FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

Computer Science and Engineering Department

Introduction to Computing

Lecture Notes

For All Departments

(MN/MR/EL/MC/PE/ES/GM/GL/PG/RP/MA/RN/NG - 159 )

compiled by
Dr. Hamidu Abdel-Fatao

2021
 COURSE INTRODUCTION

Course Overview

This course is an introduction to Computer Literacy for the undergraduate student. In taking
this course, the student shall gain essential knowledge and acquire basic skills relevant to the
use of computers in modern day learning and academic work in the university environment.
The lessons shall be delivered in two sessions Theory sessions via the Virtual Learning En-
vironment (VLE) of the institution; and Tutorial (Practical) sessions taught by face-to-face
interactions in designated Computer Labs. Taught lessons are complemented with compre-
hensive lecture notes and lab manuals. The best way to learn about using computers is
by using them; therefore, many of the activities in this course will require the student to
do things on the computer. Students are highly encouraged to own and practice on their
personal computers if they able to afford one.

Goals of the Course

The strategic goals of taking the course:

• To introduce you to core computing paradigm;

• To demystify the Information Communication Technology (ICT) as a tool and com-

panion for improving productivity rather than comprising complex systems of pro-
grammable 0s and 1s by an elite few;

• The course is breadth oriented:

a Broad and Shallow as opposed to Narrow and Deep;

a Something about most things as opposed to Everything about few things.

Prerequisites

In this course you are required to have:

• Fundamental knowledge and reasonable familiarity with the outer workings of computer
systems

• Curiosity, enthusiasm and dedication

• If you don’t have these prerequisites, you are not entirely on your own

a Reasonable effort shall be made to factor you in

Assessment Criteria

How you will graded

• You will be assessed mainly via online quizzes, tests on practical knowledge and final
exam on the last day.

• 30 marks shall be awarded for continuous assessment, 10 marks for attendance and 60
marks for final examinations.

• It is worthy of note that contribution and effort in class will be rewarded to complement
weak areas of assessment.

• Please Note: Late assignments will not be accepted. You get zero for anything past
the due date, unless you have a documented medical excuse.

a Deadline: 11:59 p.m. on due date

 Contents

Abstract ii

List of Figures xi

1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS 1

1.1 The World of Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2 Definition of a Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2.1 Data and Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2.2 Information Processing Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2.3 Evolution of Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.3 Uses of the Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.3.1 Advantages of Using Computers – Why Computers are so Powerful . . 10

1.3.2 Disadvantages of Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.3.3 Limitations of Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.4 Hard Versus Soft Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.5 The Components of a Computer (Hardware) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.5.1 Input Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.5.2 System Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.5.3 Output Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

1.6 Starting a Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

1.7 Computer Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

1.7.1 CPU Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

1.7.2 Amount of RAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

1.7.3 Type of Video Card . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

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1.7.4 Hard Drive Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

1.7.5 Free Hard Disk Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

1.7.6 Hard Disk Fragmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

1.7.7 Multitasking Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2 Classification of Computers 27

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

2.2 Analogue Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

2.3 Digital Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

2.4 Hybrid Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

2.5 Classification of Digital Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

2.5.1 Special Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

2.5.2 General Purpose Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

2.6 Types of General Purpose Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

2.6.1 Micro Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

2.7 Characterisitics of Micro Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

2.7.1 Mainframe Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

2.7.2 Characteristics of Mainframe Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2.7.3 The Supercomputer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2.7.4 Characteristics of Supercomputers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2.7.5 The Mini-Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2.7.6 Advantages of Mini-Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

2.8 Personal Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

2.8.1 Desktop Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

2.8.2 Mobile Computers and Mobile Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

2.8.3 Laptop (Notebook) Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

2.8.4 Handheld Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

2.8.5 Tablet Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

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2.8.6 Mobile Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

2.9 Other Types of Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

2.9.1 Game Consoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

2.9.2 Server Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

2.9.3 Wearable Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

2.9.4 Embedded Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3 STORAGE IN COMPUTERS 38

3.1 Types of Storage (Memory) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

3.1.1 Random Access Memory (RAM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

3.1.2 Read Only Memory (ROM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

3.2 Storage Devices (Secondary Memory) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

3.2.1 The Hard Disks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

3.2.2 Portable Hard Disks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

3.2.3 Flash Memory Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

3.2.4 Optical Discs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

3.2.5 Cloud Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

4 Computer Software 46

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

4.2 System Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

4.2.1 Operating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

4.2.2 Types of Operating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

4.2.3 Single User/Personal Computer OS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

4.2.4 Multi-User/Network Operating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

4.2.5 Embedded Operating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

4.2.6 Utility Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

4.3 Application Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

 vii

4.3.1 The Email Client . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

4.4 Installing and Running Software (Programs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

4.5 Software Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

4.6 Computer Viruses and Other Malware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

4.6.1 Macro Virus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

4.6.2 Worm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

4.6.3 Trojan Horse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

4.6.4 Rootkit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

4.6.5 Tips for Preventing Viruses and Other Malware . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

5 Computer Networks and the Internet 61

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

5.2 Components of Data Communication System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

5.3 The Computer Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

5.3.1 Benefits of Computer Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

5.4 Networking and Communications Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

5.5 Data Communication Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

5.5.1 Cable Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

5.5.2 Wireless Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

5.5.3 Telephone Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

5.5.4 Cellular Telephone Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

5.5.5 Satellite Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

5.5.6 Ensuring Communication on a Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

5.5.7 Types of Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

5.5.8 Local Area Networks (LAN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

5.5.9 Wide Area Network (WAN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

5.6 Network Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

5.6.1 Choosing Network Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

 viii

5.6.2 Bus Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

5.6.3 Star Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

5.6.4 Ring Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

5.6.5 Mesh Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

5.7 Networking Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

5.8 Exploring Ethernet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

5.9 What Is an Intranet? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

6 The Internet and World Wide Web 82

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

6.2 The Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

6.3 Comparing the Internet with other WANs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

6.4 Brief History of the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

6.4.1 United States Military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

6.4.2 University Researchers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

6.5 Internet Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

6.6 Accessing the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

6.6.1 Dial-up, ISDN, and DSL Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

6.6.2 Cable and Satellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

6.6.3 LAN Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

6.6.4 Fibre Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

6.7 Getting Online . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

6.7.1 Internet Service Providers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

6.7.2 Online Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

6.8 Internet Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

6.8.1 Internet Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

6.8.2 Accessing Information on the World Wide Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

6.9 The Electronic Mail (E-mail) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

 ix

6.9.1 E-mail Pros and Cons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

6.10 File Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

6.11 File Transfer Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

6.12 Accessing Data on the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

6.12.1 Requesting Data on the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

6.12.2 Domain Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

6.13 Internet Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

6.13.1 Newsgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

6.13.2 Internet Relay Chat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

6.14 World Wide World Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

6.14.1 Understanding Web Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

6.15 Browsing the Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

6.16 Customizing a Web Browser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

6.17 Finding Information on the Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

6.18 Electronic Commerce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

6.18.1 Online Banking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

6.18.2 Online Shopping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

6.19 Getting More from Web Searches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

6.20 Evaluating Information on the Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

7 Issues for Computer Users 101

7.1 Online Privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

7.1.1 How Businesses Obtain Personal Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

7.1.2 Protecting Privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

7.1.3 Respecting Others Privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

7.1.4 Expectations of Privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

7.2 Cybercrime Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

7.3 Types of Cybercrime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

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7.4 Avoiding Cybercrime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

7.5 Protecting Personal Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

7.6 Safe Social Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

7.7 Practising Netiquette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

7.8 Protecting the Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

7.8.1 Antivirus Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

7.8.2 Firewalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

 List of Figures

1.1 Processing Data into Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2 The First Generation Computer Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.3 Some First Generation Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.4 ENIAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.5 UNIVAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.6 The Transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.7 ICs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.8 VLSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.9 Components of the Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.10 Interactions between Components of the Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.11 The Keyboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1.12 The Computer Mouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1.13 Anatomy of the System Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.14 The Core 2 Duo CPU by Intel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1.15 Different Types and Sizes of Memory (RAM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1.16 Cache Memory Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

1.17 The Back of a System Unit with Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

1.18 Ports and their Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

1.19 Serial Port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

1.20 Expansion Card . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

1.21 Printers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

1.22 Computer Monitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

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2.1 Categories of General Purspose Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

2.2 The Mainframe Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2.3 Typical Supercomputer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2.4 Desktop Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

2.5 Some Personal Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

2.6 Some of the embedded computers designed to improve your safety, security,
and performance in modern automobiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3.1 Anatomy of the Hard Disk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3.2 How the Hard Disk Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

3.3 External Hard Disks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

3.4 Different Types of Flash Storage Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

3.5 Some Cloud Storage Providers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

4.1 The Command Line Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

4.2 MS Word Processor Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

4.3 MS Powerpoint Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

4.4 MS Excel Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

4.5 Sample Visual Basic Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

4.6 Sample Payroll Application developed in Visual Basic for Applications . . . . 58

5.1 Data Communication System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

5.2 OSI Reference Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

5.3 The Network Interface Card (NIC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

5.4 Wired Network Transmission Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

5.5 Comparing LANs and WANs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

5.6 Computers and Mobile Devices on a Wireless LAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

5.7 Client/Server Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

 xiii

5.8 Client/Server Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

5.9 Computer Network Collision Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

5.10 Network Topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

5.11 Network Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

6.1 Client Server Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

6.2 Comparison of Speeds of Internet Transmission Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

6.3 Parts of the URL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

 1

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Objectives

After completing this chapter, the student will be able to:

• Explain why computer literacy is vital to success in todays world

• Define the term, computer, and describe the relationship between data and information

• Describe the components of a computer: input devices, output devices, system unit,
storage devices, and communications devices

• Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of working with computers

• Differentiate among types, sizes, and functions of computers in each of these categories:
personal computers (desktop), mobile computers and mobile devices, game consoles,
servers, mainframes, supercomputers, and embedded computers power users, and en-
terprise users each interact with computers

• Discuss how society uses computers in education, finance, government, health care,
science, publishing, travel, and manufacturing
 2

1.1 The World of Computers

Computers are ubiquitous: at work, at school, and at home. People use all types and sizes
of computers for a variety of reasons and in a range of places. While some computers sit on
top of a desk or on the floor, mobile computers and mobile devices are small enough to carry.
Mobile devices, such as many cell phones, often are classified as computers.

Computers are a primary means of local and global communication for billions of people.
Consumers use computers to correspond with businesses, employees with other employees
and customers, students with course mates and lecturers, and family members with friends
and other family members. In addition to sending simple notes, people use computers to
share photos, drawings, documents, calendars, journals, music, and videos.

Through computers, society has instant access to information from around the globe. Local
and national news, weather reports, sports scores, airline schedules, telephone directories,
maps and directions, job listings, credit reports, and countless forms of educational material
always are accessible. From the computer, one can make a telephone call, meet new friends,
share opinions or life stories, book flights, shop, fill prescriptions, file taxes, take a course,
receive alerts, and automate your home.

At home or while on the road, people use computers to manage schedules and contacts, listen
to voice mail messages, balance chequebooks, pay bills, transfer funds, and buy or sell stocks.
Banks place ATMs (automated teller machines) all over the world, so that customers can
deposit and withdraw funds anywhere at anytime. At the grocery store, a computer tracks
purchases, calculates the amount of money due, and often generates coupons customized to
buying patterns. Vehicles include onboard navigation systems that provide directions, call
for emergency services, and track the vehicle if it is stolen.

In the workplace, employees use computers to create correspondence such as e-mail mes-
sages, memos, and letters; manage calendars; calculate payroll; track inventory; and generate
invoices. At school, teachers use computers to assist with classroom instruction. Students
complete assignments and conduct research on computers in lab rooms, at home, or else-
where. Instead of attending class on campus, some students take entire classes directly from
their computer. People also spend hours of leisure time using a computer. They play games,
listen to music or radio broadcasts, watch or compose videos and movies, read books and
magazines, share stories, research genealogy, retouch photos, and plan vacations.

As technology continues to advance, computers have become a part of everyday life. Thus,
 3

many believe that computer literacy is vital to success in todays world. Computer literacy,
also known as digital literacy, involves having a current knowledge and understanding of
computers and their uses. Because the requirements that determine computer literacy change
as technology changes, one must keep up with these changes to remain computer literate.

1.2 Definition of a Computer

A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in its
own memory, that can accept data (input), process the data according to specified rules
(process), produce results (output), and store the results (storage) for future use. Generally,
the term is used to describe a collection of electric, electronic, and mechanical components
known as hardware.

1.2.1 Data and Information

Computers process data into information. Data is a collection of unprocessed items, which
can include text, numbers, images, audio, and video. Computers manipulate data to create
information. Information conveys meaning and is useful to people. During the output opera-
tion, the information that has been created is put into some form, such as a printed report, or
it can be stored on the computer for future use. Many daily activities either involve the use of
or depend on information from a computer. As shown in Figure 1.1, for example, computers
process several data items to print information in the form of a cash register receipt.

Figure 1.1 : Processing Data into Information

1.2.2 Information Processing Cycle

Computers process data (input) into information (output). Computers carry out processes
using instructions, which are the steps that tell the computer how to perform a particular
 4

task. A collection of related instructions organized for a common purpose is referred to

as Software. A computer often holds data, information, and instructions in storage for
future use. These series of input, process, output, and storage activities are sometimes
referred to as the Information Processing Cycle. Most computers today communicate
with other computers. As a result, communications also has become an essential element of
the information processing cycle.

1.2.3 Evolution of Computers

The modern computers are vastly different in appearance and performance as compared to
those of earlier days. To fully understand the impact of computers on todays world and the
promises they hold for the future, it is important to understand the evolution of computers.

