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First paper
Human Development

Topics Page No
1 Introduction To Human Development 2-9
2 Parental Development 10 - 19
3 Infancy 20 - 23
4 Childhood Development 24 - 30
5 Adolescence Development 31- 36
6 Early Adulthood 37 - 47
7 Middle Adulthood 48 - 55
8 Late Adulthood 56 - 60
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UNIT I
Introduction To Human Development

What is human development, exactly? Human development is a branch of

psychology with the goal of understanding people — how they develop,
grow, and change throughout their lives. This discipline, which can help
individuals better understand themselves and their relationships, is broad.
As such, it can be used in various professional settings and career paths.

The Eight Stages of Human Development

If human development is the study of how people change throughout their

lives, how and when does this development happen? Many scientists and
psychologists have studied various aspects of human development,
including ego psychologist Erik Erikson. He examined the impact of social
experiences throughout an individual’s life and theorised that psychosocial
development happens in eight sequential parts.

Stage 1 — Infancy: Trust vs. Mistrust

In the first stage of human development, infants learn to trust based on
how well their caregivers meet their basic needs and respond when they
cry. If an infant cries out to be fed, the parent can either meet this need by
feeding and comforting the infant or not meet this need by ignoring the
infant. When their needs are met, infants learn that relying on others is
safe; when their needs go unmet, infants grow up to be less trusting.

Stage 2 — Toddlerhood: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

In addition to autonomy versus shame and doubt, another way to think of
the second stage is independence versus dependence. Like in the first
stage, toddlers go through this stage responding to their caregivers. If
caregivers encourage them to be independent and explore the world on
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their own, toddlers will grow up with a sense of self-efficacy. If the

caregivers hover excessively or encourage dependence, these toddlers
grow up with less confidence in their abilities.

For example, if a toddler wants to walk without assistance in a safe area,

the caregiver should encourage this autonomy by allowing independent
behaviour. If the caregiver insists on holding the toddler’s hand even when
it’s not necessary, this attention can lead to doubt later in life.

Stage 3 — Preschool Years: Initiative vs. Guilt

During the preschool years, children learn to assert themselves and speak
up when they need something. Some children may state that they’re sad
because a friend stole their toy. If this assertiveness is greeted with a
positive reaction, they learn that taking initiative is helpful behaviour.
However, if they’re made to feel guilty or ashamed for their assertiveness,
they may grow up to be timid and less likely to take the lead.

Stage 4 — Early School Years: Industry vs. Inferiority

When children begin school, they start to compare themselves with peers.
If children feel they’re accomplished in relation to peers, they develop
strong self-esteem. If, however, they notice that other children have met
milestones that they haven’t, they may struggle with self-esteem. For
example, a first grader may notice a consistently worse performance on
spelling tests when compared with peers. If this becomes a pattern, it can
lead to feelings of inferiority.

Stage 5 — Adolescence: Identity vs. Role Confusion

The adolescent stage is where the term “identity crisis” originated, and for
good reason. Adolescence is all about developing a sense of self.
Adolescents who can clearly identify who they are grow up with stronger
goals and self-knowledge than teenagers who struggle to break free of
their parents’ or friends’ influences. Adolescents who still deeply depend
on their parents for social interaction and guidance may experience more
role confusion than teenagers who pursue their own interests.
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Stage 6 — Young Adulthood: Intimacy vs. Isolation

In young adulthood, which begins roughly at age 20, people begin to
solidify their lifelong bonds; many people enter committed relationships or
marriages, while others form lifelong friendships. People who can create
and maintain these relationships reap the emotional benefits, while those
who struggle to maintain relationships may suffer from isolation. A young
adult who develops strong friendships in college may feel more intimacy
than one who struggles to form and maintain close friendships.

Stage 7 — Middle Adulthood: Generativity vs. Stagnation

In middle adulthood, people tend to struggle with their contributions to
society. They may be busy raising children or pursuing careers. Those who
feel that they’re contributing experience generativity, which is the sense of
leaving a legacy. On the other hand, those who don’t feel that their work or
lives matter may experience feelings of stagnation. For example, a
middle-aged adult who’s raising a family and working in a career that
presumably helps people may feel more fulfilled than an adult who’s
working at a day job that feels meaningless.

Stage 8 — Late Adulthood: Integrity vs. Despair

As adults reach the end of life, they look back on their lives and reflect.
Adults who feel fulfilled by their lives, either through a successful family
or a meaningful career, reach ego integrity, in which they can face ageing
and dying with peace. If older adults don’t feel that they’ve lived a good
life, they risk falling into despair.

Other Theories of Human Development

Although widely used, Erikson’s psychosocial development theory has

been critiqued for focusing too much on childhood. Critics claim that his
emphasis makes the model less representative of the growth that people
experienced in adulthood. Erikson’s model of the stages of human
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development is only one theory addressing growth and change throughout

life, as many other psychologists have researched their own theories of
human development, including the following:

Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget developed the theory of cognitive development. Piaget’s

theory is widely used in education programs to prepare teachers to instruct
students in developmentally appropriate ways. The theory is based on four
stages:

● Sensorimotor — In the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years old),

children learn object permanence, which is the understanding that
people and objects still exist even when they’re out of view.
● Preoperational — In the preoperational stage (2-7 years old),
children develop symbolic thought, which is when they begin to
progress from concrete to abstract thinking. Children in this stage
often have imaginary friends.
● Concrete operational — In the concrete operational stage (7-11
years old), children solidify their abstract thinking and begin to
understand cause and effect and logical implications of actions.
● Formal operational — In the formal operational stage (adolescence
to adulthood), humans plan for the future, think hypothetically, and
assume adult responsibilities.

Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg created a theory of human development based on

moral development concepts. The theory comprises the following stages:
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● Preconventional — In the preconventional stage, people follow

rules because they’re afraid of punishment and make choices only
with their best interests in mind.
● Conventional — In the conventional stage, people act to avoid
society’s judgement and follow rules to maintain the systems and
structures that are already in place.
● Postconventional — In the postconventional stage, a genuine
concern for the welfare of others and the greater good of society
guides people.
Psychosexual Theory

Sigmund Freud popularised the psychosexual theory. The theory

comprises five stages:

● Oral — In the oral stage (birth to 1 year old), children learn to suck
and swallow and may experience conflict with weaning.
● Anal — In the anal stage (1-3 years old), children learn to withhold
or expel faeces and may experience conflict with potty training.
● Phallic — In the phallic stage (3-6 years old), children discover that
their genitals can give them pleasure.
● Latency — In the latency stage (roughly 6 years old through
puberty), they take a break from these physical stages and instead
develop mentally and emotionally.
● Genital — In the genital stage (puberty through adulthood), people
learn to express themselves sexually.

Ideally, children move through each phase fluidly as their sexual libidos
develop, but if they’re stuck in any of the phases, they may develop a
fixation that hinders their development.

Behavioural Theory

The behavioural theory focuses solely on a person’s behaviours rather than

the feelings that go alongside those behaviours. It suggests that behaviours
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are conditioned in an environment due to certain stimuli. Behavioural

theorists believe that behaviour determines feelings, so changing
behaviours is important because this will in turn change feelings.

The attachment theory focuses on the deep relationships between people

across their lifetime. An important attachment theory finding is that
children must develop at least one strong bond in childhood to trust and
develop relationships as adults. The attachment theory comprises four
stages:

● Asocial or pre-attachment (birth to 6 weeks old)

● Indiscriminate attachment (6 weeks old to 7 months old)
● Specific or discriminate attachment (7-9 months old)
● Multiple attachments (10 months old or later)

Social Learning Theory

The social learning theory builds upon the behavioural theory and
postulates that people learn best by observing the behaviour of others.
They watch how others act, view the consequences, and then make
decisions regarding their own behaviour accordingly. The four stages in
this theory are:

● Attention
● Retention
● Reproduction
● Motivation

In the attention stage, people first notice the behaviour of others. In the
retention stage, they remember the behaviour and the resulting
consequences. In the reproduction stage, people develop the ability to
imitate the behaviours they want to reproduce, and in the motivation stage,
they perform these behaviours.
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Sociocultural Theory

Sociocultural theory ties human development to the society or culture in

which people live. It focuses on the contributions that society as a whole
makes to individual human development. For example, children who are
raised to play outdoors develop differently from children who are raised to
play indoors.

An important part of this theory is the zone of proximal development,

which is an area of knowledge and skills slightly more advanced than a
child’s current level. The zone of proximal development helps teachers
think about and plan instruction, so sociocultural theory plays a large role
in preservice teacher training.

Genetic Factors That Affect Human Growth and Development

One more key element of human growth and development left to explore
is genetics. Genetics influences the speed and way in which people
develop, though other factors, such as parenting, education, experiences,
and socioeconomic factors, are also at play. The multiple genetic factors
that affect human growth and development include genetic interactions
and sex chromosome abnormalities.

Genetic Interactions
Genes can act in an additive way or sometimes conflict with one another.
For example, a child with one tall parent and one short parent may end up
between the two of them, at average height. Other times, genes follow a
dominant-recessive pattern. If one parent has brown hair and the other has
red hair, the red hair gene is the dominant gene if their child has red hair.

Gene-Environment Interactions
Humans’ genetic information is always interacting with the environment,
and sometimes this can impact development and growth. For example, if a
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child in utero is exposed to drugs, the child’s cognitive abilities may be

impacted, thus changing the developmental process. In addition, even if a
child’s genes would indicate a tall height, if that child experiences poor
nutrition as children, it may impact their height.

