurses’ duties including management of pain or symptoms/ provision of comfort

2. How do the concepts defined in the paragraph relate to its topic, and how do they make the
introduction effective?
a. The definitions provide ideas about the disease cancer that causes discomfort among young
patients; they identify the different types of discomfort that the said disease causes among
the identified patients; and they make the introduction effective as they provide a clear
picture of an issue of concern which is the comfort that can be afforded to the patients while
experiencing a pain-causing disease.

4. BRIEF HISTORY—this technique comes in the form of including details about past events.

Example:

Thesis Statement: As with other practice professions, nursing requires a knowledge foundation
that is based on theory and derived from systematic research.

The first nursing theorist, Florence Nightingale, created detailed reports of both medical and nursing
matters as chief nurse for the British in the Crimean War in the mid-1850s. Nightingale noted that
“... apprehension, uncertainty, waiting, expectation, fear of surprise, do a patient more harm than
any exertion” (p. 6) (2). As a result, Nightingale's conceptualization of nursing included the need to
have an understanding of the laws of nature, the prevention of disease, and the use of personal
power. She viewed persons as both physical and spiritual beings, emphasizing the importance of the
environment and the need to care for the patient, not the disease. With her emphasis on the
environment, changes in nutrition, hydration, and sanitation, mortality rates dropped drastically
during the Crimean War (3). In subsequent years, Nightingale developed "laws of nursing" that
formed the basis for nursing science and guided nursing education in the United States from 1850 to
the 1950s (4).

Guided analysis of the above-given example:

1. What past event/s are included in the paragraph?
a. the creation of detailed reports by Florence Nightingale during the Crimean War in the mid-
1850s
b. her detailed reports and experiments leading to the dropping of mortality rates during the
said war

2. Why are the identified past events relevant or helpful in making the introduction effective?
a. They prove the thesis statement or the claim that the nursing profession, just like any other
jobs, benefits from both sufficient theoretical knowledge and the process of systematic
researching which includes keeping records, experimentation, and healthcare decisions
based on results.
 5. QUOTATION—this technique comes in the form of using statements coming from other
sources.

Example:

Thesis Statement: As with other practice professions, nursing requires a knowledge foundation
that is based on theory and derived from systematic research.

The first nursing theorist, Florence Nightingale, created detailed reports of both medical and nursing
matters as chief nurse for the British in the Crimean War in the mid-1850s. Nightingale noted that
“... apprehension, uncertainty, waiting, expectation, fear of surprise, do a patient more harm than
any exertion” (p. 6) (2). As a result, Nightingale's conceptualization of nursing included the need to
have an understand laws of nature, the prevention of disease, and the use of personal power. She
viewed persons as both physical and spiritual beings, emphasizing the importance of the
environment and the need to care for the patient, not the disease. With her emphasis on the
environment, changes in nutrition, hydration, and sanitation resulted, and mortality rates dropped
drastically during the Crimean War (3). In subsequent years, Nightingale developed "laws of nursing"
that formed the basis for nursing science and guided nursing education in the United States from
1850 to the 1950s (4).

Guided analysis of the above-given example:

1. What statement from another person is included in the paragraph?
a. the statement of Nightingale: “Apprehension, uncertainty, waiting, expectation, fear of
surprise, do a patient more harm than any exertion.”

2. How does the identified part help in making the introduction an effective one?
a. It comes from an icon in the profession being talked about—Florence Nightingale.
b. It supports the thesis statement that the nursing profession benefits best from deriving
decisions from research results—like what the source found out, i.e., apprehension, among
many others, affects patients negatively.

6. SHOCKING STATEMENT—this technique comes in the form of identifying unusual,

unexpected, or unknown pieces of information.

Example:
Thesis Statement: A mother's genetics determines how clever her children are, according to
researchers, and the father makes no difference. Women are more likely to transmit intelligence
genes to their children because they are carried on the X chromosome and women have two of
these, while men only have one.

Guided analysis of the above-given example:

1. What unusual or unexpected details are included in the short introduction?
a. Intelligence comes from just one parent instead of both—the mother.
b. The male parent has little to no contribution to a child’s intelligence, making their genes
insignificant intelligence-wise.
c. Intelligence is carried on the X chromosome which women have two of while men only have
one.

2. How do the unexpected details support or make the introduction effective?

a. They logically support or scientifically further explain the thesis statement that mothers are
the sole persons who pass on their intelligence to their children.
 7. CURRENT EVENTS—this technique comes in the form of including recent events or
trends that are happening at the time of writing.