The First Generation Computing Technology

The computers of the first generation were very bulky and emitted large amount of heat
which required air conditioning. They were large in size and cumbersome to handle. They
had to be manually assembled and had limited commercial use. The concept of operating
systems was not known at that time. Each computer had a different binary coded program
called a machine language that told it how to operate. The first generation computers used:

• Vacuum tube technology,

• Punched cards for data input,

• Punched cards and paper tape for output,

• Machine Language for writing programs,

• Magnetic tapes and drums for external storage.

The first generation computing technology are shown in Figure 1.2.

Some First Generation Computers

The Abacus in Figure 1.3, which emerged about 5000 years ago in Asia Minor and is still
in use today, allows users to make computations using a system of sliding beads arranged
on a rack. Early merchants used Abacus to keep trading transactions. Blaise Pascal, a
French mathematician invented the first mechanical machine, a rectangular brass box, called
Pascaline which could perform addition and subtraction on whole numbers.
 5

Figure 1.2 : The First Generation Computer Technology

Figure 1.3 : Some First Generation Computers

Charles Babbage a British mathematician at Cambridge University invented the first an-
alytical engine or difference engine in 1971. The Difference Engine was to solve
polynomial equations by the method of differences. The Analytical Engine was a general-
purpose computing device. These machines could be programmed by instructions coded on
punch cards and had mechanical memory to store the results. For his contributions in this
field Charles Babbage is known as “the father of modern digital computer”.

The Mark I – This was the first fully automatic calculating machine. It was designed
by Howard Aiken of Harvard University in collaboration with IBM. This machine was an
electronic relay computer. Electromagnetic signals were used for the movement of mechanical
parts. Mark I could perform the basic arithmetic and complex equations. Although this
machine was extremely reliable, it was very slow (it took about 3-5 seconds per calculation)
and was complex in design and large in size.

The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC) – This computer developed by John Atanasoff

and Clifford Berry was the world’s first general purpose electronic digital computer. It made
use of vacuum tubes for internal logic and capacitors for storage.

The ENIAC (Electronic Numeric Integrator and Calculator) – The first all electronic
 6

computer was produced by a partnership between the US Government and the University of
Pennsylvania. It was built using 18,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistors and 1,500 relays and
consumed 160 kilowatts of electrical power. The ENIAC computed at speed about thousand
times faster than Mark I. However, it could store and manipulate only a limited amount of
data. Program modifications and detecting errors were also difficult.

Figure 1.4 : ENIAC

The EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) - was designed

in mid 1940s by Dr. John von Neumann with a memory to store both program and data.
This was the first machine which used the stored program concept. It had five distinct units
- arithmetic, central control, memory, input and output. The key element was the central
control. All the functions of the computer were co-ordinate through this single source, the
central control. The programming of the computers was done in machine language

The UNIVAC • I (Universal Automatic Computer) – Remington Rand designed this

computer specifically for business data processing applications. This was the first general
purpose commercially available computer.

Figure 1.5 : UNIVAC

 7

The Second Generation

In the second generation computers:

• Vacuum tube technology was replaced by transistorized technology,

• Size of the computers started reducing,

• Assembly language started being used in place of machine language,

• Concept of stored program emerged,

• High level languages were invented.

Figure 1.6 : The Transistors

These computers were smaller, faster, more reliable and more energy efficient. The first
transistorized computer was TX-0. The first large scale machines that took advantage of
the transistor technology were the early supercomputers, Stretch by IBM and LARC by
Sperry Rand. These machines were mainly developed for atomic energy laboratories. Typical
computers of the second generation were the IBM 1400 and 7000 series, Honeywell 200 and
General Electric.

The stored program concept first introduced in the second generation computers implied that
the instructions to run a computer for a specific task were held inside the computers memory
and could quickly be modified or replaced by a different set of instructions for a different
function. High level languages like COBOL, FORTRAN and AL- GOL were dev eloped.
Computers started finding vast and varied applications. The entire software industry began
with the second generation computers.

The Third Generation

The third generation computers were characterized by:

 8

• Use of Integrated Circuits (ICs) called chips, with 10 - 20 components on each chip,

• Phenomenal increase in computation speed,

• Substantial reduction in size and power consumption of the machines,

• Use of magnetic tapes and drums for external storage,

• Design-of Operating systems and new higher level languages,

• Commercial production of computers.

Figure 1.7 : Integrated Circuits

The IC technology utilized in the third generation computers meant that the sizes of com-
puters reduced drastically. The weight and power consumption of computers decreased and
the speed increased tremendously. Heavy emphasis was given to the development of soft-
ware. Operating systems were designed which allowed the machine to run many different
programs at once. A central program monitored and co-ordinate the computer’s memory.
Multiprogramming was made possible, whereby the machine could perform several jobs at
the same time. Computers achieved speeds of executing millions of instructions per second.
Commercial production became easier and cheaper. Higher level languages like Pascal and
Report Program Generator (RPG) were introduced and applications oriented languages like
FORTRAN, COBOL, and PL/1 were developed.

The Fourth Generation

The general features of the fourth generation computers were:

• Utilized Large Scale Integration (LSI) which could fit hundreds of components on
one chip and Very Large Scale integration (VLSI) which squeezed thousand of
components on one chip.
 9

• Invention of microcomputers,

• Introduction of Personal Computers,

• Networking,

• Fourth Generation Languages.

Figure 1.8 : VLSI

The Intel 4004 chip, located all the components of a computer (central processing unit,
memory, input and output controls) on a single chip and microcomputers were introduced.
Higher capacity storage media like magnetic disks were developed. Fourth generation lan-
guages emerged and applications softwares started becoming popular. Computer production
became inexpensive and the era of Personal Computers (PCs) commenced. In 1981, IBM
introduced its personal computer for use in office, home and schools. In direct competition,
the Macintosh was introduced by Apple in 1984. Shared interactive systems and user friendly
environments were the features of these computers.

As the computers started becoming more and more powerful, they could be linked together or
networked to share not only data but also memory space and software. The networks could
reach enormous proportions with local area networks. A global web of computer circuitry,
the Internet, links the computers worldwide into a single network of information.

The Fifth Generation

Defining the fifth generation computers is somewhat difficult because the field is still in its
infancy. The computers of the future would be characterized by Artificial Intelligence (AI).
An example of Al is Expert Systems. Computers could be developed which could think and
reason in much the same way as humans. Computers would be able to accept spoken words as
input (voice recognition). Many advances in the science of computer design and technology
are coming together to enable the creation of fifth generation computers. Two such advances
are parallel processing where many CPUs work as one and advance in superconductor
 10

technology which allows the flow of electricity with little or no resistance, greatly improving
the speed of information flow.

1.3 Uses of the Computer

Many things can be done with a computer. Presently computers are widely used in offices,
Banking, Education, Health, Commerce, Science, Agriculture, Transport, and Communica-
tion and in other industries. Computers are used for typing documents, keeping and retrieval
of information, analysis of data, designing work, sending and receiving information over long
distances, control of plants, and many more purposes. In the earth sciences, computers are
now widely used to produce maps, contours, process huge amount of drill hole data, ore body
modelling, and to plan and design mines.

1.3.1 Advantages of Using Computers – Why Computers are so Powerful

Some of the reasons computer are so powerful and widely used are as follows

• High Speed: Billions of operations in a single second

• Reliability and Consistency: Low failure rate and consistent results

• Accuracy : Computers are used to perform tasks in a way that ensures accuracy.

• Storage : Computers can store large amount of information. Any item of data or any
instruction stored in the memory can be retrieved by the computer at lightning speeds.

• Automation : Computers can be instructed to perform complex tasks automatically

( which increases the productivity).

• Diligence : Computers can perform the same task repeatedly & with the same accuracy
without getting tired.

• Versatility : Computers are flexible to perform both simple and complex tasks.

• Cost effectiveness : Computers reduce the amount of paper work and human effort,
thereby reducing costs.

1.3.2 Disadvantages of Computers

In spite the numerous strengths, computers are plagued the following disadvantages

• Unemployment
 11

• Health issues

• Cyber crime

• Virus and Hacking attacks

• Improper use

• Spread of false and inappropriate content

• Negative impact on the environment

1.3.3 Limitations of Computers

Some limitations of using the computers are as follows

• Computers need clear and complete instructions to perform a task accurately.

a If the instructions are not clear and complete, the computer will not produce the
required result.

• Computers cannot think.

• Computers cannot learn by experience.

1.4 Hard Versus Soft Computing

Hardware refers to the physical and tangible components of a computer which comprises of he
primary electronic devices used to build up the computer. Software is a collection of instruc-
tions, procedures, documentation that performs different tasks on a computer system; may
also refer to programming code executed on a computer processor. Hardware and software
are mutually dependent on each other; both of them must work together to make a computer
produce a useful output. Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.

Hardware without a set of programs to operate upon cannot be utilized and is useless. To get
a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should be loaded into the hardware.
Hardware is a one-time expense. Software development is very expensive and is a continuing
expense. Different software applications can be loaded on a hardware to run different jobs.
A software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware. If the hardware is the
’heart’ of a computer system, the software is its ‘soul’; both are complementary to each other.
 12

1.5 The Components of a Computer (Hardware)

The six primary components of a computer are input devices, the processor (control
unit and arithmetic/logic unit), memory, output devices, storage devices, and
communications devices. The processor, memory, and storage devices are housed in a

Figure 1.9 : Components of the Computer

box-like case called the system unit (shown in Figure 1.9).

A peripheral is a device that connects to the system unit and is controlled by the processor
in the computer. Peripherals can include input devices and output devices, as well as some
storage devices and communications devices. Figure 1.10 shows how the components of a
computer interact to carry out a task. The following sections describe the types of personal
computers and mobile devices, as well as their primary components (input devices, processor,
memory, output devices, and communications devices).

1.5.1 Input Devices

An input device is any hardware component that allows you to enter data and instructions
into a computer. Five widely used input devices are the keyboard, mouse, microphone,
scanner, and Web cam (Figure 1.9). The two primary input devices used are the keyboard
and the mouse.
 13

Figure 1.10 : Interactions between Components of the Computer

Keyboard

A keyboard is an input device that contains keys users press to enter data and instructions
into the computer. All desktop computer keyboards have a typing area that includes the
letters of the alphabet, numbers, punctuation marks, and other basic keys. Many desktop
computer keyboards also have a numeric keypad on the right side of the keyboard. Most
of todays desktop computer keyboards are enhanced keyboards. An enhanced keyboard has
12 or more function keys along the top and a set of arrow and additional keys between the
typing area and the numeric keypad (Figure 7). Function keys are special keys programmed
to issue instructions to a computer. A variety of options are available for typing on a smart
phone (Figure 1.11). Many can display an on-screen keyboard, where you press the on-screen
keys using your finger or a stylus. A stylus is a small metal or plastic device that looks like
a tiny ink pen but uses pressure instead of ink. Some smart phones have one key for each
letter of the alphabet, often called a mini-keyboard. Other phones have keypads that contain
fewer keys than there are letters in the alphabet. For these phones, each key on the keypad
represents multiple characters, which are identified on the key.

Mouse and Other Pointing Devices

A mouse is a pointing device that fits comfortably under the palm of your hand (Figure 1.12).
With a mouse, users control the movement of the pointer, which is a small symbol on the
screen whose location and shape change as a user moves a pointing device. As you move a
 14

Figure 1.11 : The Keyboard

mouse, for example, the pointer on the screen also moves. Generally, you use the mouse to
move the pointer on the screen to an object such as a button, a menu, an icon, a link, or text.
Then, you press a mouse button to perform a certain action associated with that object. The
bottom of a mouse is flat and contains a mechanism (ball, optical sensor, or laser sensor)
that detects movement of the mouse. Most notebook computers have a touchpad, a small,

Figure 1.12 : The Computer Mouse

flat, rectangular pointing device near the keyboard that allows you to move the pointer by
sliding a fingertip on the surface of the pad.
 15

1.5.2 System Unit

The system unit is a case that contains the electronic components of the computer that are
used to process data. Figure 1.9 the anatomy of the system unit. The case of the system unit,

Figure 1.13 : Anatomy of the System Unit

also called the chassis, is made of metal or plastic and protects the internal components from
damage. The circuitry of the system unit usually is part of or is connected to a circuit board
called the motherboard. Many electronic components attach to the motherboard; others are
built into it. The sound card and video card are examples of adapter cards, which are circuit
boards that provide connections and functions not built into the motherboard or expand on
the capability of features integrated into the motherboard.

Two main components on the motherboard are the processor and memory.

The Processor

The processor, also called a CPU (Central Processing Unit), is the electronic component
that interprets and carries out the basic instructions that operate the computer (see Figure
1.14). Processors contain a control unit and an arithmetic/logic unit. The control unit directs
and coordinates most of the operations in the computer. The arithmetic/logic unit (ALU)
performs arithmetic, comparison, and other operations.
 16

Figure 1.14 : The Core 2 Duo CPU by Intel

On a personal computer, all functions of the processor usually are on a single chip. A com-
puter chip is a small piece of semiconducting material that contains many microscopic path-
ways capable of carrying electrical current. Todays processors can perform some operations
in less than the time it takes to blink your eye.

The Memory

Memory consists of electronic components that store instructions waiting to be executed and
data needed by those instructions. Although some forms of memory are permanent, most
memory keeps data and instructions temporarily, which means its contents are erased when
the computer is shut off (see Figure 1.15). When discussing computer memory, users typically

Figure 1.15 : Different Types and Sizes of Memory (RAM)

are referring to RAM. Also called main memory, RAM (random access memory) consists of
memory chips that can be read from and written to by the processor and other devices.