Sex Chromosome Abnormalities

Sex chromosome abnormalities impact as many as 1 in 500 births. The
following syndromes are examples of sex chromosome abnormalities that
can impact development:

● Klinefelter syndrome is the presence of an extra X chromosome in

males, which can cause physical characteristics such as decreased
muscle mass and reduced body hair and may cause learning
disabilities.
● Fragile X syndrome is caused by a mutation in the FMR1 gene that
makes the X chromosome appear fragile. It can cause intellectual
disability, developmental delays, or distinctive physical features such
as a long face.
● Turner syndrome happens when one of the X chromosomes is
missing or partially missing. It only affects females and results in
physical characteristics like short stature and webbed neck.
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UNIT II
Prenatal Development

While you might think of child development as something that begins

during infancy, the prenatal period is also considered an important part of
the developmental process. Prenatal development is a time of remarkable
change that helps set the stage for future psychological development. The
brain develops over the course of the prenatal period, but it will continue
to go through more changes during the early years of childhood.

The first two weeks after conception (the act of conceiving a child) are
known as the germinal stage, the third through the eighth week is known
as the embryonic period, and the time from the ninth week until birth is
known as the fetal period.

Germinal Stage of Prenatal Development

The germinal stage begins at conception when the sperm and egg cell unite
in one of the two fallopian tubes. The fertilised egg is called a zygote. Just
a few hours after conception, the single-celled zygote begins making a
journey down the fallopian tube to the uterus.

Cell division begins approximately 24 to 36 hours after conception.

Through the process of mitosis, the zygote first divides into two cells, then
into four, eight, sixteen, and so on. A significant number of zygotes never
progress past this early part of cell division, with as many as half of all
zygotes surviving less than two weeks.

Once the eight-cell point has been reached, the cells begin to differentiate
and take on certain characteristics that will determine the type of cells they
will eventually become. As the cells multiply, they will also separate into
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two distinctive masses: the outer cells will eventually become the placenta,
while the inner cells form the embryo.

Cell division continues at a rapid rate during the approximately week-long

journey from fallopian tube to uterus wall. The cells develop into what is
known as a blastocyst. The blastocyst is made up of three layers, each of
which develops into different structures in the body.

1. Ectoderm: Skin and nervous system

2. Endoderm: Digestive and respiratory systems
3. Mesoderm: Muscle and skeletal systems

Finally, the blastocyst arrives at the uterus and attaches to the uterine wall,
a process known as implantation. Implantation occurs when the cells nestle
into the uterine lining and rupture tiny blood vessels. The connective web
of blood vessels and membranes that form between them will provide
nourishment for the developing being for the next nine months.
Implantation is not always an automatic and sure-fire process.

When implantation is successful, hormonal changes halt the normal

menstrual cycle and cause a whole host of physical changes. For some
people, activities they previously enjoyed such as smoking and drinking
alcohol or coffee may become less palatable, possibly part of nature’s way
of protecting the growing life inside them.

Embryonic Stage of Prenatal Development

At this point, the mass of cells is now known as an embryo. The beginning
of the third week after conception marks the start of the embryonic period,
a time when the mass of cells becomes distinct as a human. The embryonic
stage plays an important role in the development of the brain.

Approximately four weeks after conception, the neural tube forms. This
tube will later develop into the central nervous system including the spinal
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cord and brain. The neural tube begins to form along with an area known
as the neural plate. The earliest signs of development of the neural tube are
the emergence of two ridges that form along each side of the neural plate.

Over the next few days, more ridges form and fold inward until a hollow
tube is formed. Once this tube is fully formed, cells begin to form near the
center.The tube begins to close and brain vesicles form. These vesicles
will eventually develop into parts of the brain, including the structures of
the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.​

Around the fourth week, the head begins to form, quickly followed by the
eyes, nose, ears, and mouth. The blood vessels that will become the heart
start to pulse. During the fifth week, buds that will form the arms and legs
appear.

By the eighth week of development, the embryo has all of the basic organs
and parts except those of the sex organs. At this point, the embryo weighs
just one gram and is about one inch in length.

By the end of the embryonic period, the basic structures of the brain and
central nervous system have been established. At this point, the basic
structure of the peripheral nervous system is also defined.

As neurons form, they migrate to different areas of the brain. Once they
have reached the correct location, they begin to form connections with
other neural cells, establishing rudimentary neural networks

Fetal Stage of Prenatal Development

Once cell differentiation is mostly complete, the embryo enters the next
stage and becomes known as a fetus. The fetal period of prenatal
development marks more important changes in the brain. This period of
development begins during the ninth week and lasts until birth. This stage
is marked by amazing change and growth.
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The early body systems and structures established in the embryonic stage
continue to develop. The neural tube develops into the brain and spinal
cord and neurons continue to form. Once these neurons have formed, they
begin to migrate to their correct locations. Synapses, or the connections
between neurons, also begin to develop.

Between the ninth and twelfth week of gestation (at the earliest), reflexes
begin to emerge. The fetus begins to make reflexive motions with its arms
and legs.

During the third month of gestation, the sex organs begin to differentiate.
By the end of the month, all parts of the body will be formed. At this point,
the fetus weighs around three ounces. The fetus continues to grow in both
weight and length, although the majority of the physical growth occurs in
the later stages of pregnancy.

The end of the third month also marks the end of the first trimester of
pregnancy. During the second trimester, or months four through six, the
heartbeat grows stronger and other body systems become further
developed. Fingernails, hair, eyelashes, and toenails form.Perhaps most
noticeably, the fetus increases about six times in size.

So what's going on inside the brain during this important period of prenatal
development? The brain and central nervous system also become more
responsive during the second trimester. Around 28 weeks, the brain starts
to mature faster, with an activity that greatly resembles that of a sleeping
newborn.

During the period from seven months until birth, the fetus continues to
develop, put on weight, and prepare for life outside the womb. The lungs
begin to expand and contract, preparing the muscles for breathing.

Problems With Prenatal Development

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In most cases, prenatal development occurs normally and follows the

established patterns of development with little variation. However, a
number of things, usually caused by genetics or environmental problems,
can go wrong during this time.
Genetic Problems

Genetics plays a major role in development. In some cases, genetic

problems can emerge that may impact both the current and future growth
of the developing child in the womb.

● Down Syndrome: Also known as trisomy 21, Down syndrome is

the most common genetic anomaly during prenatal development.
Down syndrome is caused by an extra copy of the 21 chromosomes
(meaning there are three chromosomes instead of the usual two) and
impacts approximately 1 out of every 1,000 infants. Typical features
of Down syndrome include flattened facial features, heart defects,
and intellectual impairment. The risk of having a child with Down
syndrome increases with maternal age.

● Inherited diseases: A number of illnesses can be inherited if one or

both parents carry a gene for the disease. Examples of inherited
diseases include sickle-cell anaemia, cystic fibrosis, and Tay-Sachs
disease. Genetic tests can often determine if a parent is a carrier of
genes for a specific disease.

● Sex-Chromosome Problems: The third type of genetic problem

involves sex-chromosomes. These include conditions such as
Klinefelter's syndrome (an extra X-chromosome) and Turner
syndrome (a single X-chromosome).

Environmental Problems
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Environmental variables can also play a major role in prenatal

development. Harmful environmental elements that can affect the fetus are
known as teratogens.A number of teratogens can harm the fetus,
including:

● Maternal Drug Use: The use of substances by the mother can have
devastating consequences to the fetus. Smoking is linked to low
birth weight, which can result in a weakened immune system, poor
respiration, and neurological impairment. Alcohol use can lead to
fetal alcohol syndrome, which is linked to heart defects, body
malformations, and intellectual disability. The use of illicit
psychoactive drugs such as cocaine and methamphetamine is also
linked to low birth weight and neurological impairment.

● Maternal Disease: A number of maternal diseases can negatively

impact the fetus, including herpes, rubella, and AIDS. Herpes virus
is one of the most common maternal diseases and can be transmitted
to the fetus, leading to deafness, brain swelling, or intellectual
disability.6Women with herpes virus are often encouraged to deliver
via caesarean to avoid transmission of the virus.

The prenatal period is a time of tremendous growth and also great

vulnerability. A number of dangers can pose a potential risk to the growing
fetus. Some of these dangers, such as environmental risks from teratogens
and drug use, can be prevented or minimised. In other instances, genetic
problems may simply be unavoidable. In either case, early prenatal care
can help new mothers and children cope with potential problems with
prenatal development.
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Neonatal Period

The neonatal period is the first four weeks of an infant's life, whether the
baby was carried to term or born prematurely. It's a time of rapid change
and development where patterns for infancy, like feeding and bonding, are
developed. It's also the period when there are the most risk for post-birth
complications or when birth defects or congenital conditions may first be
detected. The neonatal period includes the perinatal period, which is the
initial period after the birth.

Importance of the Neonatal Period

Newborns, also called neonates, are observed closely in the first few hours
of life. This is particularly true for premature births, which occur before
the 37th week of pregnancy, or if there were any complications during the
delivery. A developing baby goes through important growth throughout
pregnancy, including in the final months and weeks. Premature babies can
have immature lungs, difficulty regulating body temperature, poor feeding,
and slow weight gain. In 2018, preterm birth and low birth weight
accounted for about 17% of infant deaths (deaths before 1 year of age).