Example:
Thesis Statement: All hospitals should use electronic health records (EHRs). As new legislation and
advances in technology have led many hospitals and clinics away from paper records, the debate
between the two still lingers. Some doctors cling to paper records out of habit or personal
preference, and there are often concerns about the security of information and protecting patient
privacy. But, as Americans become more transient and medical professionals more interconnected,
the fact that electronic records can be shared easily between hospitals is becoming more and more
important. EHRS also have a physical lasting power that is unmatched by paper records. There are
legitimate concerns about the security of electronic records, but the benefits outweigh the risks.
Thus, even though EHRs pose some security risks, every hospital should use them because they are
permanent and they can be shared easily between hospitals.

Guided analysis of the above-given example:

1. What recent events or current trends are included in the introduction?
a. New rules and advancements in technology making hospitals shift away from using printed
records
b. electronic records being easily sharable and longer lasting

2. How do the recent events or given trends support or make the introduction effective?
a. They make it seem that the thesis statement or argument, “All hospitals should use
electronic health records (EHRs),” is true since many believe it or imply it to be their belief
by means of how they prefer electronic versions of their records over their printed
counterparts.

8. STATISTICS—this technique comes in the form of presenting and interpreting numerical or

mathematical data.

Example:
Cancer is the uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells inside the body with the potential to
cause death.[1] In America, it is the main cause of death in children aged 14 years or less.[2] In
Indonesia, the 2013 Basic Health Research data state that 0.5% of total cancer patients are children
aged 14 years or less.[3] Children suffering from cancer at the end of their lives need comfort, but it
is rarely fulfilled.[4] The uncomfortable conditions experienced by children are related to pain,
dyspnea, digestive problems, and neurological changes. [3] Nurses' management of pain or other
symptoms is part of the multidisciplinary model of providing comfort. [6] Nurses' understanding of
what comfort means to children at the end of their lives affects the intervention of comfort provided
to increase the children's quality of life. [Z] Thesis Statement: Therefore, exploring the nurses'
understanding on the essence and meaning of children's comfort at the end of their life is a study
necessarily conducted.

Guided analysis of the above-given example:

1. What numerical or mathematical data are included in the introduction?
a. 0.5% of total cancer patients are children aged 14 years or less

2.How does the number or numerical data support or make the introduction effective?
a. It makes readers have more concrete idea about how many of those who suffer from cancer
are children whose comfort, while going through such illness, must be ensured. While the
 number or percentage may seem insignificant, it still presents the idea that there are young
lives at stake and must be taken care of.

BODY

The Body—at this part of an academic paper, the following functions must be served: (1) to explain,
(2) to provide examples, and (3) elaborate on reasons/ explore ideas.

Consider the following essay as an example:

(1) The human body is a wonderful piece of work that nature has created. (2) It is not beautiful like
the body of a butterfly or peacock but it is shaped practically. (3) It can do many types of work which
other animals cannot. (4) It is not strong like the body of a tiger. (5) But in place of physical strength
it has a big and sharp brain. (6) By using this brain, the human physique has been able to overcome
many of its limitations. (7) By sitting in an airplane, it flies faster than a kite, by riding a motorcycle, it
travels faster than a leopard, and by firing a machine gun it fights much better than a tiger. (8) In
spite of all this, the human body suffers from many diseases because it has a weakness for habits
such as smoking, drinking and overeating. (9) When it is healthy the body can give great pleasure,
but when it is sick, it can cause great pain.

Guided analysis of the above-given example:

1. What is the thesis statement of the paragraphs above?
a. Sentence 1: The human body is a wonderful piece of work that nature has created.

2. What techniques were possibly used to support and develop the introduction?
a. Sentences 2 and 3 may either be classified as factual pieces of information or shocking
statements since they prove what makes the human body wonderful by means of saying
how it is better shaped compared to bodies of other organisms despite it being less
beautiful and how it is capable of doing many types of work.

3. Which sentences form the body of the paragraphs above?

a. Sentences 4 to 9

4. Why and how do those sentences function as the body?

a. Sentences 4 and 5 explain and provide the reason why the human body is more practical
than the bodies of other organisms.
b. Sentences 6 and 7 provide examples of the many abilities that the human body is capable of
doing to overcome its limitations.
c. Sentences 8 and 9 also provide other things that the human body can do, but they focus
more on the negative ones and their consequences that may put it to harm.