The amount of memory in computers is measured in kilobytes, megabytes, gigabytes, or

terabytes. A byte usually stores one character, such as the letter A. One kilobyte (KB)
 17

equals exactly 1,024 bytes, and one megabyte (MB) equals approximately one million
bytes. One gigabyte (GB) equals approximately one billion bytes, and one terabyte (TB)
equals approximately one trillion bytes. A computer with 4 GB of RAM, therefore, can store
approximately four billion characters. For reference, one megabyte can hold approximately
500 letter-size pages of text information, and one gigabyte can hold approximately 500,000
letter-size pages of text information.

Memory Cache

Cache memory is a chip-based computer component that makes retrieving data from the
computer’s memory more efficient. It acts as a temporary storage area that the computer’s
processor can retrieve data from easily. This temporary storage area, known as a cache, is
more readily available to the processor than the computer’s main memory source, typically
some form of DRAM.

Figure 1.16 : Cache Memory Operation

Cache memory is sometimes called CPU (central processing unit) memory because it is typ-
ically integrated directly into the CPU chip or placed on a separate chip that has a separate
bus interconnect with the CPU. Therefore, it is more accessible to the processor, and able to
increase efficiency, because it’s physically close to the processor. In order to be close to the
processor, cache memory needs to be much smaller than main memory. Consequently, it has
less storage space. It is also more expensive than main memory, as it is a more complex chip
that yields higher performance.

What it sacrifices in size and price, it makes up for in speed. Cache memory operates between
10 to 100 times faster than RAM, requiring only a few nanoseconds to respond to a CPU
request. The name of the actual hardware that is used for cache memory is high-speed static
random access memory (SRAM). The name of the hardware that is used in a computer’s
 18

main memory is dynamic random access memory (DRAM).

Cache memory is not to be confused with the broader term cache. Caches temporarily store
of data that can exist in both hardware and software. Cache memory refers to the specific
hardware component that allows computers to create caches at various levels of the network.

Ports and Connectors on the System Unit

The back of a pc has connections called (depending on who you ask) jacks, ports, or connec-
tors. A pc may have several ports for connecting devices such as a mouse, keyboard, scanner,
touch screen, and other device peripherals. It is wise to check what type of port an adaptive
device requires to interface with the personal computer. Some computers have many ports,
and others may only have a select few of the ports below. Figure 1.17 is shows the ports on
a typical system unit and Figure 1.18 is a summary of the descriptions of various ports.

Figure 1.17 : The Back of a System Unit with Ports

Types of Ports

There are two types of ports: Serial port and Parallel port.
 19

Figure 1.18 : Ports and their Descriptions

Serial ports can transfer one bit at a time. Throughout most of the history of computers,
data transfer through serial ports connected the computer to devices such as terminals and
various peripherals. This type of transmission medium is slow as it transmit one bit at a
time. It can connect main peripherals of system unit. Like mouse, keyboard etc.

Parallel port can transfer more that one bit a time. A parallel port is a type of interface
found on computers for connecting various peripherals. In computing, a parallel port is a
parallel communication physical interface. It is also known as a printer port or Centronics
port. The IEEE 1284 standard defines the bi-directional version of the port, which allows
the transmission and reception of data bits at the same time. It is faster then parallel port
as it transfer more than one bit simultaneously
 20

Figure 1.19 : Serial Port

Expansion Cards and System Bus

Expansion Cards allow a user to add more gizmos and capabilities to a computer. Expan-
sion cards can also be used to replace a component of a computer that breaks, like a modem.
Expansion cards plug into expansion slots on a computers motherboard. Expansion slot is
an opening, or socket, where circuit board is inserted into motherboard. A PC Card slot,

Figure 1.20 : Expansion Card

usually located on the side of a notebook computer, allows a PC Card to be changed without
having to open the system unit. There are three types of PC Cards:

• Type I cards add memory capabilities to the computer

• Type II cards contain communications devices

• Type III cards house devices such as hard disks

A highway analogy can help clarify how bus width affects the speed of data transfer. Data
moves like cars the more lanes (greater the bus width) the faster the traffic (data) flow.
Ideally, buses used to transfer data should be large enough to use the processing power of
registers. Sometimes, however, manufacturers reduce bus size to cut costs.
 21

A computer talks to its expansion cards – and everything else on the motherboard – through
its bus. A computers bus is an electronic pathway that carries information between devices
in a computer. Two factors determine how information flows through the bus: the bus width
and the bus speed.

Bus Width determines how many lanes there are on a computers electronic highway. Ac-
tually, the bus width is not measured in lanes, but in bits. The wider the bus, the more
information can travel across it at the same time. The bus speed determines how fast in-
formation can travel through the bus. The higher the bus speed, the faster information can
travel through it. Bus speed is measured in MHz.

There are two types of buses namely System bus and Expansion bus

A System Bus connects processor and RAM. It is also called internal bus. It is subdivided
in to two types: Address bus and Data bus.

The address bus is a unidirectional pathway that carries addresses generated by the mi-
croprocessor to the memory and I/O elements of the computer. The size of the address
bus, determined by the number of conductors in the bus, determines the number of memory
locations and/or I/O elements the microprocessor can address.

In contrast to the address bus, the data bus is bi-directional in nature. Data flows along
the data bus from the microprocessor to memory during a Write operation. Conversely,
data moves from memory to the microprocessor during a Read operation. The direction for
data movement is the same for Read and Write operations between the microprocessor and
Input/Output devices.

The expansion bus (also called the input/output bus) allows various motherboard compo-
nents (USB, serial, and parallel ports, cards inserted in PCI connectors, hard drives, CDROM
and CD-RW drives, etc. to communicate with one another. However, it is mainly used to
add new devices using what are called expansion slots connected to the input/output bus.

Power Supply

It provides electric supply to all components of system unit. It Converts alternating current
(AC) to direct current (DC). It is responsible for supply of power to all components according
to its voltage. Minimum voltage supplied is 3V that can be convert to 24 V. Some peripheral
devices have AC adapter like printers and scanners.
 22

1.5.3 Output Devices

An output device is any hardware component that conveys information to one or more people.
Commonly used output devices are include display devices; printers; speakers, headphones,
and earbuds; data projectors; and interactive whiteboards. (Figure 1.9).

Printers

A printer is an output device that produces text and graphics on a physical medium such
as paper. Ink-jet printers and laser printers are the two common types of printers used with
personal computers (see Figure 1.21).

Figure 1.21 : Printers

Ink-jet printers produce text and graphics in both black and white and colour on a variety of
paper types and sizes. Some ink-jet printers, called photo printers, produce photolab-quality
pictures and are ideal for home or small-business use. The speed of an ink-jet printer is
measured by the number of pages per minute (ppm) it can print. Most ink-jet printers print
from 12 to 36 pages per minute. Graphics and colors print at the slower rate.

A laser printer is a high-speed, high-quality printer that operates in a manner similar to a

copy machine. Laser printers typically use individual sheets of paper stored in one or more
removable trays that slide in the printer case. It creates images using a laser beam and
powdered ink, called toner, on a special drum inside the printer, forming the images to be
printed. Laser printers can cost from a couple hundred dollars to a few thousand dollars for
the home and small office user, to several hundred thousand dollars for large business users.
Generally, the more expensive the laser printer, the more pages it can print per minute.
 23

Display Devices

A display device is an output device that visually conveys text, graphics, and video informa-
tion. A monitor is a display device that is packaged as a separate peripheral. A widely used
monitor is an LCD monitor. The LCD monitor shown in Figure 1.22 uses a liquid crystal
display to produce images on the screen.

Figure 1.22 : Computer Monitor

The surface of the screen of an LCD monitor is composed of individual picture elements
called pixels. Resolution is the number of horizontal and vertical pixels in a display device.
For example, a screen set to a resolution of 1440 × 900 pixels displays up to 1440 pixels
per horizontal row and 900 pixels per vertical row, for a total of 1,296,000 pixels to create a
screen image. A higher resolution provides a smoother, sharper, clearer image.

Mobile computers such as notebook computers, including netbooks and Tablet PCs, and
mobile devices such as smart phones, portable media players, PDAs, handheld game consoles,
and digital cameras, have built-in LCD screens.

1.6 Starting a Computer

To turn on (start) the computer, press the power button on the front of the system unit.
The power button has this symbol. Depress the button and the computer will begin to boot
up. The term boot up refers to the loading of the operating system and other basic software.
The procedure also determines what peripheral devices are connected to the computer.
 24

The light that come up have the following meanings. Green lights indicate that the power is
on and the equipment is running. Orange lights indicate that the equipment is in a low-power
or sleep mode. The equipment is still on but not running.

Cold Booting

Some of these files are called the kernel of the operating system and include programs that
perform basic operations such as assigning computer resources and starting application pro-
grams. The kernel is memory resident, which means that it remains in memory as long as
the computer is on. Finally, the operating system displays the user interface on the monitor.

After POST, the computer starts the operating system, and then displays the logon screen.
You now log on to the Microsoft Windows operating system. The operating system allows
you to instruct the computer what to do after you have turned it on. The operating system
controls the computers hardware and also manages the computers operations and tasks, such
as logging on, logging off, and shutting down.

For example, to log on to Windows 10, you need to type your user name and password. The
settings for the user account are applied and you are now logged on to Windows. After you
log on, you can perform various tasks, such as creating a new file or modifying an existing
file. After performing the required tasks, you need to save the changes you made to the file.
You can then log off from Windows. To log off, click Start, and then click Log Off.

To securely turn off your computer, you must shut down Windows. To do this, you need to
click Start, and then, at the bottom of the Start menu, click Shut Down. You can end your
Windows session by clicking the Shut Down Windows dialogue. If you encounter problems
while using the computer, you can choose the Restart option to restart the computer. To do
this, click Restart in the Shut Down Windows dialogue box. On most computers, you should
never use the actual power button on the front of the system unit to turn off the computer
unless it stops responding.

1.7 Computer Performance

A number of factors determine why one computer runs faster than another. Factors that
affect Computer performance are as follows.
 25

1.7.1 CPU Speed

Arguably the single most important factor that determines a computers performance is the
speed of its CPU. The speed of the CPU is measured in megahertz (MHz) and gigahertz
(GHz). The faster the CPU, the faster the computer. The first PC in 1981 ran at 4.77 MHz,
while todays computers can run at speeds exceeding 3,000 MHz, or 3 GHz.

1.7.2 Amount of RAM

The amount of RAM, or memory, is another very important factor in a computers perfor-
mance. Generally, the more RAM a computer has the better its performance. However, you
usually will see much of an improvement after 1 GB of RAM.

1.7.3 Type of Video Card

Video cards have their own processor and memory, just like the computer does. The faster
the processor and the more memory a video card has, the faster it can draw images on the
monitor. Video card performance is especially important if youre interested in playing newer,
3D computer games.

1.7.4 Hard Drive Speed

A hard drives average access time is how fast it can find information. Average access time is
measured in milliseconds (ms), or 1/1000 of a second. The lower the access speed, the faster
the hard drive. Most newer computers have an average access time of 8 to 15 ms. Another
factor that determines hard drive performance is how fast it spins, in revolutions per minute
(rpms). Faster IDE hard drives may have speeds as fast as 7,200 rpm, while high-end SCSI
hard drives have speeds of 15,000 rpm.

1.7.5 Free Hard Disk Space

Not only do you need a fast hard drive, you have to make sure that is has plenty of free
storage space. Microsoft Windows uses this hard disk space to create a cache on the hard
drive where it stores temporary information.

1.7.6 Hard Disk Fragmentation

Normally a computer stores a file in the same location on a hard drive. Over time, a hard
drive can become fragmented, and instead of storing a file in the same location it begins
 26

storing parts of it all over. When the computer needs to read a fragmented file, it must read
several different parts of the hard drive instead of just one. Defragmenting a hard drive puts
the fragmented files back together in one place. You should defragment your computers hard
drive about once a month.

1.7.7 Multitasking Considerations

Microsoft Windows can multitask, or run more than one program or task at a time–probably
no different than your job. And, just like your job, the more programs or tasks you throw at
Windows, the longer it takes to complete each one, and hence a drop in computer performance.
 27

Chapter 2

Classification of Computers

2.1 Introduction

According to data handling capabilities, usage and functionalities, computers can be classified
as follows:

2.2 Analogue Computers

The computers used to process analogue data (continuously varying data) are called Ana-
logue Computers. Analogue computers are the most complicated machines for computa-
tion and process control. Examples are continuous data are pressure, temperature, voltage,
weight, and speed, etc. These computers directly accept the data from the measuring device
without converting it into numbers and code. They typically operate by “measuring” instead
of “counting”.

2.3 Digital Computers

These computers are designed to represent the calculation at high speed and solve the problem
by processing the information in the discrete form. They operate data, including letters and
symbols, that are expressed in the binary form 0 or 1. These computers are intended t
perform arithmetic and logical operations at a very high rate. The digital computers can
analyse and organize the vast amount of business data.
 28

2.4 Hybrid Computers

The hybrid computers inherit the features of and have the functionality of both analogue
computers and digital computers. The component of the hybrid computer is designed in such
a way that makes the device fast and accurate. They are as fast as analogue computers and
include memory and precision as digital computers. The hybrid computer is used in special
applications where both analogue and digital data are processed. For example, in the cement
plant, the calculations are calculated with the help of hybrid computers.