Immediately after birth, a medical team quickly checks the baby's vital
signs, alertness, and overall health. Supplemental oxygen and other
emergency care may be provided if the baby has breathing difficulties. You
may hear the baby assigned an Apgar score, which is based on:

● Colour
● Heart rate
● Reflexes
● Muscle tone
● Breathing
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Numerical scores are added for each category and reevaluated every five
minutes for the baby's first 20 minutes of life. Low scores or problems in
any of these areas may result in the need for additional care for the baby.
The goal is for the infant and their parent to be together in this period and
begin feeding and bonding.

Risks and Complications

The neonatal period is the riskiest period after birth. Worldwide, 2.4
million infants died in the first month of life in 2019. Death rates in this
period have decreased over the past few decades, but complications during
pregnancy and delivery remain significant, with 75% of infant deaths
occurring in the first week of life.

With proper prenatal care, some complications or conditions may be

identified before delivery, and infants could be labeled as high risk before
they are even born. This gives medical teams adequate warning and time
to make sure the tools necessary to care for the infant are in place at the
time of birth.

Even for infants who aren't labeled as high-risk before birth, healthcare
providers will watch the baby closely after birth, ideally noting any illness
or complications within the first two hours of life.

Possible complications or problems during the delivery process and

neonatal period include:

● Birth defects
● Birth injuries
● Breathing problems
● Infection
● Jaundice
● Low birth weight
● Low blood sugar
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● Neurological problems like cerebral palsy or seizures

● Feeding difficulties
● Pneumonia from breathing in fluids during birth
● Temperature control problems
● Developmental delay
● Vision problems
● Hearing problems

Infants who require extensive care from premature birth or other neonatal
complications may need to receive treatment in a neonatal intensive care
unit after birth. If no complications occur, the delivery team begins to
make plans to transition babies to postnatal care hours after delivery.
Hospitals in the United States are required to offer at least a 48-hour
hospital stay after birth for a vaginal delivery and 96 hours for a cesarean
delivery.

What Happens in the Neonatal Period

A lot happens during the neonatal period—especially immediately after

delivery. While each baby moves at a different pace, here are some general
milestones to expect during this time.

In the Hospital
Your baby will undergo a number of tests and screenings for common
diseases, hearing problems, and more. They will also receive a number of
vaccinations. You may be asked to select a pediatrician before delivery, or
the medical team will help you find one. Before you leave the hospital,
you should have a follow-up care plan for your baby established.

Week 1
In the first week after birth, you and your baby will be getting to know
each other. Bonding and feeding are the primary tasks in this first week.
Whether you are breastfeeding or using a formula, urination and stooling
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patterns will signal to you whether your baby is receiving enough

nutrition.

It's common for infants to lose weight after birth. Don't be alarmed if your
baby sleeps a lot this first week also. It's not unusual for newborns to sleep
for 14 to 17 hours a day in the first weeks of life. But they will also wake
up every two to four hours for feeding.7 Expect to have your first
follow-up visit with a pediatrician outside of the hospital three to five days
after birth.

Week 2
Sleep and feeding are erratic at this stage. Your baby may be having their
first growth spurt, having returned to their birth weight and then some.
Most babies will consume 16 to 24 ounces of breastmilk or formula each
day during this time. Talk to your healthcare provider immediately if you
are having trouble feeding or if you notice a decrease in wet or soiled
diapers.

Week 3
Feeding and sleeping schedules are still inconsistent, but your baby will
begin to refine its muscle control at this point. Most babies begin to lift
their head and should have regular "tummy time" to help develop strength.
Your pediatrician will closely monitor your infant's weight and growth in
the first few weeks of life to identify any early feeding problems.

Week 4
You've officially reached the end of the neonatal period. For many parents,
feeding and sleeping become more routine at this stage. Your baby may be
responding to you more as their senses like hearing and vision develop.
You may even begin to recognize patterns in the sounds and cries your
baby makes. Expect another visit with your pediatrician at this point to
review the baby's growth, discuss care for the next stages, and receive
additional vaccinations.
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UNIT III
Infancy

Infancy in humans stretches from the first moments of postnatal life to 12

months.

Characteristics of Infancy in Psychology

Physical Characteristics
Infants have a few distinguishing physical characteristics. They are born
with soft spots on their heads.

Fontanels are soft spots on an infant's head where the skull bones have not
completely formed or closed yet.

An infant has a small fontanel at the back of their head and a larger one at
the front. The smaller spot will usually close over by three months. The
front spot can take up to 18 months. You might also notice that an infant's
head is shaped slightly differently or even comically. They may have
formed a conehead as they passed through the vaginal canal or if assistive
measures were taken during birth. Their heads usually round out in the
first few days after birth.

After birth, the umbilical cord that connects the baby to the mother's
placenta is cut and clamped. The stump will dry up and fall off the infant's
belly button after about two weeks.

Some infants might have a birthmark, a patch of skin that differs in color
from the rest. They may have red marks or patches on their face or neck,
often referred to as angel kisses. Usually, just after birth, a baby will be
covered with tiny, soft hairs called lanugo.
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Infancy: Stages of Development

When it comes to development, we all tend to follow relatively the same

path. Unless our development is inhibited by illness, physical disorders, or
trauma, human beings develop in an ordered sequence.

Physical Development
In the womb, a fetus develops rapidly. Nerve cells in the brain are formed
at an incredible rate. All of the brain's neurons are formed by 28 weeks of
gestation. All of the brain cells we will have are fully formed in infancy,
but our immune systems need a little more time to develop. Our immune
systems regulate our bodies. They help process our sensory experiences
and regulate our sleep, breathing, heart rate, and so much more. Our
immune system is important! The neural networks that our bodies need to
process complicated information from one area of the body to the other are
forming rapidly in infancy. This is why an infant's brain increases in size
rapidly after birth. You might notice that an infant's head seems
disproportionately large for its body. This is normal!

In the United States, the average weight for a newborn is around 7 to 7.5
pounds. It's normal for birth weights to fluctuate depending on family
history and each baby's genetics. However, anything below 5 pounds 8
ounces is considered low birth weight.

From birth to two weeks, it's normal for babies to actually lose weight!
Infants can lose an average of 5 to 10% of their body weight in those first
few weeks. The majority of babies will quickly regain this weight within
days to a week of losing it.

By the first month, most infants will have gained one pound. They start to
establish a more regular feeding pattern and sleep slightly less than before.
An infant will continue to gain around one pound per month until they
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reach the 6-month mark. At this time, their weight gain usually slows a bit
throughout the rest of their first year. A newborn baby roughly doubles its
weight by 6 months. They may come close to tripling it by their first
birthday.

Motor Development
An infant's brain development enables motor development and physical
coordination. Their muscles and nervous system mature, and they exhibit
new skills. Here, too, their maturation follows a universal sequence. The
exact timing may vary, but most infants will achieve the same milestones
in roughly the same order.

By around six weeks, most babies can lift their own heads while lying on
their stomachs. Around three months, most can lift their chests with their
arms, like they're doing baby yoga. Between four and six months, most
babies can roll over from their backs to their stomachs and sit up without
support. Most infants are crawling by eight months and standing without
support by ten months. By one year, they are usually taking their first
steps.

Cognitive Development in Infancy

Can you remember anything from when you were four years old? How
about from when you were two? Chances are, the answer is a resounding
no. Even though we might not remember much from early childhood and
infancy, our brains were processing and store a lot of information. In fact,
infants can learn and remember things.

As newborns, we don't have the same conscious awareness that we do as

adults or even as older children. Researchers measure conscious awareness
by certain neural signals and brainwaves. One experiment (Dehaene, 2014;
Kouider et al., 2013) demonstrated that infants exhibit the same neural
response to stimuli that adults do by the time they are five months old. The
researchers flashed images of faces on a screen and recorded adult brain
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activity as they became aware of the content of the image. In infants, the
same neural response was exhibited starting at five months.

Language Development in Infancy

Even though babies are born without any language skills, they all have the
capacity to learn any language. Infants can distinguish differences in
speech sounds by four months. They also absorb linguistic information by
reading lips. Kuhl & Meltzoff (1982) found that infants prefer watching
the mouths of speakers that match the sound they are hearing.

Receptive language, or language comprehension, comes before the ability

to produce and speak a language. By six months, infants recognize the
names of certain objects. By seven months, they can break down sentences
into individual words, even when listening to an unfamiliar language.
They even recognize syllables that are frequently repeated together.

Language production, or speaking and its elements, starts with the

babbling stage at four months.

The babbling stage is a speech stage in which an infant spontaneously

produces a variety of sounds that are not specifically part of their
household language.

Babies produce a wide variety of vowel and consonant sounds during the
babbling stage. Their utterances are not indicative of their native language.
In fact, you couldn't tell which language is spoken at home at all by
listening to the babbling of an infant! It's not until around 10 months that
babbling starts to take on the sounds of the household language.

Around 12 months, infants enter the one-word stage.

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UNIT IV
Childhood Development

Early child development is based on a series of sequences that happen in

the early years of a child's life. These are also influenced by factors such as
social environment and parenting.

Child development is a really interesting and important area of

psychological study. The study of child development helps us identify
important physical, cognitive, and social developmental milestones that
children should reach. When a child does not meet these developmental
milestones it can help direct us to where medical or environmental (such
as parenting) interventions can be made.

There are three main areas of focus psychologists might have when
studying childhood developmental psychology:

1. Physical
2. Cognitive
3. Social

Physical development looks at maturation. Maturation is the growth

process of a child based on their biology and does not focus on outside
influences. Cognitive development focuses on how a child's brain develops
mental activities such as thinking, speaking, and remembering. Social
development Looks at how a child's relationships and environmental
factors impact their growth and emotional health.