Since the body of an academic paper must explore an idea, elaborate on a chosen topic, and support
the thesis statement, there are also various paragraph development techniques a writer can use to
do so other than the one used previously. The common ones are as follows:

1. NARRATIVE—this kind of paragraph shows how events take place and in what sequence.

Example: It was three in the morning. Sarah’s husband stood up from their bed and rushed to their
room’s toilet. There, he started vomiting. Later that morning, he was rushed to the hospital and was
found to have suffered from food poisoning. Hours before that unfortunate event, the couple had
gone eating at a fine-dining restaurant, with Sarah’s husband unknowingly ordering and eating
spoiled scallops. It took them such a mishap to realize how serious and bothersome food poisoning
can be, with Sarah even saying, “I was so shocked by what was going on that didn’t know what to do
to help him.”

Guided analysis of the above-given example:

1. What events were mentioned in the paragraph?
a. Sarah’s husband vomiting at 3am in the morning
b. hospitalization of Sarah’s husband and the diagnosis of food poisoning
c. Sarah’s husband and she eating at a restaurant and ordering spoiled food

2. Can the events be sequenced in a chronological order or according to how they actually
happened? Which event comes first, second, and third?
c. Sarah’s husband and she eating at a restaurant and ordering spoiled food
a. Sarah’s husband vomiting at 3am in the morning
b. hospitalization of Sarah’s husband and the diagnosis of food poisoning

3. If any, are there details that support the claims of the narrative paragraph to be true?
a. Direct quotation of Sarah where she states the events to be shocking and her not knowing
what to do

2. DEFINITION—this kind of paragraph provides readers with meanings, descriptions, or

examples of a given concept or topic.

Example: Gardner and Lambert (1972) have defined attitude in terms of the endurance exhibited by
the learner in using extensive effort or energy to achieve a particular goal. Stem (1983) has included
attitudes towards learning the target language itself and learning languages in a general way.

Guided analysis of the above-given example:

1. What concept is given meaning in the paragraph?
a. attitude

2. How is it given meaning?

a. Citations involving Gardner and Lambert (1972) and Stem (1983)
b. Gardner and Lambert (1972) defining attitude as related to the endurance or effort that a
person exhibits or exerts to achieve his/ her goals
c. Stem (1983) specifying attitude in the context of language learning

3. CLASSIFICATION—this kind of paragraph groups things or individuals together based on a

certain standard or rule and by specifying their shared characteristics.

Example: It’s perfectly normal for kids to exhibit a certain behavioral style in class. Behavior, after
all, is a primary form of communication for school-age children. Decipher its meaning and you’ll be
better equipped to help your child succeed academically.

Here are a few of the more common classroom styles: The class clown tends to be outgoing.
Gregarious child is in need of attention. At home he’s also charming and funny, but at times drives
you crazy with his endless capacity for high jinx.
The shrinking violet is shy, introverted and insecure about speaking up in school. In a comfortable
setting at home or with close friends, however, she may be full of talk.

The daydreamer who tunes out or doodles in class may have a concentration problem, or the work
could be either too advanced or too easy.

The eager beaver tends to be a high achiever who’s naturally motivated. But he can be hard on
himself if he doesn’t meet his own standards.

Guided analysis of the above-given example:

1. What standard or rule is used in grouping the individuals in the paragraph?
a. behavioral style in class or common classroom styles

2. What are the groups identified?

a. shrinking violet
b. daydreamer
c. eager beaver

3. What characteristics do the individuals in each group share?

a. shrinking violet—shy, introverted, insecure, only talks with close friend or at home
b. daydreamer—tunes out of class, doodles, has problems with concentrating
c. eager beaver—high achiever, motivated, expects highly of himself or herself

4. PROCESS—this kind of paragraph presents a series of actions that lead to a result. In

addition, it may provide explanations about how concepts function or work.

Example 1: The researcher requested permission from the author of the “A Survey of Foreign
Language Learning Motivation” (Wang, 2010) among Polytechnic Students in China to use the
questionnaire in gathering the data needed in the study.

The questionnaire was modified through the assistance of the statistician and his adviser.

Example 2: A number of curious experiences occur at the onset of sleep. A person just about to go to
sleep may experience an electric shock, a flash of light, or a crash of thunder – but the most common
sensation is that of floating, or falling, which is why “falling asleep” is a scientifically valid
description.

A nearly universal occurrence at the beginning of sleep (although not everyone recalls it) is a sudden,
uncoordinated jerk of the head, the limbs, or even the entire body. Most people tend to think of
going to sleep as a slow, slippage into oblivion, but the onset of sleep is not gradual at all. It happens
in an instant. One moment the individual is awake, the next moment not.