2.5 Classification of Digital Computers

A majority of the computers that are in use are digital. Depending on the use of applications,
the digital computers are classified as either Special Purpose or General Purpose.

2.5.1 Special Purpose

These are developed with a specific purpose. Some of the areas where these computers are
being used are - soil testing, drip irrigation, medical scanning, traffic signals, spacecraft,
rocket technology etc.

2.5.2 General Purpose Computers

These are developed to meet the requirements of several areas such as simulation, solving
mathematical equations, payroll and personnel database. These computers are available in
different sizes and capabilities and are further classified based on memory, speed, storage.

2.6 Types of General Purpose Computers

Figure 2.1 is a summary of categories of general purpose computers. Each category is dis-
cussed infra.

2.6.1 Micro Computers

A micro computer is the smallest general purpose processing system. Micro computers are
also referred as “personal computers” (PC). These are self-contained units and usually de-
veloped for use by one person at a time but can be linked to very large systems. They are
cheap, easy to use even at homes and can be read for variety of applications from small to
medium range. Examples include Personal computer (PC), PC with Extended Technology
(PC-XT), PC with Advanced Technology (PC-AT)
 29

Figure 2.1 : Categories of General Purspose Computers

2.7 Characterisitics of Micro Computers

• It is easily affordable due to its small in size and low cost prize.

• It has low computing power.

• The microcomputer is commonly used for personal application.

• These type of computers has its central processing unit (CPU) on an integrated circuit
(chip) called a microprocessor, input/output devices, and storage unit.

2.7.1 Mainframe Computers

Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds
or even thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe runs multiple operating systems at
the same time, executes many programs concurrently and supports many simultaneous ex-
ecution of programs. In early days of computing Mainframes are big computers that can
fill the entire room or entire floor. Mainframes are mainly used by large organizations for
critical applications, such as online data storage e.g. consumer statistics, ERP, and financial
transaction processing. Figure 2.2 exemplifies a mainframe computer.
 30

Figure 2.2 : The Mainframe Computer

2.7.2 Characteristics of Mainframe Computers

• The mainframe computers have a large number of CPUs (up to 16 CPUs running in
parallel) with high processing power.

• Have large memory capacity; sometimes more than 32 Gigabytes.

• Mainframe systems are able to share their workload to different processors; hence, their
increased performance.

• The mainframe computers have centralized computing features.

• These computers can run on multiple operating systems.

• The thousands of users can operate and use the machine at the same time; it is possible
due to its time-sharing ability.

• The reliability is the main feature of Mainframe systems, due to this feature its usage
becomes widespread.

2.7.3 The Supercomputer

The supercomputer is a high-level performance computer and is the fastest computer avail-
able. Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that
require immense amount of mathematical calculations (number crunching). The supercom-
puters consist of ten thousands of processors, which can perform billions or trillions of calcu-
lations per second. This kind of computers is used for scientific and engineering applications
to handle extensive databases. Supercomputers are used in applications such as aerospace,
automotive,weather forecasting, scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic
 31

calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g.
in petrochemical prospecting) among others. Figure ?? a typical supercomputer.

Figure 2.3 : Typical Supercomputer

2.7.4 Characteristics of Supercomputers

• Support more than one hundred users at a time.

• Capable of handling a massive amount of calculations, the human is not able to solve
such extensive calculations.

• Many people can access supercomputer at the same time.

• The supercomputers are the most expensive computers.

• The supercomputer supports a high computation speed of CPUs.

• The supercomputers have more than one CPU which contains instruction so that su-
percomputer can interpret instructions and execute arithmetical and logical operations.

• The supercomputer is used in applications such as national security, nuclear weapon

design, and cryptography.

2.7.5 The Mini-Computer

It is a mid-size multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users simultaneously.

The mini-computer has all the features of a massive computer. Mini-computers can do time-
sharing, batch processing, and online processing. Sizes of mini computers range from 12 inches
in width to less than 7, and this size is especially attractive to the students; due to this size,
 32

they can carry their mini-computer everywhere. The tablet, PC, desktop mini-computers,
cell phones, notebooks, high-end mp3 players, etc. are the types of mini-computers.

2.7.6 Advantages of Mini-Computers

• The mini-computers are money-saving computers, and everyone affords it quickly, the
budget of these computers are not so high.

• These computers are small in size so, anyone can carry easily anywhere.

• These are portable; we can fit those computers in laptop bags and purses.

• If we compare mini computers to others, then they have a longer battery life.

• The mini-computers are very light weighted and have full features as compare to other
computers. Due to its lightweight, its easy to carry anywhere.

2.8 Personal Computers

Computers range in size and capability. At one end of the scale are supercomputers, very
large computers with thousands of linked microprocessors that perform extremely complex
calculations. At the other end are tiny computers embedded in cars, TVs, stereo systems,
calculators, and appliances. These computers are built to perform a limited number of tasks.

The personal computer, or PC, is designed to be used by one person at a time. A personal
computer is a computer that can perform all of its input, processing, output, and storage
activities by itself. A personal computer contains a processor, memory, and one or more
input, output, and storage devices. Personal computers also often contain a communications
device. Figure 2.4 shows two popular architectures of PCs. This section describes the various
kinds of personal computers: desktops, laptops, handheld computers, and Tablet PCs.

2.8.1 Desktop Computers

A desktop computer is designed so that the system unit, input devices, output devices, and
any other devices fit entirely on or under a desk or table (see Figure 2.4). They are typically
larger and more powerful than other types of personal computers. Desktop computers are
made up of separate components. The main component, called the system unit, is usually
a rectangular case that sits on or underneath a desk. In many models, the system unit is a
tall and narrow tower, which can sit on the floor vertically if desktop space is limited.Other
components, such as the monitor, mouse, and keyboard, connect to the system unit.
 33

Figure 2.4 : Desktop Computer

Some desktop computers function as a server on a network. Others, such as a gaming desktop
computer and home theater PC, target a specific audience. The gaming desktop computer
offers high-quality audio, video, and graphics with optimal performance for sophisticated
single-user and networked or Internet multiplayer games. A home theater PC (HTPC) com-
bines the features of a high-definition video/audio entertainment system with a desktop
computer that is designed to be connected to a television and includes a Blu-ray Disc, digital
video recorder, and digital cable television connectivity. These high-end computers cost more
than the basic desktop computer.

Another expensive, powerful desktop computer is the workstation, which is geared for work
that requires intense calculations and graphics capabilities. An architect uses a workstation to
design buildings and homes. A graphic artist uses a workstation to create computer-animated
special effects for full-length motion pictures and video games.

2.8.2 Mobile Computers and Mobile Devices

A mobile computer is a personal computer you can carry from place to place. Similarly, a
mobile device is a computing device small enough to hold in your hand. The most popular
type of mobile computer is the notebook computer.

2.8.3 Laptop (Notebook) Computers

A laptop (notebook) computer, also called a laptop computer, is a portable, personal com-
puter often designed to fit on your lap. Laptop computers are lightweight mobile PCs with a
thin screen. They are often called notebook computers because of their small size. Laptops
can operate on batteries, so you can take them anywhere. Unlike desktops, laptops combine
 34

the CPU, screen, and keyboard in a single case. The screen folds down onto the keyboard
when not in use. An ultra-thin is another type of notebook computer that is lightweight and

Figure 2.5 : Some Personal Computers

usually less than one-inch thick. Some notebook computers have touch screens, allowing you
to interact with the device by touching the screen, usually with the tip of a finger.

2.8.4 Handheld Computers

Handheld computers, also called personal digital assistants (PDAs), are battery-powered
computers small enough to carry almost anywhere. Although not as powerful as desktops or
laptops, handhelds are useful for scheduling appointments, storing addresses and phone num-
bers, and playing games. Some have more advanced capabilities, such as making telephone
calls or accessing the Internet. Instead of keyboards, handhelds have touch screens that you
use with your finger or a stylus (a pen-shaped pointing tool).

2.8.5 Tablet Computers

Resembling a letter-sized slate, the Tablet PC, or tablet computer, is a special type of note-
book computer that you can interact with by touching the screen with your finger or a digital
pen. A digital pen looks like a small ink pen but uses pressure instead of ink. Users write or
draw on a Tablet PC by pressing a finger or digital pen on the screen, and issue instructions
by tapping on the screen. One design of Tablet PC, called a convertible tablet, has an at-
tached keyboard. Another design, which does not include a keyboard, is called a slate tablet
(Figure 2.5) and provides other means for typing. Some Tablet PCs also support voice input
so that users can speak into the computer.

Tablet PCs are useful especially for taking notes in lectures, at meetings, conferences, and
other forums where the standard notebook computer is not practical.
 35

2.8.6 Mobile Devices

Mobile devices, which are small enough to carry in a pocket, usually do not have disk drives.
Instead, they store programs and data permanently on special memory inside the system unit
or on small storage media such as memory cards. You often can connect a mobile device to
a personal computer to exchange information between the computer and the mobile device.

Some mobile devices are Internet-enabled, meaning they can connect to the Internet wire-
lessly. With an Internet-enabled device, users can chat, send e-mail and instant messages,
and access the Web. Because of their reduced size, the screens on mobile devices are small,
but usually are in colour. Popular types of mobile devices are smart phones and PDAs,
e-book readers, handheld computers, portable media players, and digital cameras.

2.9 Other Types of Computers

2.9.1 Game Consoles

A game console is a mobile computing device designed for single-player or multiplayer video
games. Standard game consoles use a handheld controller(s) as an input device(s); a television
screen as an output device; and hard disks, optical discs, and/or memory cards for storage.
The compact size of game consoles makes them easy to use at home, in the car, in a hotel,
or any location that has an electrical outlet. Three popular models are Microsofts Xbox,
Nintendos Wii (pronounced wee), and Sonys PlayStation.

A handheld game console is small enough to fit in one hand, making it more portable than the
standard game console. With the handheld game console, the controls, screen, and speakers
are built into the device. Because of their reduced size, the screens are small – three to
four inches. Some models use cartridges to store games; others use a memory card or a
miniature optical disc. Many handheld game consoles can communicate wirelessly with other
similar consoles for multiplayer gaming. Two popular models are Nintendo DS Lite and Sonys
PlayStation Portable (PSP).

In addition to gaming, many game console models allow users to listen to music, watch
movies, keep fit, and connect to the Internet. Game consoles can cost from a couple hundred
dollars to more than $500.

2.9.2 Server Computer

A server computer is a computer dedicated to running a server application. A server applica-

tion is a computer program that accepts connections in order to service requests by sending
 36

back responses. Examples of server applications include web servers, e-mail servers, database
servers, and file servers.

2.9.3 Wearable Computers

A record-setting step in the evolution of computers was the creation of wearable computers.
These computers can be worn on the body and are often used in the study of behaviour
modelling and human health. Military and health professionals have incorporated wearable
computers into their daily routine, as a part of such studies. When the users’ hands and
sensory organs are engaged in other activities, wearable computers are of great help in tracking
human actions. Wearable computers are consistently in operation as they do not have to be
turned on and off and are constantly interacting with the user.

2.9.4 Embedded Computers

An embedded computer is a special-purpose computer that functions as a component in a

larger product. Embedded computers are everywhere – at home, in your car, and at work.
The following list identifies a variety of everyday products that contain embedded computers.

• Consumer Electronics: mobile and digital telephones, digital televisions, cameras, video
recorders, DVD players and recorders, answering machines.

• Home Automation Devices: thermostats, sprinkling systems, security monitoring sys-

tems, appliances, lights.

• Automobiles: antilock brakes, engine control modules, airbag controller, cruise control.

• Process Controllers and Robotics: remote monitoring systems, power monitors, machine
controllers, medical devices.
 37

• Computer Devices and Office Machines: keyboards, printers, fax and copy machines.

Because embedded computers are components in larger products, they usually are small
and have limited hardware. These computers perform various functions, depending on the
requirements of the product in which they reside. Embedded computers in printers, for
example, monitor the amount of paper in the tray, check the ink or toner level, signal if a
paper jam has occurred, and so on. Figure 2.6 shows some of the many embedded computers
in cars.

Figure 2.6 : Some of the embedded computers designed to improve your safety, security, and
performance in modern automobiles
 38

Chapter 3

STORAGE IN COMPUTERS

3.1 Types of Storage (Memory)

Storage in computers can broadly categorized into two namely

• Primary Memory ( Internal storage)

• Secondary Memory ( External storage)

The Primary Memory (also called internal memory) is an important part of a computer.
It is the main area in a computer where the data is stored. The stored data can be recalled
instantly and correctly whenever desired. This memory can be quickly accessed by the CPU
for reading or storing information. This memory is accessed by CPU, in random fashion. That
means any location of this memory can be accessed by the CPU to either read information
from it, or to store information in it. Primary memory is classified into two types:

• Random Access Memory (RAM)

• Read-Only Memory (ROM )

3.1.1 Random Access Memory (RAM)

The RAM is also known as read/write memory as information can be read from and written
onto it. RAM is a place in a computer that holds instructions for the computer, its programs
and the data. The CPU can directly access (stores and retrieves data/information) from RAM
almost immediately. However, the storage of data and instructions in RAM is temporary,
till the time the computer is running. It disappears from RAM as soon as the power to the
computer is switched off. i.e it is volatile memory. To keep data the user must save it to
backing store before the computer is turned off. RAM is further divided in to two types

• DRAM (Dynamic Random access Memory)

• SRAM (Static Random access Memory)

 39

DRAM

DRAM stands for Dynamic RAM. A type of physical memory used in most personal comput-
ers. The term dynamic indicates that the memory must be constantly refreshed (reenergized)
or it will lose its contents. RAM is sometimes referred to as DRAM (pronounced dee-ram)
to distinguish it from static RAM (SRAM). Static RAM is faster and less volatile than
dynamic RAM, but it requires more power and is more expensive.