Stages of Childhood Development

Most people recognize the three main growth stages in child development:
Early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence. Each stage represents
various elements of developmental milestones that children should reach.
These developmental milestones are physical, cognitive, and social.
 25

Stages of Physical Development

We know that the physical focus of child development is based on the idea
of maturation. Maturation is when psychologists look both at brain and
body growth as a natural biological sequence. While research on the
physical growth of a child might ultimately be left up to medical pediatric
doctors, understanding this sequence is important for psychologists when
exploring the maturation process of a child's brain. It is a huge component
of early childhood developmental milestones.

The main stages of physical child development in psychology are:

● Brain Development
● Motor Development
● Brain Maturation

Stages of Cognitive Development

Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget is known for identifying four stages of
cognitive child development; they're set out in his "theory of cognitive
development". These four stages are:

● Sensorimotor
● Preoperational
● Concrete Operational
● Formal Operational

Stages of Social Development

Social child development is often looked at through the lens of attachment

Attachment is the emotional bond between a child and caregiver. It is

considered one of the most important aspects of social development during
infancy.
 26

Looking at a child's attachment style is a great way to assess social

development in their early childhood. It can also leave a large impact on
the interactions and attachments we form later in life. Later, we will look
at attachments and parenting styles in a little more detail.

In addition to attachment, the German-American psychologist Erik

Erikson identified eight stages of psychosocial development, four of which
are in childhood.

1. Trust-versus-mistrust stage
2. Autonomy-versus-shame and doubt stage
3. Initiative-versus-guilt stage
4. Industry-versus-inferiority stage

Characteristics of the Stages of Child Development

Physical Development

The physical child development stages for a child are:

Brain Maturation: Brain maturation is a process that continues from the

prenatal stage to adulthood. Early childhood brain maturation is what takes
a newborn from instinct-driven infants carrying only unconscious
impressions, to persons in early childhood who are creating and storing
conscious memory.

Brain Development in Early Childhood: When you are born, you

already have almost all the brain cells you will ever have - our brains just
aren't sure what to do with them yet. After birth, our brains go through a
wild growth period in our early years (similar to our bodies). Neural
networks start growing to help your brain tell your body how to eat, walk,
sit, stand, and so forth.
 27

Infants' brains increase in size rapidly through the early childhood years.
They require ample energy to develop the parts of the brain that will lead
to the physical and cognitive changes that will develop over the years to
come.

Motor Development in Early Childhood: Humans develop motor skills

in the same sequence. While the exact age of skill development might vary
depending on the individual, motor skills build on each other and develop
as the neurons in our brains connect. It is easy to see how brain
development is directly connected to motor skills development.

Research says that children across the world develop motor skills in the
same sequence. They roll over first, then sit, crawl, stand, and finally,
walk. While the exact ages of these early skills can be somewhat
influenced by culture, parenting, and other environmental factors, the
sequencing remains the same. It is impossible to direct a baby to walk that
cannot yet stand, and our evolutionary sequencing is aware of that.

Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive child development has children follow

these stages.

Sensorimotor: According to Piaget, babies aged 0-2 years are in the

sensorimotor stage of early childhood development. This means their
understanding of the world is based on sensory input - seeing, hearing,
touching, etc. Young babies within this stage are only focused on the
present moment. This is due to a lack of object permanence.

As infants grow, they start to build up the memory of objects and people
even when they are not in the room. This is the start of object permanence.

Preoperational: Children aged 2-6 are in the preoperational stage of child

development. The preoperational stage is when a child will start to use
 28

language and images to identify things. Though a child can start to identify
things, concepts, and tasks at this age, Piaget suggests that they are still too
young to take a concept and reverse it.
A popular example of Piaget's preoperational stage is a child and the "two"
glasses of milk. He watches the milk be poured from a wide and short
glass into a tall and skinny glass, and identifies the taller glass as having
"more milk" because it looks fuller. This signifies a lack of the skills to
mentally reverse actions or concepts.

Concrete Operational: A 7-12-years-old child is in the concrete

operational stage of child development. This stage is when children start to
be able to think things through logically and make conclusions about
concrete events, as well as mentally reverse equations and outcomes.

Formal Operational: From the age of 12, a child is in the formal

operational stage of childhood development. Perceptions go from being
based on concrete and experiential to abstract. This means a child will
develop the skills to process hypothetical situations and start to form more
abstract reasoning skills.

Social Development

Erick Erickson's psychosocial stages theory on social child development

includes the following:

Trust-versus-mistrust stage: According to Erikson, this stage of a child's

development is all about infants learning to trust their caregivers to fulfill
their needs. Whatever sense of trust we can develop as infants and early
childhood can impact our sense of trust later in life, even into adulthood.

Autonomy-versus-shame and doubt stage: According to Erikson, this

stage of child development is all about early childhood. Toddlers are
exploring autonomy for the first time. This will be when you hear toddlers
start to say "NO!" The struggle in this stage is for toddlers to learn to
 29

control their meltdowns, which can impact how this stage of early
childhood relates to autonomy and emotional outbursts later in life as well.

Initiative-versus-guilt stage: According to Erikson, this is the "why?"

stage for a child's development. Children will start to question and develop
curiosity about the world around them. When allowed to learn, explore,
and question a child can build a healthy foundation of answer-seeking in
early childhood for their future selves as well.

Industry-versus-inferiority stage: According to Erikson, this stage is

often the start of "formal" education. A child is evaluated based on
performance and production. A child in this stage wants to feel like they
are progressing similar to other children and can feel inferior to another
child if they fall behind. This feeling of inferiority can haunt children into
the future, which is why this is an important part of childhood
development.

Social and Emotional Development in Early Childhood

As mentioned earlier, attachment and our relationships with our caregivers

can deeply impact our social and emotional development in early
childhood. Mary Ainsworth, a psychological researcher, studied
attachment through her "strange situation" study, where she observed the
reactions of infants when placed in a new and strange environment.
Ainsworth developed three categories of attachment based on the
outcomes.

Secure Attachment: When babies are comfortable to explore while

parents are present, show signs of distress when parents leave, and return
to the parents when they arrive again.

Avoidant Attachment: When babies resist their parents, explore new

areas, and do not go to their parents after they return.
 30

Anxious/ambivalent Attachment: When babies show ambivalence to

parents or show extreme distress when the parents are absent, but do not
return to the parents or seek comfort when they return.

Parenting Styles: The way parents and caregivers interact with infants
and children can impact their attachment. It is important for parents to
develop their own parenting skills when learning how to help their child
reach developmental milestones. There are three main parenting styles.

● Authoritarian: This style is based on a strict set of standards with

matching punishments. This style focuses on seeking obedience,
rather than encouraging discussions or nuance within behavior. This
style is often matched with stronger or harsher punishments for a
child.
● Permissive: The style is based on a lack of clear rules, an absence of
rules, or constantly changing rules. This is often also associated with
a lack of meaningful discipline for a child.
● Authoritative: This style is based on consistent rules or guidelines
that are reasonable for the child's development stage, and are
well-explained. The rules are discussed as well as punishment, and
are consistent for the child.

Overall, what makes us the way we are is a combination of nature and

nurture. Physical, cognitive, and social child development is impacted by
gene sequencing as well as environmental influence.
 31

UNIT V
Adolescence

Adolescence is the period of transition between childhood and adulthood.

Children entering adolescence are going through many changes in their
bodies and brains. These include physical, intellectual, psychological and
social challenges, as well as development of their own moral compass. The
changes are rapid and often take place at different rates. It can be an
exciting yet challenging time in the life of a teenager. Adolescence is the
time when your child becomes more independent and begins to explore
their identity.

Physical changes of adolescence

Physical development in adolescence includes changes that occur through

a process called puberty. During puberty, your child’s brain releases certain
hormones. The hormones cause your child’s body to physically change and
their sexual organs to mature.

Your child will likely experience a growth spurt. During this time, they’ll
grow rapidly in height and weight. Other physical changes may include
body odor, acne and an increase in body hair. Growth spurts usually
happen earlier for girls and adolescents assigned female at birth (AFAB)
than for boys and adolescents assigned male at birth (AMAB). Most girls
and adolescents AFAB have growth spurts between the ages of 10 and 14.
Most boys and adolescents AMAB have growth spurts between the ages of
14 and 17.

Girls and adolescents AFAB will begin to develop breasts. This can
happen as young as age 10 and should start by age 14. They’ll also
experience their first period (menstruation) — usually about two years
after breasts and pubic hair are first noticeable.
 32

Boys and adolescents AMAB will see their penis and testicles grow.
They’ll begin to experience erections and ejaculations. (Erections can also
happen normally from before birth — as seen on ultrasound in utero — to
old age.)

These physical changes happen to everyone, but the timing and order can
vary from person to person. Some adolescents mature early, while others
mature later. Being on either end of this spectrum can cause the added
stress of standing out amongst their peers.

If puberty is happening early (before age 8 for girls and adolescents AFAB
and before age 9 for boys and adolescents AMAB) or late (after age 14 for
girls and adolescents AFAB and after age 15 for boys and adolescents
AMAB), see your pediatrician or an adolescent medicine doctor. They can
help manage and treat this problem of puberty. Ignoring these problems
can have an impact on bone development and growth.

Cognitive changes of adolescence

Brain development in adolescence is on a higher level than that of

childhood. Children are only able to think logically about the concrete —
the here and now. Adolescents move beyond these limits and can think in
terms of what might be true, rather than just what they see as true. They
can deal with abstractions, test hypotheses and see infinite possibilities.
Yet adolescents still often display egocentric behaviors and attitudes.