Guided analysis of Example 1:

1. What process is illustrated in Example 1?
a. requesting permission from an author for the use of his/ her questionnaire

2. What are the steps, in ascending order, involved in the process illustrated in Example 1?
a. requesting permission from Wang (2010) for the use of his/ her questionnaire from the
study titled “A Survey of Foreign Language Learning Motivation”
 b. modification of the questionnaire with the help of a statistician and the research adviser

Guided analysis of Example 2:

1. What process/ concept is illustrated in Example 2?
a. sleeping

2. What are the events involved in the process illustrated in Example 2?

a. electric shock, flash of light, crash of thunder, floating, or falling
b. uncoordinated jerking of the head, the limbs, or the entire body

3. What are the other details in Example 2 that do not just state steps but explain the process or
concept involved?
a. going to sleep not being slow or gradual but instantaneous

5. DESCRIPTION—this kind of paragraph simply describes what is given (e.g., a table, an

illustration, a person, an experience, etc.) by identifying its contents or appearance and
telling what they mean; it does not involve personal interpretation.

Given:
Table 5. Distribution of Respondents by their Use of Chinese Outside their Class
Chinese Language Usage Outside Class Frequency Percentage
1. Hardly 38 11.2
2. Sometimes with foreign friends 143 42.2
3. Sometimes with other teachers or peers 38 11.2
4. Sometimes with my family members 120 35.4
Total 339 100

Example:
The Respondents in Terms of their Use of Chinese Outside their Class
Table 5 shows the distribution of the respondents by their use of Chinese outside their class.
The 11.2% of the respondents hardly use Chinese outside their class. The 42.2% of the respondents
sometimes use Chinese language with foreign friends while 11.2% of the respondents sometimes
use Chinese language with other teachers or peers. The 35.4%of the respondents sometimes use
Chinese language with their family members.

Guided analysis of the above-given example:

1. What parts of the table are mentioned or identified in the paragraph?
a. The title, i.e., distribution of the respondents by their use of Chinese outside their class
b. percentage corresponding to the response labeled as “hardly,” i.e., 11.2%
c. percentage corresponding to the response labeled as “sometimes with foreign friends,” i.e.,
42.2%
d. percentage corresponding to the response labeled as “sometimes with other teachers or
peers,” i.e., 11.2%
e. percentage corresponding to the response labeled as “sometimes with family members,”
i.e., 35.4

2. Does the paragraph contain personal interpretation of the given table?

a. No, it does not. It merely presents or tells what the table contains and the connection or
meaning of the different parts.
 6. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST—this kind of paragraph focuses on similarities and
differences between and among identified groups.
Example:

The Changing World of Women

The lifestyles of women have changed drastically in the last thirty years and are still changing
today. Basically, there have been four major changes. These have been in sexual attitudes, marriage
ideas, marriage roles, and career opportunities.

The first major change has been in sexual attitudes. Thirty years ago it was considered taboo for
a woman even to say the word “sex” in public. Today women as well as men are able to discuss sex
and its problems and joys freely and openly. Additionally, women are now emphasizing their roles as
sexual partners and leaders rather than inferiors and followers, and men are accepting that change,
too.

Guided analysis of the above-given example:

1. What is the topic explored in the given example and who are being compared and contrasted?
a. change in the lifestyle of women in the last thirty years

2. How many changes are there and what are they specifically?
a. 4: sexual attitudes; marriage ideas; marriage roles; career opportunities

3. How different are the women of the past from their present counterparts in terms of the
identified major changes in their lifestyle?
a. sexual attitude—present-day women are now expressive of the word “sex” even in public
setups unlike the women before them.
b. marriage and career opportunities—present-day women are now active in discussing with
their partners the roles they play in life as well as in pursuing leadership roles unlike their
previous counterparts who saw themselves as inferiors and as mere followers.

7. CAUSE AND EFFECT—this kind of paragraph specifies reasons or sources and results, telling
how an event takes place and why.

Example:

Why Students Leave College

There seem to be six basic reasons some of our classmates will not be with us when graduation day
arrives in four years.
The first to leave are the dissatisfied, such as my high school friend who could not adjust to being
away from home and among so many strangers.

Next to leave are those who get sick or have bad accidents. This happened to a girl down the hall in
my dormitory, but she plans to be back after Christmas.

Another reason to leave is marriage, either “shotgun” style or being unable to wait until summer or
graduation.
Also, after the first year or two, some students transfer, either for the reasons that might also make
them drop out (get closer to home, marry, money problems) or to earn a degree only offered
elsewhere.

There are two final reasons that cause dropouts: money problems and bad grades. College students
everywhere are always short on funds.

Finally, some students cannot handle the academic part of college life. For many reasons, from too
much partying to weak high school preparation, they flunk out of school. In fact, after looking back
over this list, it will be surprising if anyone sitting in this class will be left to graduate in four years.