SRAM

SRAM stands for Static RAM. Short for static random access memory, and pronounced
ess-ram. SRAM is a type of memory that is faster and more reliable than the more common
DRAM (dynamic RAM). The term static is derived from the fact that it doesn’t need to be
refreshed like dynamic RAM

3.1.2 Read Only Memory (ROM)

The ROM is called read-only memory because information can only be read from and not
written or changed onto ROM. ROM is the ‘built-in’ memory of a computer. It stores some
basic input – output instructions put by the manufacturer to operate the computer. The
storage of data and instructions in ROM is permanent and cannot be altered by the user.
The content is written onto the ROM when it is first made. ROM keeps its contents even when
the computer is turned off and so is known as Non-Volatile Memory. On some computers
the operating system is stored in ROM. ROM is also often used in embedded systems where a
small built-in computer is used to control a device such as a washing machine. The program
that controls the machine is stored on ROM.

Types of ROM

ROM is further divided in to three types

• PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory)

• EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory)

• EEPROM (Electronically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory)

PROM

PROMs are manufactured as blank chips on which data can be written with a special device
called a PROM programmer.
 40

EPROM

A rewritable memory chip that holds its content without power. EPROM chips are written
on an external programming device before being placed on the mother board.

EEPROM

A rewritable memory chip that holds its content without power. EEPROMs are typically
used on circuit boards to store small amounts of instructions and data.

3.2 Storage Devices (Secondary Memory)

The primary memory which is faster (and hence expensive) is generally not sufficient for
large storage of data. As a result, additional memory, called the “auxiliary” or “secondary
memory” is used. It is also referred as “backup storage” as it is used to store large volume
of data on a permanent basis which can be transferred to the primary memory whenever
required for processing.

Storage holds data, instructions, and information for future use. For example, computers
can store hundreds or millions of customer names and addresses. Storage holds these items
permanently. A computer keeps data, instructions, and information on storage media. A
storage device records (writes) and/or retrieves (reads) items to and from storage media.
Drives and readers/writers, which are types of storage devices (see Figure 1.9), accept a
specific kind of storage media. Storage devices often function as a source of input because
they transfer items from storage to memory. Examples of storage media are USB flash drives,
hard disks, optical discs, and memory cards.

3.2.1 The Hard Disks

A hard disk is a storage device that contains one or more inflexible, circular platters that
use magnetic particles to store data, instructions, and information. The system unit on most
personal computers contains at least one hard disk, sometimes called an internal hard disk
because it is not portable. Users store documents, spreadsheets, presentations, databases,
e-mail messages, Web pages, digital photos, music, videos, and software on hard disks.

Hard disks store data and instructions in tracks and sectors on a platter (Figure 3.1). A
track is a narrow recording band that forms a full circle on the surface of the disk. The disks
storage locations consist of pie-shaped sections, which break the tracks into small arcs called
sectors. On a hard disk, a sector typically stores up to 512 bytes of data. Storage capacities
 41

Figure 3.1 : Anatomy of the Hard Disk

of internal hard disks for personal computers range from 160 GB to more than 2 TB.

On desktop computers, platters most often have a size of approximately 3.5 inches in diameter.
On notebook computers and mobile devices, the diameter is 2.5 inches or less. A typical hard
disk has multiple platters stacked on top of one another. Each platter has two read/write
heads, one for each side. The hard disk has arms that move the read/write heads to the
proper location on the platter (Figure 3.2). The hard disk platters spin at a high rate of
speed, typically 5,400 to 15,000 revolutions per minute. On todays computers, the platters
typically stop spinning or slow down after a specified time to save power.

When reading or writing, the read/write heads on a hard disk do not actually touch the
surface of the disk. The distance between the read/write heads and the platters is about
two millionths of one inch. This close clearance means that dirt, hair, dust, smoke, or other
particles could cause the hard disk to have a head crash, when a read/write head touches a
platter, usually resulting in loss of data or sometimes the entire disk. Although current hard
disks are sealed tightly to keep out contaminants, head crashes do occur occasionally. Thus,
it is crucial that you back up your hard disk regularly.

A backup is a duplicate of a file, program, or disk placed on a separate storage medium that
you can use in case the original is lost, damaged, or destroyed.
 42

Figure 3.2 : How the Hard Disk Works

3.2.2 Portable Hard Disks

Some hard disks are portable. An external hard disk (Figure 3.3) is a separate free-standing
hard disk that connects with a cable to a port on the system unit or communicates wire-
lessly. A removable hard disk (Figure 3.3) is a hard disk that you insert and remove from a
drive. Both internal and external hard disks are available in miniature sizes to allow users to
transport their data easily

Figure 3.3 : External Hard Disks

3.2.3 Flash Memory Storage

Flash memory is a type of memory that can be erased electronically and rewritten. Flash
memory chips are a type of solid state media, which means they consist entirely of electronic
 43

components and contain no moving parts. Types of flash memory storage include solid state
drives, memory cards, USB flash drives, and ExpressCard modules.

Figure 3.4 : Different Types of Flash Storage Devices

A Solid State Drive (SSD) is a storage device that typically uses flash memory to store
data, instructions, and information (Figure 3.4). With available sizes of 3.5 inches, 2.5 inches,
and 1.8 inches, SSDs are used in all types of computers, including desktop computers, mobile
computers, and mobile devices such as portable media players and digital video cameras.
Storage capacities of current SSDs range from 16 GB to 256 GB and more.

A memory card is a removable flash memory device, usually no bigger than 1.5 inches in
height or width, that you insert and remove from a slot in a computer, mobile device, or card
reader/writer (Figure 3.4). Memory cards enable mobile users easily to transport digital
photos, music, or files to and from mobile devices and computers or other devices. Common
types of memory cards include CompactFlash (CF), Secure Digital (SD), Secure Digital High
Capacity (SDHC), microSD, microSDHC, xD Picture Card, Memory Stick PRO Duo, and
Memory Stick Micro (M2)

A USB flash drive, sometimes called a thumb drive, is a flash memory storage device that
plugs into a USB port on a computer or mobile device (Figure 3.4). USB flash drives are
convenient for mobile users because they are small and lightweight enough to be transported
on a keychain or in a pocket. Current USB flash drives have storage capacities can go up
to 1 TB. The average USB flash drive can hold about 4 billion characters. You plug a USB
 44

flash drive in a special, easily accessible opening on the computer.

An ExpressCard module is a removable device, about 75 mm long and 34 mm wide or

L-shaped with a width of 54 mm, that fits in an ExpressCard slot (Figure 3.4). ExpressCard
modules can be used to add memory, storage, communications, multimedia, and security
capabilities to a computer. ExpressCard modules commonly are used in notebook computers.

3.2.4 Optical Discs

An optical disc is a flat, round, portable metal disc with a plastic coating. CDs, DVDs, and
Blu-ray Discs are three types of optical discs. A CD can hold from 650 million to 1 billion
characters. Some DVDs can store two full-length movies or 17 billion characters (Figure ??).

Blue-ray Discs can store about 46 hours of standard video, or 100 billion characters. Optical
discs used in personal computers are 4.75 inches in diameter and less than one-twentieth of
an inch thick. Because of the popularity of flash and cloud storage technology nowadays,
optical discs are almost becoming obsolete.
 45

3.2.5 Cloud Storage

Cloud storage is an Internet service that provides hard disk storage to computer users. Fee
arrangements vary. For example, one cloud storage service provides 25 GB of storage free
to registered users; another charges $5 per month for 150 GB of storage. For organizations,
cloud storage services typically charge for storage on a per gigabyte basis, such as 15 cents
per gigabyte. Types of services offered by cloud storage providers vary. Figure 3.5 identifies
a variety of cloud storage providers.

Figure 3.5 : Some Cloud Storage Providers

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Chapter 4

Computer Software

4.1 Introduction

Software, also called a program, consists of a series of related instructions, organized for a
common purpose, that tells the computer what tasks to perform and how to perform them.
Users interact with a program through its user interface. The user interface controls how
you enter data and instructions and how information is displayed on the screen. Software
today often has a graphical user interface. With a graphical user interface (GUI pronounced
gooey), you interact with the software using text, graphics, and visual images such as icons.

When you buy a computer, it usually has some software on its hard disk. This enables
you to use the computer the first time you turn it on. Programs also can be installed after
you purchase the computer. Installing is the process of adding software to a computer, and
uninstalling is the process of removing programs and all associated files from the hard disk.

Much software is available at retail stores and on the Web for purchase and/or download.
As an alternative, some people use a Web application, which is a Web site that allows users
to access and interact with software from any computer or device that is connected to the
Internet. Software can be divided into two categories: system software and application
software.

4.2 System Software

System software consists of programs that control the operations of the computer and its
devices. Two types of system software are operating systems and utility programs.

4.2.1 Operating System

An Operating System (OS) is a set of programs that coordinates all the activities among
computer hardware devices. It provides a means for users to communicate with the com-
puter and other software. An operating system loads automatically and controls just about
everything on your computer. Operating systems enable users to interact with the computer
system through Command Line Interfaces (CLIs) or Graphical User Interfaces known (GUIs).
 47

Functions of the Operating System

There are several tasks which are performed by practically all operating systems, regardless
of the complexity of the computer the operating system is being used on. These tasks include:

• Managing communications between software and hardware e.g. communicating with

peripherals such as a mouse or a printer, oganizing data stored on a hard disk, etc.

• Allocation of computer memory.

• Allocation of CPU time.

• Run and manage program.

• Managing and organising files.

• Configure software and hardware devices.

• Managing and configure network.

• Coordinating tasks such as order and time in which programs are run.

• Performance management by resource partitioning (virtualization), CPU cycles, clock

speed, memory and I/O bandwidth, and main/cache memory space.

Command Line Interface

Command Line Interface (CLI) lets you control your PC by typing commands. Figure 4.1
illustrates command line interface. There is no mouse or graphical controls like you get in a
GUI such as Windows.

Graphical User Interface (GUI)

A Graphical User Interface (GUI, pronounced ”gooey”) is a computer environment that

simplifies users’ interaction with the computer by representing programs, commands, files,
and other options as visual elements, such as icons, pull-down menus, buttons, scroll bars,
windows, and dialogue boxes. By selecting one of these graphical elements, through either
use of a mouse or a selection from a menu, the user can initiate different activities, such as
starting a program or printing a document.
 48

Figure 4.1 : The Command Line Interface

4.2.2 Types of Operating System

Many of todays computers use Microsoft Windows, or Mac OS, Apples operating system.
When a user starts a computer, portions of the operating system are copied into memory
from the computers hard disk. These parts of the OS remain in memory while the computer
is on. Some popular OS are:

• MS-DOS

• Windows

• UNIX/Linux

• XENIX

• Apple Macintosh, etc.

The choice of OS will affect how a computer works. It will probably determine the type of
user interface (command line, menu driven or graphical) that the computer uses and the types
of processing (batch, transaction or real-time) that the computer can carry out. Existing OS
generally fall under one of the following categories:

• Single user/personal computer OS

 49

• Multi-user/network OS

• Embedded OS

4.2.3 Single User/Personal Computer OS

The Single User OS is the most basic type of OS which can only be used by one person at a
time. Major examples of single user OS are detailed below.

MS-DOS

The MS-DOS, which stands for Microsoft Disk Operating System operating system was
released in 1980. MS-DOS was one of the earliest PC operating systems that displayed boring
lines of text on the screen instead of icons and pictures. In MS-DOS tasks are performed by
typing text commands in the command line interface. By typing simple instructions such as
pwd (print working directory) and cd (change directory), the user can browse the files on the
hard drive, open files, and run programs. While the commands are simple to type, the user
must know the basic commands in order to use DOS

effectively.MS-DOS file names could only be eight characters long.

Windows OS

The windows operating system is the most popular and widely used operating system till date.
The original Windows 1 was released in November 1985 and was Microsoft’s first true attempt
at a graphical user interface in 16-bit. Development was spearheaded by Microsoft founder
Bill Gates and ran on top of MS-DOS, which relied on command-line input. Following that,
other versions of the Windows OS were released. Windows 3.1 (1992) was the first successful
operating system for the PC that featured a GUI (Graphical User Interface) that used easy
to use pictures instead of hard-to-remember MS-DOS commands.

The incredibly successful successor to Windows 3.1, Windows 95 was a true operating system
(no more MS-DOS). It featured long file names, better performance, and a greatly improved
interface. Very similar with Windows 95, Windows 98 included several new and improved
features. More importantly, Windows 98 came with support for many of the new hardware
devices out there. Follow these, more advance versions of the OS were released such as
Windows ME - Millennium Edition (2000), Windows NT 31. - 4.0 (1993-1996), Windows 2000
(February 2000), Windows XP (October 2001), Windows Vista (November 2006), Windows 7
 50

(October, 2009), Windows 8 (2012) and Windows 10 (2015). As of September 2020, Microsoft
had no plans for Windows 11 and planned to continue to update and support Windows 10.

In this course, the MS-DOS and Windows OS shall be the OS of interest and will be thor-
oughly explored during the practical sessions. Feel free to peek into the other existing OS.