During cognitive development in adolescence, large numbers of neurons

grow rapidly. Your child’s body experiences an increase in the way these
bundles of nerves connect. This allows for more complex, sophisticated
thinking.
 33

Which part of the brain develops last in adolescence?

The front part of your child’s brain — the frontal cortex — is one of the
last parts of their brain to fully develop. It won’t finish maturing until your
child reaches their mid- to late 20s. This area of the brain controls
executive functions such as planning, prioritizing and controlling
impulses. Because it develops so late, your teenager may have lapses in
judgment. You may see an increase in risk-taking behaviors and mood
swings.

When a teen isn’t using their frontal cortex and is acting impulsively, this
thought process is called hot cognition. Cold cognition means using the
logical part of your brain, not being “cold.” Parents can help redirect a
young person from “hot” to “cold” cognition by responding with empathy,
asking questions rather than lecturing and holding them to high
expectations.

Which mental characteristic develops over the course of adolescence?

Mental characteristics that develop during adolescence include improved:

● Abstract thinking.
● Reasoning skills.
● Impulse control.
● Creativity.
● Problem-solving abilities.
● Decision-making skills.

Emotional changes of adolescence

During adolescence, your child will begin to observe, measure and manage
their emotions. That means they’ll begin to become more aware of their
own feelings and the feelings of others. The process of emotional
development will give your child the opportunity to build their skills and
 34

discover their unique qualities. As they become more independent, some

adolescents welcome these new challenges. Others may need more support
to build their self-confidence.

How does self-esteem develop in adolescence?

The physical, hormonal and emotional changes your child experiences
during adolescence may affect their self-esteem. Teenagers who develop
early or late compared to their peers may be self-conscious of their bodies.
Fitting in becomes ever more important to their self-esteem. Self-esteem
can be complex. Some adolescents may have high self-esteem around their
families but low self-esteem around their peers.

Instead of having a “helicopter parent” who swoops in and saves the day,
or a “snowplow parent” who moves all challenges out of their child’s way,
adolescents benefit most from a parent who’s a “lighthouse.” This kind of
parent keeps their child in bounds whenever it’s a matter of safety or
ethics, while allowing them to explore their own decision-making abilities.
The role of caring adults who serve as a lighthouse can be life-changing
for teens.

While a challenging part of adolescence, it’s important that your child

learns to accept who they are and gains a sense of capability. They can
develop their self-esteem by:

● Making mistakes.
● Learning from their mistakes.
● Holding themselves accountable for their actions.

Social changes of adolescence

Adolescents are also developing socially during this time. The most
important task of social development in adolescence is the search for
identity. This is often a lifelong voyage that launches during adolescence.
 35

Along with the search for identity comes the struggle for independence.
Your child may:

● Develop an interest in their sexuality and romantic relationships.

● Turn to you less in the midst of a challenge.
● Show more independence from you.
● Spend less time with you and more time with their friends.
● Feel anxious, sad or depressed, which can lead to trouble at school
or risk-taking behaviors.
Identity development in adolescence

Identity development occurs when your child discovers a strong sense of

self and personality, along with a connection to others. Positive
self-identity is important because it shapes your child’s perception of
belonging throughout their life.

A positive self-identity is also associated with higher self-esteem. You can

help reinforce a positive self-identity in your child by:

● Encouraging their efforts.

● Praising their good choices.
● Inspiring perseverance.

Moral changes of adolescence

During adolescence, your child may start to think about the world in a
deeper, more abstract way. This helps shape how your child sees the world
and how they want to interact with it. Your child will also begin to develop
morals and values that they’ll hold throughout their life.

Your child may begin to see that not every decision is black or white.
They’ll develop empathy when they begin to see why people make choices
that differ from their own. They’ll also begin to have a deeper
understanding of why there are rules in the world. They’ll start to form
 36

their own opinions on what’s right and what’s wrong. They may also spend
time thinking about their religious beliefs and spirituality. Encourage these
conversations with your child whenever you have the opportunity. Practice
the art of listening and learning as your child practices thinking through
issues and situations.
 37

UNIT VI
Early Adulthood

In medicine and the social sciences, a young adult is generally a person in

the years following adolescence, regardless of the local legal definition of
"adult". Definitions and opinions on what qualifies as a young adult vary,
with works such as Erik Erikson's stages of human development
significantly influencing the definition of the term; generally, the term is
often used to refer to adults in approximately the age range of 20 to 40
years, with some more inclusive definitions extending the definition into
the early to mid 40s. The young adult stage in human development
precedes middle adulthood.

Erik Erikson's theories of early adulthood

According to Erik Erikson, in the wake of the adolescent emphasis upon

identity formation, 'the young adult, emerging from the search for and
insistence on identity, is eager and willing to fuse their identity with that of
others. He [or she] is ready for intimacy, that is, the capacity to commit...
to concrete affiliations and partnerships. To do so means the ability 'to face
the fear of ego loss in situations which call for self-abandon: in the
solidarity of close affiliations, in orgasms and sexual unions, in close
friendships and in physical combat'. Avoidance of such experiences
'because of a fear of ego-loss may lead to a deep sense of isolation and
consequent self-absorption'.

Where isolation is avoided, the young adult may find instead that
'satisfactory sex relations... in some way take the edge off the hostilities
and potential rages caused by the oppositeness of male and female, of fact
and fancy, of love and hate' and may grow into the ability to exchange
intimacy, love and compassion.

In modern societies, young adults in their late teens and early 20s
encounter a number of issues as they finish school and begin to hold
 38

full-time jobs and take on other responsibilities of adulthood; and 'the

young adult is usually preoccupied with self-growth in the context of
society and relationships with others. The danger is that in 'the second era,
Early Adulthood... we must make crucially important choices regarding
marriage, family, work, and lifestyle before we have the maturity or life
experience to choose wisely.

While 'young adulthood is filled with avid quests for intimate relationships
and other major commitments involving career and life goals', there is also
"a parallel pursuit for the formulation of a set of moral values". Erikson
has argued that it is only now that what he calls the 'ideological mind' of
adolescence gives way to 'that ethical sense which is the mark of the adult.

Reaching adulthood in modern society is not always a linear or clean

transition. As generations continue to adapt, new markers of adulthood are
created that add different social expectations of what it means to be an
adult.

Developmental Tasks of Early Adulthood

Before we dive into the specific physical changes and experiences of early
adulthood, let’s consider the key developmental tasks during this
time—the ages between 18 and 40. The beginning of early adulthood, ages
18-25, is sometimes considered its own phase, emerging adulthood, but the
developmental tasks that are the focus during emerging adulthood persist
throughout the early adulthood years. Look at the list below and try to
think of someone you know between 18 and 40 who fits each of the
descriptions.

Havighurst (1972) describes some of the developmental tasks of young

adults. These include:

● Achieving autonomy: trying to establish oneself as an independent

person with a life of one’s own
 39

● Establishing identity: more firmly establishing likes, dislikes,

preferences, and philosophies
● Developing emotional stability: becoming more stable emotionally
which is considered a sign of maturing
● Establishing a career: deciding on and pursuing a career or at least
an initial career direction and pursuing an education
● Finding intimacy: forming first close, long-term relationships
● Becoming part of a group or community: young adults may, for the
first time, become involved with various groups in the community.
They may begin voting or volunteering to be part of civic
organizations (scouts, church groups, etc.). This is especially true for
those who participate in organizations as parents.
● Establishing a residence and learning how to manage a household:
learning how to budget and keep a home maintained.
● Becoming a parent and rearing children: learning how to manage a
household with children.
● Making marital or relationship adjustments and learning to parent.

Physical Development in Early Adulthood:

The Physiological Peak: People in their twenties and thirties are

considered young adults. If you are in your early twenties, you are
probably at the peak of your physiological development. Your body has
completed its growth, though your brain is still developing (as explained in
the previous module on adolescence). Physically, you are in the “prime of
your life” as your reproductive system, motor ability, strength, and lung
capacity are operating at their best. However, these systems will start a
slow, gradual decline so that by the time you reach your mid to late 30s,
you will begin to notice signs of aging. This includes a decline in your
immune system, your response time, and your ability to recover quickly
from physical exertion. For example, you may have noticed that it takes
you quite some time to stop panting after running to class or taking the
stairs. But, remember that both nature and nurture continue to influence
 40

development. Getting out of shape is not an inevitable part of aging; it is

probably due to the fact that you have become less physically active and
have experienced greater stress. The good news is that there are things you
can do to combat many of these changes. So keep in mind, as we continue
to discuss the lifespan, that some of the changes we associate with aging
can be prevented or turned around if we adopt healthier lifestyles.

In fact, research shows that the habits we establish in our twenties are
related to certain health conditions in middle age, particularly the risk of
heart disease. What are healthy habits that young adults can establish now
that will prove beneficial in later life? Healthy habits include maintaining a
lean body mass index, moderate alcohol intake, a smoke-free lifestyle, a
healthy diet, and regular physical activity. When experts were asked to
name one thing they would recommend young adults do to facilitate good
health, their specific responses included: weighing self often, learning to
cook, reducing sugar intake, developing an active lifestyle, eating
vegetables, practicing portion control, establishing an exercise routine
(especially a “post-party” routine, if relevant), and finding a job you love.