Guided analysis of the above-given example:

1.What is the topic explored in the given example?
a. why students leave college/ six basic reasons some of our classmates will not be with us
when graduation day arrives in four years

2. What causes students to leave college?

a. dissatisfaction
b. illnesses or accidents
c. marriage
d. transfer of residence or change of course preference
e. financial problems
f. bad grades because of bad habits or lack of ample preparation in high school

All of the previously identified paragraph development techniques/ methods fall under what is
called expository writing, a form of writing aimed at explaining ideas and educating or informing
readers about them. As opposed to other forms of writing, expository writing is informational and
backed with facts and is technical.

CONCLUSION

The Conclusion—In an academic paper, there must be a part called conclusion which must serve the
following functions: (1) to summarize/ restate the main point/ thesis statement or (2) challenge
readers to do certain action/s related to the thesis statement.

Consider once again the example given previously:

(1) The human body is a wonderful piece of work that nature has created. (2) It is not beautiful like
the body of a butterfly or peacock but it is shaped practically. (3) It can do many types of work which
other animals cannot. (4) It is not strong like the body of a tiger. (5) But in place of physical strength
it has a big and sharp brain. (6) By using this brain, the human physique has been able to overcome
many of its limitations. (7) By sitting in an airplane, it flies faster than a kite, by riding a motorcycle, it
travels faster than a leopard, and by firing a machine gun it fights much better than a tiger. (8) In
spite of all this, the human body suffers from many diseases because it has a weakness for habits
such as smoking, drinking and overeating. (9) When it is healthy the body can give great pleasure,
but when it is sick, it can cause great pain. (10) The wise man would always keep his body fit because
only a healthy mind and body can work to do amazing things that no other creature ever can.

Guided analysis of the above-given example:

1. Which sentence in the above paragraphs serves as the conclusion?
 a. Sentence 10: The wise man would always keep his body fit because only a healthy mind and
body can work to do amazing things.

2. Why and how does that sentence function as the conclusion?

a. Sentence 10 states a similar idea with the thesis statement as it says that the body can do
amazing things that no other creatures ever can, making it a restatement. Also, it challenges
readers to stay fit so that they can better take care of the wonderful bodies they have and
prevent them from suffering from the consequences of bad habits.
M3. PREVIEWING THE FINAL REQUIREMENT

Now armed with ideas on representation, sensitive about how these play a role in how different
groups function in society, especially those of the minority, and equipped with the skills how to
formulate informed opinions about how these groups are greatly affected and may best be helped,
you students are now expected to start your final requirement or action plan. It is elaborated as
follows:

Final Requirement:
Action plan for solving a contemporary community/ social problem, with the solution being related
to the students’ respective degree programs

Action Plan—the requirement is a very short but practical academic paper that will require students
to identify a contemporary community/ social problem (which may or may not involve minority
groups) then provide a practicable solution using knowledge or skills in their degree program, e.g., if
the chosen problem is about teenage pregnancy, those from the College of Nursing may come up
with proven deterrent and medical solutions from the field of nursing.

Format/ Parts—the paper is expected to have the following parts which will require them to use all
the skills and topics covered in the whole course and their knowledge from their respective degree
programs. This will likewise be somewhat an introduction to how scholarly papers are expected to
be written in the collegiate level, i.e., replete with references and rooted in various relevant
literature and studies that aim to address certain societal concerns.

I. Statement of Purpose—at this part, students are expected to provide two to three sentences that
would identify the objectives/ goals of their proposed plan of action.

II. Rationale/ Background of the Problem/ Description of the Problem—In here, students are
expected to provide a background about the prevalence and importance of addressing a selected
contemporary community/ social problem using relevant local and international references.
The following guide question/s may be used:
• What prevalent problem in your community needs addressing/ solving?
• Why should it be solved/ addressed?
• What are the proofs that would support the idea that it is a big problem that affects many
people?

III. Background and Analysis of the Solution/ Description of the Solution—In here, students are to
explore a possible solution for the problem introduced earlier, but the solution must be one that is
anchored on the students’ respective degree programs.

The following guide question/s may be used:

• What practical solution may your future profession do to help solve the problem you
introduced earlier?
• How may such a solution be done based on relevant studies and references from your field
of specialization?
• What may be the challenges that may arise from applying your proposed solution?

IV. Procedure and Schematics of the Proposed Solution—In here, students are to provide a brief
step-by-step guide on how the solution may be carried out paired up with a personalized graphic aid
that may visually illustrate the process, timeline, resources, budget, etc. of the plan.
V. References—In here, students are expected to list down following the APA 7th edition style all of
the references they used in formulating the plan.