UNIX/Linux OS

UNIX is an older, very powerful operating system that can run on a computer, mainframe,
or network. UNIX features great performance, security, and reliability.

Linux is a newer UNIX-base operating system that is available for FREE on the Internet.
Linux is becoming a popular alternative to Microsoft Windows.

XENIX

XENIX is Microsoft’s version of the UNIX operating system which they made in 1980, after
UNIX was made available outside Bell Labs and subsequently discontinued.

Mac OS X

Mac OS X is Apple’s operating system for its line of Macintosh computers. Its interface,
known as Aqua, is built on a Unix foundation. It has much of the look and feel of the former
Mac OS, features such as pre-emptive multitasking, symmetric multiprocessing, multithread-
ing, and protected memory give Mac OS X improved stability and performance.

4.2.4 Multi-User/Network Operating System

A multi-user operating system lets more than one user work on a mainframe computer at the
same time. Multi-user OS are used on large mainframe computers. A mainframe computer
system has one very powerful processing unit. Many users will all share this processing unit.
They use terminals (a keyboard and a screen) to access the mainframe computer.

Operating systems that are used on computers connected to networks usually have to carry
out some additional tasks. Probably the most important of these is managing system security.
Important aspects of systems security that an operating system might manage are:

• Controlling who has access to which files.

• Keeping a log of all of the files that a user changes.

• Automatically backing up important files.

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These operating systems are more complicated and require faster hardware and more memory
to work than more basic operating systems. Some examples include Windows Server OS,
UNIX, Solaris/Linux, Novells Netware, NetBSD etc.

4.2.5 Embedded Operating System

An embedded operating system is an OS for embedded computer systems. Due to the very
nature of embedded systems, the OS has different constraints compared to other desktop
OS. These OS are designed to be compact, efficient at resource usage, and reliable, forsaking
many functions that standard desktop operating systems provide, and which may not be used
by the specialised applications they run.

The hardware running an embedded OS is usually very limited in resources such as RAM
and ROM. Systems made for embedded hardware tend to be very specific, which means that
due to the available resources (low if compared to non-embedded systems) these systems are
created to cover specific tasks. Many handheld devices have the embedded POS like PDA,
palm device, tablet pc etc. Examples include embedded linux, QNX OS, Integrity OS.

4.2.6 Utility Program

A utility program performs a specific tasks related to the management of computer functions,
resources, or files, as password protection, memory management, virus protection, and file
compression. Thus, a utility program allows a user to perform maintenance-type tasks usually
related to managing a computer, its devices, or its programs. It is used to provide services
for the hardware and software but it is not absolutely required to run programs and may or
may not be added to the OS. Most operating systems include several utility programs for
managing disk drives, printers, and other devices and media. A user can also buy utility
programs that allow you to perform additional computer management functions. Examples
include Virus scanning software, backup software, scandisk, disk defragmenter, etc.

4.3 Application Software

Application software consists of programs designed to make users more productive and/or
assist them with personal tasks. These include personal information management, note tak-
ing, project management, accounting, document management, computer-aided design, desk-
top publishing, paint/image editing, audio and video editing, multimedia authoring, Web
page authoring, personal finance, legal, tax preparation, home design/landscaping, travel
 52

and mapping, education, reference, and entertainment (e.g., games or simulations). Software
is available at stores that sell computer products and at many Web sites.

Computer users regularly use application software. Some of the more commonly used pro-
grams are word processing, presentation, spreadsheet, database, and e-mail. These programs
often are sold together as a unit, called a business suite. When you purchase a collection of
programs as a suite, the suite usually costs significantly less than purchasing them individu-
ally. Suites also provide ease of use because the programs in the suite normally use a similar
interface and share features.

Applications software can be categorized into:

• Word processors e.g., Word Perfect, AmiPro, Word Star, MS Word etc.

• Spreadsheet e.g. LOTUS 123, Aseasy, MS Excel etc

• Database e.g. Dbase III Plus, Dbase IV, MS Access etc.

• Graphic e.g. Corel Draw, Canvass, MS PowerPoint, MS Publisher etc

• Computer Aided Drafting (CAD) e.g. AutoCAD etc

• Specialized software e.g. Surpac, Datamine etc

The practical sessions of this course will cover the most widely used MS application software
namely - MS word, MS powerpoint and MS excel.

Word Processor

Word processing software such as MS word used to create, edit, format, and print documents.
MS word is about the most widely used and recognized computer application. Word pro-
cessing software lets you create letters, reports, and many other documents on a computer.
Figure 4.2 is an illustration of a typical MS word interface. A key advantage of word process-
ing software is that users easily can make changes in documents, such as correcting spelling;
changing margins; and adding, deleting, or relocating words, sentences, or entire paragraphs.
The key functions of the word processor can be divided into the following categorizations:

• Page Layout: These functions let the user decide how each page will be set out.

• Text Presentation: The appearance of text can be easily altered. Different fonts and
styles can be used and the size of text can be varied.
 53

Figure 4.2 : MS Word Processor Interface

• Editing of Text: These functions are used to revise and change text.

• Blocks of Text: The style and position of selected blocks of text can be changed.

• Text Analysis: The word processor can try to highlight any errors such as spelling or
grammatical mistakes in documents.

• Templates: Template files lets the user save favourite document layouts that have
been created so that they can be used over and over again.

• Other Features: Most modern word processors will offer lots of extra features such
as tables, bullet points and fancy text effects.

• Mail Merging: A database of names and addresses can be used to personalize letters
that have been created in a word processor.
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Presentation

Presentation software such as MS powerpoint is application software that allows users to

create visual aids for presentations to communicate ideas, messages, and other information to
a group. This category of program turns ideas into professional and convincing presentations
that can be viewed as slides, sometimes called a slide show, that are displayed on a large
monitor or on a projection screen. A presentation program lets you create slides that

include text, graphics, charts, and even digital movies. Figure 4.3 is an illustration of a
typical MS powerpoint interface.

Figure 4.3 : MS Powerpoint Interface

Spreadsheet

Spreadsheet software such as MS Excel allows users to organize data in rows and columns and
perform calculations on the data. These rows and columns collectively are called a worksheet.
Most spreadsheet software has basic features to help users create, edit, and format worksheets.
Spreadsheet programs make working with numbers faster, easier, and more accurate. You can
 55

also analyse data and make it into charts with a spreadsheet. Some of the major functions
of the spreadsheet program are as follows:

• Perform calculations

• Manage and organize information in grids (columns and rows)

• Format and present information using various fonts, typefaces, borders, shading, etc.

• Create charts which are graphical representations of data, relationships, trends etc.

Figure 4.4 is an illustration of a typical MS excel interface. In the spreadsheet, an intersection

Figure 4.4 : MS Excel Interface

of a row and column is called a cell. Each cell is identified by a unique name called cell
reference. The cell reference is formed by the letter of the column of the cell followed by
the row number. Three types of information can be entered into a cell namely numbers,
labels and formulas.

Database

A database is a collection of data organized in a manner that allows access, retrieval, and use
of that data. Whenever you make a list of information, such as names, addresses, products,
or invoices, you are, in fact, creating a database. Database software such as MS access
is application software that allows users to create, access, and manage a database. Using
 56

database software, you can add, change, and delete data in a database; sort and retrieve data
from the database; and create forms and reports using the data in the database. Some of the
major functions of the database programs are as follows:

• Information Storage: Database programs enable users to store information consisting

of data that are related to a particular subject or meant for specific purpose e.g. a list
of hundreds of thousands of customers. A database program also makes it easy to add,
update, organize, and delete information.

• Information Retrieval: Database programs enable easy and instant retrieval of infor-
mation stored in databases e.g. finding all the customers with the last name Johnson.

• Information Management: Databases make it easy to work with and manage huge
amounts of information. For example, with a few keystrokes you can change the area
code for hundreds of customers in the (612) area code to a new (817) area code.

• Information Sharing: Database programs allow more than one user to view and work
with the same information at once. Such databases are called multi-user databases.

• Analysis of Information: Database programs allow uses to perform calculations on

information in a database. For example, you could

calculate what percentage of your total sales comes from the whole of Western region.
You can also present information in a professional-looking printed report.

4.3.1 The Email Client

E-mail (short for electronic mail) is the transmission of messages and files via a computer
network. Today, e-mail is among the primary communications methods for both personal and
business use. You use an e-mail program to create, send, receive, forward, store, print, and
delete e-mail messages. Outlook and GMail are two popular desktop e-mail programs. Just
as you address a letter when using the postal system, you address an e-mail message with
the e-mail address of your intended recipient. Likewise, when someone sends you a message,
he or she must have your e-mail address.

4.4 Installing and Running Software (Programs)

When purchasing software from a retailer, you typically receive a box that includes an optical
disc(s) that contains the program. If you acquire software from a Web site on the Internet,
 57

you may be able to download the program; that is, the program transfers from the Web site
to the hard disk in your computer.

The instructions in software are placed on storage media, either locally or online. To use
software that is stored locally, such as on a hard disk or optical disc, you usually need to
install the software. Web applications that are stored online, by contrast, usually do not need
to be installed.

Installing is the process of setting up software to work with the computer, printer, and other
hardware. When you buy a computer, it usually has some software pre installed on its hard
disk. This enables you to use the computer the first time you turn it on. To begin installing
additional software from an optical disc, insert the program disc in an optical disc drive and
follow the instructions to begin installation. To install downloaded software, the Web site
typically provides instructions for how to install the program on your hard disk.

Once installed, you can run the program. When you instruct the computer to run an installed
program, the computer loads it, which means the program is copied from storage to memory.
Once in memory, the computer can carry out, or execute, the instructions in the program so
that you can use the program.

4.5 Software Development

A programmer, sometimes called a computer programmer or developer, is someone who

develops software or writes the instructions that direct the computer to process data into
information. When writing instructions, a programmer must be sure the program works
properly so that the computer generates the desired results. Complex programs can require
thousands to millions of instructions.

Programmers use a programming language or program development tool to create computer

programs. Popular programming languages include C++, Java, Python, JavaScript, Visual
C#, and Visual Basic. Figure 4.5 shows some of the Visual Basic instructions a programmer
may write to create a simple payroll program. The output of such a program may be similar
to what is shown in Figure 4.6.

4.6 Computer Viruses and Other Malware

A computer virus is a potentially damaging computer program that affects, or infects, a

computer negatively by altering the way the computer works without the users knowledge or
permission. Once the virus infects the computer, it can spread throughout and may damage
 58

Figure 4.5 : Sample Visual Basic Program

Figure 4.6 : Sample Payroll Application developed in Visual Basic for Applications

files and system software, including the operating system. Viruses cause harmful effect to
computers such as such as delete files, slow down network traffic, disable programs, or allow
an unauthorized person to access the victims computer.

Most viruses are designed to hide themselves, avoiding detection by the victim for as long as
 59

possible. If a virus is copied to a computer, the machine is said

to be infected. A virus can infect computers in a number of ways. An infected disk from a
friend could be a virus source. It might be downloaded as an infected file from a Web site
or as attachment to an e-mail message. Most viruses can affect only the operating system
in which they were written. However, they can spread from one computer to another. It is
important that you always run antivirus software, such as Norton, on your computer.

Computer viruses, worms, Trojan horses, and rootkits are classified as malware (short for
malicious software), which are programs that act without a users knowledge and deliberately
alter the computers operations. Users can take several precautions to protect their home
and work computers and mobile devices from these malicious infections. For example, users
should install an antivirus program and update it frequently.

An antivirus program protects a computer against viruses by identifying and removing any
computer viruses found in memory, on storage media, or

on incoming files. Most antivirus programs also protect against other malware. When you
purchase a new computer, it often includes antivirus software.

Some categories of computer malware are explained below.

4.6.1 Macro Virus

A macro virus takes advantage of the macro languages in application programs, such as word
processors or spreadsheets. Macro viruses launch themselves

when an infected file is opened. These viruses are different from normal viruses because they
can work on different operating systems.

4.6.2 Worm

A worm is a program that copies itself repeatedly, for example in memory or on a network,
using up resources and possibly shutting down the computer or network. The most common
computer viruses work by hiding inside another program. Although a worm does not need
to be hidden within another program, worms are commonly hidden inside document files in
the form of macros. Most worms make many copies of themselves, using up the victims disk
space and memory. They spread to other computers through network connections and by
e-mail. The notorious I Love You virus of the year 2000 created e-mail messages and mailed
itself to other computers using the e-mail addresses found on the victims machine.
 60

4.6.3 Trojan Horse

A Trojan horse (named after the Greek myth) is a program that hides within or looks like a
legitimate program and does something useful but at the same time, hidden from view, does
something destructive. For instance, a Trojan horse might come in the form of a simple game.
The victim plays the game; however, the program does something else in the background,
such as opening a port on the computer. Someone can then use this port to access the
computer through the Internet. A certain condition or action usually triggers the Trojan
horse. Unlike a worm, a Trojan horse does not replicate itself to other computers.

4.6.4 Rootkit

A rootkit is a program that hides in a computer and allows someone from a remote location
to take full control of the computer. Once the rootkit is installed, the rootkit author can
execute programs, change settings, monitor activity, and access files on the remote computer.

4.6.5 Tips for Preventing Viruses and Other Malware

• Never start a computer with removable media inserted in the drives or plugged in the
ports, unless the media are uninfected.

• Never open an e-mail attachment unless you are expecting it and it is from a trusted
source.