Being overweight or obese is a real concern in early adulthood. Medical

research shows that American men and women with moderate weight gain
from early to middle adulthood have significantly increased risks of major
chronic disease and mortality (Zheng et al., 2017). Given the fact that
American men and women tend to gain about one to two pounds per year
from early to middle adulthood, developing healthy nutrition and exercise
habits across adulthood is important (Nichols, 2017).

A Healthy, but Risky Time: Early adulthood tends to be a time of

relatively good health. For instance, in the United States, adults ages 18-44
have the lowest percentage of physician office visits than any other age
group, younger or older. However, early adulthood seems to be a
particularly risky time for violent deaths (rates vary by gender, race, and
ethnicity). The leading causes of death for both age groups 15-24 and
25-34 in the U.S. are unintentional injury, suicide, and homicide. Cancer
 41

and heart disease follows as the fourth and fifth top causes of death among
young adults (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2019).

Substance Abuse: Rates of violent death are influenced by substance

abuse, which peaks during early adulthood. Some young adults use drugs
and alcohol as a way of coping with stress from family, personal
relationships, or concerns over being on one’s own. Others “use” because
they have friends who use and in the early 20s, there is still a good deal of
pressure to conform. Youth transitioning into adulthood have some of the
highest rates of alcohol and substance abuse. For instance, rates of binge
drinking (drinking five or more drinks on a single occasion) in 2014 were:
28.5 percent for people ages 18 to 20 and 43.3 percent for people ages
21-25. Recent data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
show increases in drug overdose deaths between 2006 and 2016 (with
higher rates among males), but with the steepest increases between 2014
and 2016 occurring among males aged 24-34 and females aged 24-34 and
35-44. Rates vary by other factors including race and geography; increased
use and abuse of opioids may also play a role.

Drugs impair judgment, reduce inhibitions, and alter mood, all of which
can lead to dangerous behavior. Reckless driving, violent altercations, and
forced sexual encounters are some examples. College campuses are
notorious for binge drinking, which is particularly concerning since
alcohol plays a role in over half of all student sexual assaults. Alcohol is
involved nearly 90 percent of the time in acquaintance rape (when the
perpetrator knows the victim). Over 40 percent of sexual assaults involve
alcohol use by the victim and almost 70 percent involve alcohol use by the
perpetrator.

Drug and alcohol use increase the risk of sexually transmitted infections
because people are more likely to engage in risky sexual behavior when
under the influence. This includes having sex with someone who has had
multiple partners, having anal sex without the use of a condom, having
multiple partners, or having sex with someone whose history is unknown.
 42

Such risky sexual behavior puts individuals at increased risk for both
sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV). STDs are especially common among young people. There are
about 20 million new cases of STDs each year in the United States and
about half of those infections are in people between the ages of 15 and 24.
Also, young people are the most likely to be unaware of their HIV
infection, with half not knowing they have the virus (Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, 2019).

Sexual Responsiveness and Reproduction in Early Adulthood:

Sexual Responsiveness: Men and women tend to reach their peak of

sexual responsiveness at different ages. For men, sexual responsiveness
tends to peak in the late teens and early twenties. Sexual arousal can easily
occur in response to physical stimulation or fantasizing. Sexual
responsiveness begins a slow decline in the late twenties and into the
thirties although a man may continue to be sexually active throughout
adulthood. Over time, a man may require more intense stimulation in order
to become aroused. Women often find that they become more sexually
responsive throughout their 20s and 30s and may peak in the late 30s or
early 40s. This is likely due to greater self-confidence and reduced
inhibitions about sexuality.

There are a wide variety of factors that influence sexual relationships

during emerging adulthood; this includes beliefs about certain sexual
behaviors and marriage. For example, among emerging adults in the
United States, it is common for oral sex to not be considered “real sex”. In
the 1950s and 1960s, about 75 percent of people between the ages of
20–24 engaged in premarital sex; today, that number is 90 percent.
Unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections and diseases
(STIs/STDs) are a central issue. As individuals move through emerging
adulthood, they are more likely to engage in monogamous sexual
relationships and practice safe sex.
 43

Reproduction: For many couples, early adulthood is the time for having
children. However, delaying childbearing until the late 20s or early 30s has
become more common in the United States. The mean age of first-time
mothers in the United States increased 1.4 years, from 24.9 in 2000 to 26.3
in 2014. This shift can primarily be attributed to a larger number of first
births to older women along with fewer births to mothers under age 20
(CDC, 2016).

Couples delay childbearing for a number of reasons. Women are now more
likely to attend college and begin careers before starting families. And
both men and women are delaying marriage until they are in their late 20s
and early 30s. In 2018, the average age for a first marriage in the United
States was 29.8 for men and 27.8 for women.

Infertility: Infertility affects about 6.7 million women or 11 percent of the

reproductive age population (American Society of Reproductive Medicine
[ASRM], 2006-2010. Male factors create infertility in about a third of the
cases. For men, the most common cause is a lack of sperm production or
low sperm production. Female factors cause infertility in another third of
cases. For women, one of the most common causes of infertility is an
ovulation disorder. Other causes of female infertility include blocked
fallopian tubes, which can occur when a woman has had pelvic
inflammatory disease (PID) or endometriosis. PID is experienced by 1 out
of 7 women in the United States and leads to infertility about 20 percent of
the time. One of the major causes of PID is Chlamydia, the most
commonly diagnosed sexually transmitted infection in young women.
Another cause of pelvic inflammatory disease is gonorrhea. Both male and
female factors contribute to the remainder of cases of infertility and
approximately 20 percent are unexplained.

Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood:

In the adolescence module, we discussed Piaget’s formal operational

thought. The hallmark of this type of thinking is the ability to think
 44

abstractly or to consider possibilities and ideas about circumstances never

directly experienced. Thinking abstractly is only one characteristic of adult
thought, however. If you compare a 14-year-old with someone in their late
30s, you would probably find that the later considers not only what is
possible, but also what is likely. Why the change? The young adult has
gained experience and understands why possibilities do not always
become realities. This difference in adult and adolescent thought can spark
arguments between the generations.

Here is an example. A student in her late 30s relayed such an argument she
was having with her 14-year-old son. The son had saved a considerable
amount of money and wanted to buy an old car and store it in the garage
until he was old enough to drive. He could sit in it, pretend he was driving,
clean it up, and show it to his friends. It sounded like a perfect opportunity.
The mother, however, had practical objections. The car would just sit for
several years while deteriorating. The son would probably change his mind
about the type of car he wanted by the time he was old enough to drive and
they would be stuck with a car that would not run. She was also concerned
that having a car nearby would be too much temptation and the son might
decide to sneak it out for a quick ride before he had a permit or license.

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development ended with formal operations,

but it is possible that other ways of thinking may develop after (or “post”)
formal operations in adulthood (even if this thinking does not constitute a
separate “stage” of development). Postformal thought is practical, realistic
and more individualistic, but also characterized by understanding the
complexities of various perspectives. As a person approaches the late 30s,
chances are they make decisions out of necessity or because of prior
experience and are less influenced by what others think. Of course, this is
particularly true in individualistic cultures such as the United States.
Postformal thought is often described as more flexible, logical, willing to
accept moral and intellectual complexities, and dialectical than previous
stages in development.
 45

Dialectical Thought: In addition to moving toward more practical

considerations, thinking in early adulthood may also become more flexible
and balanced. Abstract ideas that the adolescent believes in firmly may
become standards by which the individual evaluates reality. As Perry’s
research pointed out, adolescents tend to think in dichotomies or absolute
terms; ideas are true or false; good or bad; right or wrong and there is no
middle ground. However, with education and experience, the young adult
comes to recognize that there is some right and some wrong in each
position. Such thinking is more realistic because very few positions, ideas,
situations, or people are completely right or wrong.

Some adults may move even beyond the relativistic or contextual thinking
described by Perry; they may be able to bring together important aspects
of two opposing viewpoints or positions, synthesize them, and come up
with new ideas. This is referred to as dialectical thought and is considered
one of the most advanced aspects of postformal thinking (Basseches,
1984). There isn’t just one theory of postformal thought; there are
variations, with emphasis on adults’ ability to tolerate ambiguity or to
accept contradictions or find new problems, rather than solve problems,
etc. (as well as relativism and dialecticism that we just learned about).
What they all have in common is the proposition that the way we think
may change during adulthood with education and experience.

Psychosocial Development in Early Adulthood:

From a lifespan developmental perspective, growth and development do

not stop in childhood or adolescence; they continue throughout adulthood.
In this section we will build on Erikson’s psychosocial stages, then be
introduced to theories about transitions that occur during adulthood. More
recently, Arnett notes that transitions to adulthood happen at later ages
than in the past and he proposes that there is a new stage between
adolescence and early adulthood called, “emerging adulthood.”
 46

Erikson’s Theory: Intimacy vs. Isolation

Erikson believed that the main task of early adulthood is to establish

intimate relationships and not feel isolated from others. Intimacy does not
necessarily involve romance; it involves caring about another and sharing
one’s self without losing one’s self. This developmental crisis of “intimacy
versus isolation” is affected by how the adolescent crisis of “identity
versus role confusion” was resolved (in addition to how the earlier
developmental crises in infancy and childhood were resolved). The young
adult might be afraid to get too close to someone else and lose her or his
sense of self, or the young adult might define her or himself in terms of
another person. Intimate relationships are more difficult if one is still
struggling with identity. Achieving a sense of identity is a life-long
process, but there are periods of identity crisis and stability. Additional,
according to Erikson, having some sense of identity is essential for
intimate relationships. Although, consider what that would mean for
previous generations of women who may have defined themselves through
their husbands and marriages, or for Eastern cultures today that value
interdependence rather than independence.

Friendships as a source of intimacy: In our twenties, intimacy needs

may be met in friendships rather than with partners. This is especially true
in the United States today as many young adults postpone making
long-term commitments to partners either in marriage or in cohabitation.

Gaining Adult Status: Many of the developmental tasks of early

adulthood involve becoming part of the adult world and gaining
independence. Young adults sometimes complain that they are not treated
with respect, especially if they are put in positions of authority over older
workers. Consequently, young adults may emphasize their age to gain
credibility from those who are even slightlyyounger. “You’re only 23? I’m
27!” a young adult might exclaim. [Note: This kind of statement is much
less likely to come from someone in their 40s!]
 47

The focus of early adulthood is often on the future. Many aspects of life
are on hold while people seek additional education, go to work, and
prepare for a brighter future. There may be a belief that the hurried life
now lived will improve ‘as soon as I finish school’ or ‘as soon as I get
promoted’ or ‘as soon as the children get a little older.’ As a result, time
may seem to pass rather quickly. The day consists of meeting many
demands that these tasks bring. The incentive for working so hard is that it
will all result in a better future.

Adulthood, then, is a period of building and rebuilding one’s life. Many of

the decisions that are made in early adulthood are made before a person
has had enough experience to really understand the consequences of such
decisions. And, perhaps, many of these initial decisions are made with one
goal in mind – to be seen as an adult. As a result, early decisions may be
driven more by the expectations of others. For example, imagine someone
who chose a career path based on other’s advice but now finds that the job
is not what was expected.
 48

UNIT VII
Middle Adulthood

This stage of life is truly as multi-faceted as any other. It is a period of

negotiation, and renegotiation, across the three main facets of human
existence: physical, psychological, and social. Our concept of self may not
be fully ours to shape or control alone. How others see us, and their
expectations of us, are age-sensitive as well.

From the developmental perspective, middle adulthood (or midlife) refers

to the period of the lifespan between young adulthood and old age. This
period lasts from 20 to 40 years depending on how these stages, ages, and
tasks are culturally defined. The most common definition by chronological
age for middle adulthood is from 40 to 65, but there can be a range of up
to 10 years (ages 30-75) on either side of these parameters. Research on
this period of life is relatively sparse, and many aspects of midlife are still
relatively unexplored; in fact, it may be the least studied period of the
lifespan. This is not as surprising as might initially appear. One hundred
years ago, life expectancy in the United States was about 54 years. How
individuals prepare in middle adulthood for living longer and being part of
an older community, will assume even more critical importance. It may
also present a formidable challenge in the areas of health and public
policy, as the relative numbers of those who are economically active, or
economically inactive, shift.

Developmental Tasks:

Margie Lachman (2004) provides a comprehensive overview of the

challenges facing midlife adults, outlining the roles and responsibilities of
those entering the “afternoon of life” (Jung). These include:

● Losing parents and experiencing associated grief.

● Launching children into their own lives.
 49

● Adjusting to home life without children (often referred to as the

empty nest).
● Dealing with adult children who return to live at home (known as
boomerang children in the United States).
● Becoming grandparents.
● Preparing for late adulthood.
● Acting as caregivers for ageing parents or spouses.

Taken singly or together, these can represent a fundamental reorientation

of outlook, investment, attitudes, and personal relationships which can
present formidable obstacles in terms of social and economic challenges.
They may also be affected by circumstances outside our control, at a time
that we may have envisaged as planned and under control.

Normal Physiological Changes in Middle Adulthood:

There are a few primary biological physical changes in midlife. There are
changes in vision, hearing, more joint pain, and weight gain (Lachman,
2004). Weight gain, sometimes referred to as the middle-aged spread or
the accumulation of fat in the abdomen, is a common complaint of midlife
adults. Men tend to gain fat on their upper abdomen and back while
women tend to gain more fat on their waist and upper arms. Many adults
are surprised at this weight gain because their diets have not changed.
However, the metabolism slows by about one-third during midlife (Berger,
2005). Consequently, midlife adults have to increase their level of
exercise, eat less, and watch their nutrition to maintain their earlier
physique.

Many of the changes that occur in midlife can be easily compensated for
(by buying glasses, exercising, and watching what one eats, for example.)
Most midlife adults generally experience good health. However, the
percentage of adults who have a disability increases through midlife; while
7 percent of people in their early 40s have a disability, the rate jumps to 30
 50

percent by the early 60s. This increase is highest among those of lower
socioeconomic status (Bumpass & Aquilino, 1995).

What can we conclude from this information? Again, lifestyle strongly

impacts the health status of midlife adults. Smoking tobacco, drinking
alcohol, poor diet, stress, physical inactivity, and chronic diseases such as
diabetes or arthritis reduce overall health. It becomes important for midlife
adults to take preventative measures to enhance physical well-being.
Those midlife adults with a strong sense of mastery and control over their
lives, who engage in challenging physical and mental activity, who engage
in weight-bearing exercise, monitor their nutrition, and use social
resources are most likely to enjoy a plateau of good health through these
years. Not only that, but those who begin an exercise regimen in their 40s
may enjoy comparable benefits to those who began in their 20s according
to Saint-Maurice et al. (2019), who also found that while it is never too
late to begin, continuing to do as much as possible, is just as important.

Exercise is a powerful way to combat the changes we associate with aging.

Exercise builds muscle, increases metabolism, helps control blood sugar,
increases bone density, and relieves stress. Unfortunately, fewer than half
of midlife adults exercise and only about 20 percent exercise frequently
and strenuously enough to achieve health benefits. Many stop exercising
soon after they begin an exercise program-particularly those who are very
overweight. The best exercise programs are those that are engaged in
regularly—regardless of the activity, but a well-rounded program that is
easy to follow includes walking and weight training. Having a safe,
enjoyable place to walk can make a difference in whether or not someone
walks regularly. Weight lifting and stretching exercises at home can also
be part of an effective program. Exercise is particularly helpful in reducing
stress in midlife. Walking, jogging, cycling, or swimming can release the
tension caused by stressors, and learning relaxation techniques can have
healthful benefits. Exercise can be considered preventative health care;
promoting exercise for the 78 million “baby boomers” may be one of the
 51

best ways to reduce health care costs and improve quality of life (Shure &
Cahan, 1998).

Aging brings about a reduction in the number of calories a person requires.

Many Americans respond to weight gain by dieting. However, eating less
does not necessarily mean eating right; people often suffer vitamin and
mineral deficiencies. Very often, physicians will recommend vitamin
supplements to their middle-aged patients. As stated above, chronic
inflammation is now identified as one of the so-called “pillars of aging”.
The link between diet and inflammation is yet unclear. Still, there is now
some information available on the Diet Inflammation Index (Shivappa et
al., 2014)., which in popular parlance, supports a diet rich in plant-based
foods, healthy fats, nuts, fish in moderation, and sparing use of red meat—
often referred to as “the Mediterranean Diet.”

Cognition in Middle Adulthood:

One of the most influential perspectives on cognition during middle

adulthood was the Seattle Longitudinal Study (SLS) of adult cognition,
which began in 1956. Schaie & Willis (2010) summarized the general
findings from this series of studies as follows: “We have generally shown
that reliably replicable average age decrements in psychometric abilities
do not occur before age 60, but that such reliable decrement can be found
for all abilities by 74 years of age.” In short, decreases in cognitive
abilities begin in the sixth decade and gain increasing significance from
that point on. However, Singh-Maoux et al. (2012) argue for small but
significant cognitive declines beginning as early as age 45. There is some
evidence that adults should be as aggressive in maintaining their cognitive
health as they are in their physical health during this time as the two are
intimately related.

The second source of longitudinal research data on this part of the lifespan
has been The Midlife in the United States Studies (MIDUS), which began
in 1994. The MIDUS data supports the view that this period of life is
 52

something of a trade-off, with some cognitive and physical decreases of

varying degrees. The cognitive mechanics of processing speed often
referred to as fluid intelligence, physiological lung capacity, and muscle
mass, are in relative decline. However, knowledge, experience, and the
increased ability to regulate our emotions can compensate for these losses.
Continuing cognitive focus and exercise can also reduce the extent and
effects of cognitive decline.

Control Beliefs

Central to all of this are personal control beliefs, which have a long history
in psychology. Beginning with the work of Julian Rotter (1954), a
fundamental distinction is drawn between those who believe that they are
the fundamental agent of what happens in their lives and those who
believe that they are largely at the mercy of external circumstances. Those
who believe that life outcomes are dependent on what they say and do are
said to have a strong internal locus of control. Those who believe that they
have little control over their life outcomes are said to have an external
locus of control.