• Set the macro security in programs so that you can enable or disable macros. Enable
macros only if the document is from a trusted source and you are expecting it.

• Install an antivirus program on all of your computers. Update the software and the
virus signature files regularly.

• Scan all downloaded programs for viruses and other malware.

• If the antivirus program flags an e-mail attachment as infected, delete or quarantine

the attachment immediately.

• Before using any removable media, scan the media for malware. Follow this procedure
even for shrink-wrapped software from major developers. Some commercial software
has been infected and distributed to unsuspecting users.

• Install a personal firewall program.

• Stay informed about new virus alerts and virus hoaxes.

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Chapter 5

Computer Networks and the Internet

5.1 Introduction

Networking is the electronic linking of geographically dispersed devices required to accomplish

telecommunications. In the simplest terms, a computer network is a group of computers and
devices connected to each other so they can exchange data. The smallest network may only
connect two computers; the largest – the Internet – connects millions. Telecommunications
and networking are becoming increasingly important to businesses because of decentralization
and globalization. The basic foundation of a computer network is data communication, that
the process of exchanging data between two devices via some form of communication media
as shown in Figure 5.1

Figure 5.1 : Data Communication System

In this chapter you are introduced to the concepts and terminology associated with computer
networks, including the difference between local area networks and wide area networks.

5.2 Components of Data Communication System

A data communication system has five components:

• Message: The piece of information to be communicated.

• Sender: The device that sends the message.

• Receiver: The device that receives the message.

• Medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels
from a sender to a receiver.
 62

• Protocol: A set of rules that represents an agreement between the communicating

devices.

A message is a piece of information to be transmitted from the sender to the destination.

Examples of messages are files, e-mail messages and web pages. Messages are identified
through the message header. Message can be transmitted in the form of documents, pictures,
videos or audios. In a computer system, this message is represented and stored in the form
of binary data. This binary data cannot be transmitted directly through a medium. Rather,
they need to be converted into signals. The types of signals used depend on the type of
medium, for example, for transmitting data through a co-axial cable, we need to convert the
data into electrical signals.

The set of rules and procedures governing data transmission from one layer to another is
called the protocol. The International Standard Organisation (ISO) has defined an Open
System Interconnection (OSI) model (see Figure 5.2). This model has seven layers, each

Figure 5.2 : OSI Reference Model

having its own well-defined functions and protocols. The rules associated with layers define
what happens at each step of a network operation and how data flows through it. Each layer
communicates with the layer above and below it to ensure that networking takes place.

On the sending computer, data flows from the application layer, down through each layer in
the model, and out through the network. Then, it flows back up through the model on the
 63

receiving computer. Each layer has a job to do to prepare outgoing data for the network
and incoming data for the operating system. All layers are important, but the network layer
deserves special attention.

5.3 The Computer Network

A computer network is a collection of computers and devices connected together, with cables
or wirelessly, via communications devices and transmission media. When a computer connects
to a network, it is said to be online. Networks allow users to share resources, such as hardware,
software, data, and information. Sharing resources saves time and money. For example,
instead of purchasing one printer for every computer in a company, a firm can connect a
single printer and all computers via a network; the network enables all of the computers to
access the same printer.

Networks vary in size; they can be as small as two computers connected to each other by
cable, or they can span the entire globe – the Internet is actually the worlds largest network.
The network functions the same way, no matter how many workstations are connected.

To create a computer network, each workstation and device must be able to communicate
with the network. This requires establishing the physical connection using physical media.
The medium can be any type of telecommunications connector: twisted pair telephone lines,
coaxial cable, fibre-optic cable, or a microwave, radio, or infrared system. Working together,
the network media and the computers determine how much data can be sent through the
connector. Wireless networks usually are not as fast as wired networks.

Some computers are designed with the ability to connect to networks. Others need a Net-
work Interface Card, or NIC (see Figure 5.3), which handles the flow of data to and from
the computer in both wired and wireless networks. If the network is put together by actual
cables, those cables connect to the NIC. NICs often have a light that blinks green and amber
to alert you to activity its experiencing.

5.3.1 Benefits of Computer Networking

The major benefits of computer networks are as follows:

Speedy Information Sharing: Provide a very rapid method for sharing and transferring
files. Without a network, files are shared by copying them to memory cards or discs, then
carrying or sending the discs from one computer to another. This method of transferring files
can be very time-consuming.
 64

Figure 5.3 : The Network Interface Card (NIC)

Marketing outreach: Businesses may share data with consumers to advertise or sell their
products through a corporate web presence.

Resource (Equipment) Sharing: Computers connected to a network can share equipment

to reduce costs. For example, rather than buying a printer for each computer, everyone can
share one central network printer.

Centralized Software Management: One of the greatest benefits of installing a network

at a school is the fact that all of the software can be loaded on one computer (the file server).
This eliminates that need to spend time and energy installing updates and tracking files on
independent computers throughout the building.

Use Network Software: Software designed for networks lets people send and receive elec-
tronic mail (e-mail) with other users on the network, schedule meetings with other users on
the network, and share databases. When browsing the Web, users are actually using software
designed for a network!

Cost Savings: Networkable versions of many popular software programs are available at
considerable savings when compared to buying individually licensed copies.

Security: Files and programs on a network can be designated as “copy inhibit,” so that you
do not have to worry about illegal copying of programs. Also, passwords can be established
for specific directories to restrict access to authorized users.

Flexible Access: Networks allow users to access their files from computers throughout the
institute. Like Students can begin an assignment in their classroom, save part of it on a
 65

public access area of the network, then go to the media centre after school to finish their
work. Students can also work cooperatively through the network.

Workgroup Computing: Collaborative software allows many users to work on a document

or project concurrently. For example, educators located at various schools within a county
could simultaneously contribute their ideas about new curriculum standards to the same
document, spreadsheets, or website.

5.4 Networking and Communications Applications

Some applications in which networking and communication can be found are:

• Wireless phones

a Cellular phones

a Satellite phones

• Paging and messaging

• Global positioning systems (GPSs)

a Satellite radio

• Online conferencing (online meetings)

a Videoconferencing

a Web conferencing

• Collaborative computing

• Telecommuting

• Telemedicine

5.5 Data Communication Media

Communication media can be divided into two types: cable media and wireless media.

5.5.1 Cable Media

With wired network connections or Cable media, computers are physically wired to net-
works to transmit data. The types of network transmission media are shown in Figure 5.4.
 66

Figure 5.4 : Wired Network Transmission Media

Twisted-pair Wires

These are literally wires that are twisted to reduce interference, and can be shielded (STP)
or unshielded (UTP). The most commonly used is UTP in telephones and LANs (discussed
later). Twisted pair consists of copper wire twisted in pairs that transmit data in the form
of electrical signals. This is the most popular type of communication wiring since it is
widely available, not expensive and easy to be used. However, twisted pair has a number of
disadvantages: it is relatively slow, subject to interference from other electrical source and can
easily be tapped by unauthorised people. It is used for telephone and network connections.

Coaxial Cable

It consists of insulated copper wire. It is faster than twisted pair and less susceptible to
electrical interference. However, it is not widely being used since it is expensive and inflexible.
Used for cable TV and network connections. It is used for cable TV and network connections.
 67

Fiber-optic Cable

It consists of thousands of very thin filaments of glass fibre that transmit data in the form of
light waves, instead of electrical signals. Fibre optics can transmit data at very high speed
and have greater security from interference and tapping. However, they are expensive to must
be installed on a large scale to be economically practical. Large diameter fibre is multimode
(multiple light rays at the same time) while smaller diameter is single mode, and has larger
capacity due to less light bounces. It is used for high-speed communications.

Types of Cabled Transmission Lines or media

Cable transmission media consist of the following types:

• Simplex: Data can only travel in one direction

• Half-duplex: Data can travel in both directions, but not simultaneously

• Full Duplex: Data can travel in both directions at once

5.5.2 Wireless Media

Data in wireless media is transmitted by using electromagnetic signals. Examples of elec-

tromagnetic signals are radio wave, micro wave, light and infrared. If the distance between
receiver and sender is large, it is not economical for us to link them directly; instead, we can
link them through available telecommunication networks, such as telephone network, cellular
telephone network or satellite network.

Microwave can travel for a long distance. Thus microwave data transmission is used for
high volume, long distance, point-point communication. Long distance telephone carriers,
for example, use microwave data transmissions because they generally provide ten time the
data capability of wire.

Radio wave is normally used for transmitting data for a short times distance, for example
within an office setting. Advantages of using radio wave for data transmission are:

• It does not require wires;

• Radio wave tends to propagate easily through normal office walls.; and

• The devices are not expensive and easy to install.

Some of the disadvantages of using radio wave are:

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• Can interfere with other electrical equipment; and

• Susceptible to snooping by other people.

Data transmission through infrared is widely being used for short distance connection, for
example between a remote-control unit and a television. It can also be used for communication
between computers or between a computer and other peripheral equipment. The reasons for
growing in popularity in wireless medium of communication include its usefulness when wiring
is not possible and permission of mobile devices to connect to the network.

5.5.3 Telephone Network

The telephone network is the largest telecommunication network in the world. The most
basic service provided by the telephone network used to be voice telephone communication,
but today, telecommunication networks support multimedia communication. This service is
provided in four different forms:

• Switched line is the normal telephone line that we use at home. It demands dialling
whenever

• Dedicated or lease line provides a continuous connection between two devices and
requires no dialling.

• Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a service that uses current tele-
phone line to provide a high-speed data transmission technology that allows users to
transfer voice, video, image and data simultaneously.

• Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) also provides high-speed, digital data transmission
from homes over existing telephone line.

5.5.4 Cellular Telephone Network

Another type of telephone network is the cellular telephone network. This network uses
cellular radio technology to enable communication between two mobile phones. A mobile
phone receives or makes calls through a base station, or transmitting tower. Signals are
transferred to and from the cell phone through radio wave. The term cellular is used since
large geographic areas are split up into smaller cells to deal with line-of-sight signal loss and
the large number of active phones in an area. In cities, each cell site has a range of up to
approximately 1/2 km, while in rural areas, the range is approximately 5 to 10 km. All of the
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cell sites are connected to cellular telephone exchanges ”switches”, which in turn connect to
the public telephone network or another switch of the cellular company. As the phone user
moves from one cell area to another, the handset moves to a new radio channel (frequency).
When the handset responds through the new cell site, the exchange switches the connection
to the new cell site.

There are a number of different digital cellular technologies, including: Global System for
Mobile Communication (GSM), General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) and Code Division
Multiple Access (CDMA).

The evolution of cellular transmission has gone through four generations.

• First generation is basically based on analogue technology.

• Second generation (2G) that provides digital wireless transmission, which supports voice
and text communication.

• 2.5G extends the 2G technology to enable more data to be exchanged.

• 3G and 3.5G technology offers new services especially multimedia services through
cellular telephones.

5.5.5 Satellite Network

The most advance means for transmitting data over a long distance is by using satellite
network. A satellite network is a combination of nodes that provides communication from
one point on the earth to another. A node can either be a satellite, an earth station, or
end-user terminal. A satellite network of just three evenly spaced communication satellites
is sufficient to provide coverage for the whole world. Currently there are three types of
communication satellites:

• Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) satellites are located about 40,000 km direct
above the equator and maintain a fixed position above the earths surface. GEO satel-
lites are being used to transmit television signals, but are not suitable for telephone
communication since telephones need a lot of power to reach GEO satellites.

• Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) satellites are located about 10,000 to 20,000 km above
the earth surface. One example of MEO satellites is the Global Positioning System
(GPS), which enables users to determine their positions anywhere on the earth. GPS
is supported by 24 satellites located about 18,000 km above the earth.
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• Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellites are located about 1000 to 2000 km above the
earth surface. LEO satellites are closer to the earth and are more suitable to be used
for telephone communication.

5.5.6 Ensuring Communication on a Network

Once a network is created, the computers and other connected equipment can communicate
with one another. The communication on a network is called network traffic. Network
traffic is the electronic pulses of information sent by the network cards to carry data through
the network wires to its destination. Specifically, computers communicate with languages
called protocols. A protocol sets a standard format for data and rules for handling it. There
are many different protocols available to use on networks. For computers to speak with one
another, they must use the same protocol.

Kinds of Protocol

There are two protocol categories: open and proprietary.

An open protocol is available for anyone to use. For example, the most common open
protocol is the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. (TCP/IP), which is used
by computers on the Internet.

A proprietary protocol, on the other hand, is not open to everyone. Instead, only people
who buy certain equipment, services, or computers can use it. Some personal digital assis-
tants, digital cameras, and even dial-up Internet services use proprietary protocols. Overall,
however, open protocols are more common. Both manufacturers and consumers benefit from
open protocols that allow a broad range of connections.

A Stack of Protocols The protocols networks use to communicate are often called a protocol
suite. A protocol suite is the stack, or collection, of individual protocols that determines how
the network operates. For example, TCP/IP is not just one network language, but many
smaller ones. Each small protocol in this suite has a specific job to do in a specific order.
Working together, protocols allow computers to communicate.

5.5.7 Types of Network

There are two basic types of networks:

• Local Area Networks (LAN): A network that connects computers in the same
geographic area or building, using cables. LANs are what most people think of when
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they think of a network.

• Wide Area Networks (WAN): A network that connects computers across a large
geographic area. The Internet is actually a huge Wide Area Network.

Figure 5.5 shows a comparison of LAN with WAN.