Empirical research has shown that those with an internal locus of control
enjoy better results in psychological tests across the board; behavioral,
motivational, and cognitive. It is reported that this belief in control
declines with age, but again, there is a great deal of individual variation.
This raises another issue: directional causality. Does my belief in my
ability to retain my intellectual skills and abilities at this time of life ensure
better performance on a cognitive test compared to those who believe in
their inexorable decline? Or, does the fact that I enjoy that intellectual
competence or facility instill or reinforce that belief in control and
controllable outcomes? It is not clear which factor is influencing the other.
The exact nature of the connection between control beliefs and cognitive
performance remains unclear.
 53

Brain science is developing exponentially and will unquestionably deliver

new insights on a whole range of issues related to cognition in midlife.
One of them will surely be on the brain’s capacity to renew, or at least
replenish itself, at this time of life. The capacity to renew is called
neurogenesis; the capacity to replenish what is there is called
neuroplasticity. At this stage, it is impossible to ascertain exactly what
effect future pharmacological interventions may have on the possible
cognitive decline at this, and later, stages of life

Psychosocial Development in Midlife:

What do you think is the happiest stage of life? What about the saddest
stages? Perhaps surprisingly, Blanchflower & Oswald (2008) found that
reported levels of unhappiness and depressive symptoms peak in the early
50s for men in the U.S., and interestingly, the late 30s for women. In
Western Europe, minimum happiness is reported around the mid-40s for
both men and women, albeit with some significant national differences.
Stone et al. (2017), reported a precipitous drop in perceived stress in men
in the U.S. from their early 50s. There is now a view that “older people”
(50+) may be “happier” than younger people, despite some cognitive and
functional losses. This is often referred to as “the paradox of aging.”
Positive attitudes to the continuance of cognitive and behavioral activities,
interpersonal engagement, and their vitalizing effect on human neural
plasticity may lead to more life and to an extended period of
self-satisfaction and continued communal engagement

Erikson: Generativity vs Stagnation

When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle
adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. The social task of middle
adulthood is generativity vs. stagnation the fundamental conflict of
adulthood. Generativity involves finding your life’s work and contributing
to the development of others through activities such as volunteering,
mentoring, and raising children. During this stage, middle-aged adults
 54

begin contributing to the next generation, often through caring for others;
they also engage in meaningful and productive work that contributes
positively to society.

As you know by now, Erikson’s theory is based on an idea called

epigenesis, meaning that development is progressive and that each
individual must pass through the eight different stages of life—all while
being influenced by context and environment. Each stage forms the basis
for the following stage, and each transition to the next is marked by a crisis
that must be resolved. The sense of self, each “season”, was wrested, from
and by, that conflict. The ages of 40-65 are no different. The individual is
still driven to engage productively, but the nurturing of children and
income generation assume lesser functional importance. From where will
the individual derive their sense of self and self-worth?

Generativity is “primarily the concern in establishing and guiding the next

generation” (Erikson, 1950, p.267). Generativity is a concern for a
generalized other (as well as those close to an individual) and occurs when
a person can shift their energy to care for and mentor the next generation.
One obvious motive for this generative thinking might be parenthood, but
others have suggested intimations of mortality by the self. Kotre (1984)
theorized that generativity is a selfish act, stating that its fundamental task
was to outlive the self. He viewed generativity as a form of investment.
However, a commitment to a “belief in the species” can be taken in
numerous directions, and it is probably correct to say that most modern
treatments of generativity treat it as a collection of facets or
aspects—encompassing creativity, productivity, commitment,
interpersonal care, and so on.

On the other side of generativity is stagnation. It is the lethargy, lack of

enthusiasm, and involvement in individual and communal affairs. It may
also denote an underdeveloped sense of self or some form of overblown
narcissism. Erikson sometimes used the word “rejectivity” when referring
to severe stagnation. Those who do not master this task may experience
 55

stagnation and feel as though they are not leaving a mark on the world in a
meaningful way; they may have little connection with others and little
interest in productivity and self-improvement.
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UNIT VIII
Late Adulthood

We are considered to be in late adulthood from the time we reach our

mid-sixties until death. This is the longest developmental stage across the
lifespan, and a growing age group. By 2030, 1 in 6 people in the world
will be aged 60 years or over (WHO, 2021). At this time the share of the
population aged 60 years and over will increase from 1 billion in 2020 to
1.4 billion. By 2050, the world’s population of people aged 60 years and
older will double (2.1 billion). For the purpose of this textbook and
chapter, we will define late adulthood from age 65 to 100 and beyond. In
this chapter, we will learn how many people are in late adulthood, how
that number is expected to change, and how life changes and continues to
be the same as before in late adulthood. We will also examine several
theories of human aging, the physical, cognitive, and socioemotional
changes that occur with this population, and the vast diversity among those
in this developmental stage.

Physical Changes in Late Adulthood:

Not only are people living longer today, but they’re living with less
disability, according to a 2009 article in the medical journal The Lancet.
Professor Kaare Christensen of the Danish Ageing Research Centre,
University of South Denmark, states in the article that people are living
longer and better, citing evidence showing older adults – under the age of
85 – tend to remain more capable and mobile than before. They have a
higher incidence of chronic illnesses, such as cancers and heart conditions,
but are surviving longer because of early diagnosis and treatment.
Kaare’s article reports that if current life expectancy trends continue, more
than half of all babies born today in wealthy, developed nations, will live
to 100 years. On the University of South Denmark website, Kaare
summarizes the implications of this research: “There’s no doubt that life
expectancy is increasing, with no indication of it leveling off in the near
future. Yet breaking records is not nearly as interesting as finding out
 57

exactly why people age differently. Hopefully with that knowledge, we can
help people live longer and live life to the fullest. That’s what it’s all
about, after all.”

Results from Kaare’s study support current research taking place in the
field of Developmental Psychology. Developmentalists argue that living a
full, non-disabled life after the age of 65 means healthy lifestyle habits that
start as early as possible in life. But they also note that even those who
start exercising, eating healthy and avoiding tobacco and excessive alcohol
in their later years can realize significant improvements in their health and
well being.

Primary aging, or inevitable changes in the body, occurs regardless of

human behavior. Gray hair, wrinkles, visible blood vessels on the skin, and
fat deposits on your chin or abdomen affect those in this age group. Also,
diminished eyesight and hearing, to some extent, affects all older adults.
And some in their 70s will lose a significant portion of their taste and
smell senses. All the major organs and bodily systems slow down –
cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, and renal/urinary.

But in most cases, primary aging alone will not cause organ failure. It’s
secondary aging – unhealthy behaviors such as smoking, obesity or drug
use – in combination with primary aging that causes the illnesses that
typically affect older adults.

Denmark’s Kaare states that environmental factors such as diet and

exercise account for a staggering 50% of the difference in how people feel
or age, while the other 50% is attributed to genetics. Yet Kaare and
developmental psychology professionals who study this age category
maintain that even the 50% attributed to genetics can be influenced,
somewhat, by environmental factors. These researchers report that aging is
inevitable, yet it’s how people decide to age that makes a critical
difference in physical and emotional well being.
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Cognitive Changes in Late Adulthood

Overall, memory fades as people age and there are marked differences in
each decade – the 70s, 80s, and 90s. However, some people defy the
general trends and either maintain their mental sharpness into their 80s and
90s, or, more rarely, develop a form of dementia in the middle or
beginning of late adulthood.

The type of memory most likely to decline with age is working memory,
or short-term memory. Working memory temporarily stores incoming
information and processes it using advanced reasoning skills. In general,
those in later adulthood are less able to assimilate multiple forms of data at
once and simultaneously perform advanced analysis. However, if the
person slows down the rate of incoming data and the processing, they are
able to focus better and perform as well on certain tasks as they did in
earlier adult years.

Less susceptible to decline is long-term memory, or what researchers refer

to as the “stored knowledge base.” Developmentalists study data retrieval
and changes in stored knowledge, and their studies show that for at least
three areas of long-term memory – vocabulary, happy experiences and an
individual’s area of expertise – long-term memory remains strong. For
example, professional musicians or novelists often work well into their 80s
and even 90s, drawing on their knowledge or expertise in their chosen
fields.

One of the central concerns as people age is dementia, which includes

many diseases and syndromes, including Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s,
Huntington’s, multiple sclerosis, and vascular dementia, which is caused
by strokes. Those with dementia suffer from cognitive or memory
impairments, but remain conscious and alert. The impairment might result
in memory loss, difficulty in understanding or using words, confusion, the
 59

inability to carry out motor activities despite adequate motor function, and
the inability to recognize objects.
Developmental psychology professionals and other researchers study how
genetics, education, diet, and the environment all play a part in causing
this disease. The CDC reports that researchers are uncovering more and
more evidence that some risk factors for heart disease and stroke, such as
high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and low levels of the vitamin folate,
a water-soluble B vitamin, may increase the risk of the most common form
of dementia, Alzheimer’s disease. Also, evidence that healthy physical,
mental and social activities are protective factors against developing
dementia is growing.

Emotional Changes in Late Adulthood:

Emotions and stability vary widely in late adulthood. Theorist Erik

Erikson (1902-1994) devised a framework for development based on
psychosocial stages, and he defined the last stage of life as a tension
between integrity and despair. Individuals either come to accept their lives
as having meaning and integrity, or they contemplate their life as
unproductive and unfulfilling – feeling despair. In actuality, developmental
researchers believe that most individuals fall somewhere in between these
two extremes.

Many researchers also strongly believe that how individuals cope with
aging depends a great deal on their social and cultural contexts. For
example, most of today’s elderly were raised before 1950, during
segregation. During those years, African-Americans were poor and less
educated, which means that they are most likely living today in poverty.
That directly influences their access to proper health care, nursing homes,
senior centers and other social services.

In all cases, whatever one’s race, ethnicity or socioeconomic class,

developmentalists emphasize the need for those in late adulthood to stay
active and interested in many activities, to take classes, volunteer, and
 60

participate in the arts. Research shows that those who stay active and
connected to others report more enjoyment of life, less hopelessness, and
overall, keep a sense of vitality in their lives. And by maintaining close
friendships, the elderly also cope better when a spouse dies, which is a
major stressor in later adulthood.