Figure 5.5 : Comparing LANs and WANs

5.5.8 Local Area Networks (LAN)

LAN is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited geographical area such as
a home, school computer laboratory, office building, or closely positioned group of buildings.
Figure 5.6 is an illustration of a typical LAN. A LAN can have just a few or several hundred
users. Small or large, a LAN lets its members share equipment and information, resulting in
lower costs. There are three key ways to share information: sharing files, using collaborative
software, and sharing peripherals. Five types of LANs in common use today:

• Contention Bus (IEEE 802.3)

• Token Bus (IEEE 802.4)

• Token Ring (IEEE 802.5)

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Figure 5.6 : Computers and Mobile Devices on a Wireless LAN

• Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)

• WiMAX (802.16e)

Using a Peer-to-Peer Network

In a peer-to-peer network (P2PN), all the computers are equals. Peer-to-peer networks
are usually small, made up of two to ten computers in which everyone stores their files on
their own computer, and anyone on the network can access files stored on any other computer.
Because users do not need any additional software, peer-to-peer networking is an inexpensive
way to connect computers in a small office or home.

File Sharing: In a P2PN, each user decides whether any files on his or her computer will
be shared. Users can share the files with neighbours, a few of the neighbours, or everyone on
the network. The reverse is true, too. Other workstations may have files a user would like to
access through the network – and the user can if he/she has permission.

Creating a P2PN: A P2PN is an easy network to create, since all of the workstations are
equals. The operating system of each computer typically has built-in file-sharing abilities.
The workstations are connected to each other through the network cable. In some systems,
the network cables all connect to a central device called a hub. A hub handles the flow of
traffic from computer to computer.
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Evaluating P2PNs: A peer-to-peer network is ideal for small offices and homes. In a large
business, however, peer-to-peer networking has some drawbacks:

• Security problems can arise.

• Data can be hard to back up.

• With many users, file sharing can become difficult.

• Finding shared files can be difficult.

• Managing resources can be complicated.

These problems arise because resources are scattered across many computers. If one computer
fails or is turned off, its resources are no longer available to the network.

Using a Client/Server Network

In a client/server network, everyone stores their files on a central computer called a server.
Everyone on the network can access the files stored on the server. Large businesses usually use
a client/server network. With this system, one powerful computer provides information
and management services to the workstation computers, the clients. Client/server networks
are more secure, easier to administer, and much more powerful than peer-to-peer networks.
A typical client/server network is illustrated in Figure 5.7.

Creating a Client/Server Network: The main computer in a client/server system is

called the file server or simply the server. It contains the network operating system, other
programs, and large data files. The network operating system manages and secures the
entire network. It controls access, permissions, and all aspects of network use. Only those
who provide a username and a password can use the network. It centralizes and protects
data and controls what users can do with files. Thus, a client/server network is far more
secure than a P2PN.

Evaluating a Client/Server Network: For a large office, file servers are better than
peer-to-peer networks, for several reasons:

• They offer a central location for files.

• Data is easy to back up and easy to recover.

• Servers are faster than workstations.

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Figure 5.7 : Client/Server Network

• Servers usually are powered on.

• Security is easier to maintain.

The disadvantages of client/server networks are that they require special, expensive software,
such as Windows Server or NetWare, and they are more complicated to install and configure
than peer-to-peer networks.

5.5.9 Wide Area Network (WAN)

A WAN or Wide Area Network is a group of widely dispersed computers and other com-
puting resources that are connected together using a communications channel that combines
many types of media such as telephone lines, cables, and radio waves . WANs cover a large
geographic area (such as a city, country, or the world). For instance, a business with offices
in many places can use a WAN to link its LANs in different cities. Then, users from any
of the locations can, with the proper permissions, access the network. Each user can access
files, printers, and other resources as if they were local. As far as users are concerned, a WAN
“feels like one giant LAN. Figure 5.8 illustrates a typical WAN.

The Internet is the worlds largest WAN. Once a WAN is created, users may not even realize
the files they are sharing are remote. The Internet is the worlds largest WAN. A wireless
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Figure 5.8 : Client/Server Network

LAN (WLAN) is a LAN that uses no physical wires. Apart from distance, the other
feature that distinguishes as WAN from a LAN is that the WAN would make use of a range
of communication technologies such as telephone, microwave and satellite links.

Types of WANs

Businesses and other organizations use three types of WANs.

Public Data Network: This network allows a company to set up its own network. Telecom-
munications companies own the public data network and charge fees for the use of the network.

Private Data Network: Some companies set up a private data network that cannot be
accessed by outsiders. Having a private data network costs more than using a public network.

Virtual Private Network (VPN): A VPN is a private network set up through a public
network. VPN users connect to an Internet service provider (ISP) to access the network.

5.6 Network Design

A map of a computer network shows the physical structure of the network, including servers,
workstations, and other network devices. The configuration, arrangement or layout used to
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wire the computers/devices together in the network is called network topology.

Topology is not only concerned with where to put equipment. The design of a network must
also solve another problem: Only one computer on a network may speak at a time. When
two computers try to access the network at the same time, they are in contention. If both
send their data at once, there could be a collision, and the data could become all mixed
together.

Figure 5.9 : Computer Network Collision Domain

To avoid such collisions, each computer divides its data into very small, fast-moving packets.
Network equipment or software transmits these packets. Users typically are not affected by
the tiny delays this system causes as each computer must wait its turn to transmit data.

5.6.1 Choosing Network Topology

There are three main network topologies.

• BUS

• STAR

• RING

• MESH
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Figure 5.10 : Network Topologies

5.6.2 Bus Topology

Each computer is connected to a single cable which connects all of the computers. All nodes
(file server, workstations, and peripherals) are connected to the linear cable. When one
network device fails, the entire network fails, and adding new devices to the network can also
be tricky.

Advantages of Bus Topology

• Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.

• Requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages of a Bus Topology

• Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.

• Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.

• Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.

• Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.

5.6.3 Star Topology

In star topology design, all communication takes place via a central computer or HUB device
and for that matter susceptible to failure of central device. A star topology is designed with
each node connected directly to a central network hub, switch, or concentrator. Data on a
star network passes through the hub, switch before continuing to its destination. The hub,
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switch, or concentrator manages and controls all functions of the network. It also acts as a
repeater for the data flow.

Adding and removing devices to a star network is easy. If the hub loses power or fails, however,
the network devices will not be able to communicate. Star topology avoids collisions by using
strategies that manage contention.

Advantages of a Star Topology

• Easy to install and wire.

• No disruptions to the network then connecting or removing devices.

• Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

Disadvantages of a Star Topology

• Requires more cable length than a linear topology.

• If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.

• More expensive than bus topologies because of the cost of the HUB device.

Star Bus Topology

Star bus topology connects multiple star networks along a bus. It is the most common design
used in LANs.

Suppose each classroom in your school had its own network with its own hub. The hub in
each classroom could then be connected to a common line, called a backbone. A backbone
is a fast network medium that provides communication among all of the networks. It links
all the hubs in the school, for example, expanding the reach of each network.

5.6.4 Ring Topology

As its name suggests, ring topology connects all the network devices in a circle. Thus, each
computer is connected to the two computers on either side of it. The last computer is linked
to the first to form a ring. To control collisions, such networks pass tokens, or special units
of data, around the ring. Only the workstation that has control of the token can send other
data onto the network. Because of the token-passing technique, these networks are also
called token rings, or, if the network is wireless, wireless token rings. Like bus topology, one
fault can disrupt a ring network, but this network type has the advantage of not requiring a
network server.
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Advantages of a Ring Topology

• Easy to install and wire.

• Equal access to devices no one computer will use all the bandwidth

• Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

Disadvantages of a Ring Topology

• Slow since signals goes in sequential order

• If the concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.

• Single break in cable can disrupt the flow of network.

5.6.5 Mesh Topology

In mesh topology the components are all connected directly to other components. This
topology integrates all the stipulated basic topologies. Because this topology connects devices
with multiple paths, redundancies exist. But, because all devices are cross-connected, the
best path can be taken at any time.

The drawback to mesh topology is that needing at least one and a half connections for each
computer makes it very expensive to construct. This topology is usually used in the Internet
structure. Though costly, a failure has little impact on the network.

5.7 Networking Devices

There are several devices used to implement network topologies. Figure 5.11 illustrates some
of these devices and their respective functions.

5.8 Exploring Ethernet

Ethernet: is the most common networking technology used on LANs. Ethernet and star
bus topology work together to ensure fast data transfers, logical network design, and fewer
collisions. Ethernet uses a rule called Carrier Sensing Multiple Access/Collision Detection,
or CSMA/CD. This protocol governs how network devices communicate and what happens
if they break the rules.

Ethernet Communications: Like a well mannered conversation, CSMA/CD requires each

network device, also called a node, to take turns speaking. The node first listens to hear
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Figure 5.11 : Network Devices

whether anyone is using the network, and then it transmits the data. When a node transmits
data, every workstation on the network receives the data. However, only the device the data
is intended for actually accepts it.

Ethernet Collisions: If two nodes speak at the same time, a collision occurs. In that case,
each of the conflicting nodes waits a random number of milliseconds and then attempts to
speak again. The random waiting time helps prevent another collision.

Star bus topology expands a networks reach. As more nodes are added to a single network
and as more networks are connected, the chance of multiple collisions increases. To solve this
problem, Ethernet often uses bridges, switches, or routers. These devices divide the network
into segments. To reduce congestion, messages are routed to the proper segment rather than
to the entire network.
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5.9 What Is an Intranet?

Many companies,universities, and other organizations install intranets. An intranet is a

private network that uses the same TCP/IP protocol as the Internet.

Comparing Intranets and the Internet

Intranets offer many of the same services the Internet does, such as e-mail and Web sites.
Intranets are different from the Internet in that they are not meant for public use. Firewall
software prevents outsiders from accessing the intranet.

Creating an Extranet

An intranet can also be converted to an extranet, which allows for limited public access.
Companies often use extranets so employees can access the network while they travel or
telecommute, which is when employees work from home while linked to the office by computer.
Extranets are also used to share information with other businesses.
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Chapter 6

The Internet and World Wide Web

6.1 Introduction

A Network of Networks: The Internet connects people all over the world through a
huge network of computer systems. The U.S. government and university researchers began
the Internet to share information. Since then, it has turned into one of the most exciting
inventions in history.

As more and more people use the Internet, the demand for user-friendly online services has
also grown and created new business opportunities. Additionally, electronic mail and instant
messaging services have changed the way people meet and stay in touch with one another.
People online can work together on projects in different locations, sharing information as if
they were in the same office.

6.2 The Internet

The Internet is a worldwide collection of networks that links millions of businesses, govern-
ment agencies, educational institutions, and individuals. The Internet can be viewed as a
global WAN, a network of networks. It connects everything from single computers to large
networks. The Internet can even connect computers that run different operating systems.
With an abundance of resources and data accessible via the Internet, more than one billion
people around the world use the Internet for a variety of reasons, including the following:

• Communicating with and meeting other people

• Researching and accessing a wealth of information and news

• Shopping for goods and services

• Banking and investing

• Participating in online training

• Engaging in entertaining activities, such as planning vacations, playing online games,

listening to music, watching or editing videos, and reading books and magazines
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• Sharing information, photos, and videos

• Downloading music and videos

• Accessing and interacting with Web applications

This ability to share information with almost any computer makes the Internet a powerful
tool for communication. The Internet is made up of three important parts: servers, clients,
and protocols.

Servers: Internet servers are the computers that provide services to other computers by way
of the Internet. These services include processing e-mail, storing Web pages, or helping send
files from one computer to another.

Clients and Protocols Internet clients are the computers that request services from a
server. When a user connects to the Internet, the computer used is considered a client. Like
other networks, the Internet uses protocols – the sets of rules that allow clients and servers
to communicate.

Figure 6.1 : Client Server Connection

The computers participating on the internet are globally or publicly identified with a unique
IP address (four eight bits) or a Uniform Resource Locator, URL which users can use to
research them. Eg. URL for UMaT is http://www.umat.edu.gh
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The complete Internet offers a number of tools, including:

• World Wide Web.

• E-mail.

• Chatting.

• News.

• Shopping.

• Weather

6.3 Comparing the Internet with other WANs

There are three key differences between the Internet and other WANs.

• Type of Access: The Internet is public, while WANs are typically private.

• Degree of Security: While the Internet is becoming more secure, it is still not as
secure as a private WAN connection. As data travels through the Internet, snoops
and eavesdroppers on the public networks through which the data moves sometimes
try to access it. A private WAN is more secure because it is more likely that only the
organization that owns it has access to it.

• Types of Information: On the Internet, information is transmitted in the form of

Web pages and other types of files. Besides browsing Web pages, WAN provides access
to network resources, such as printers, file servers, and databases.

6.4 Brief History of the Internet

In the 1960s, researchers worked on ideas that later became the Internet. In 1969, the
first four major computer centres in the United States were linked. By 1973, the network
was international. In 1983, the Internet protocols went online for the first time. Two groups
worked on the development of the Internet: United States military and university researchers.

6.4.1 United States Military

In the 1960s, the United States government wanted to find a way to communicate in the event
of a disaster or military attack. The military began to work on a system that would operate
even if some communication connections were destroyed. The Defence Advanced Research
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Projects Agency (DARPA) of the U.S. Department of Defence focused on computer network-
ing and communications. In 1968, this research led to a network of connected computer
centres called the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET).

6.4.2 University Researchers

With the militarys leadership and funding, DARPA formed computing research centres at
universities across the United States. From 1969 through 1987, the number of computers on
the network increased from 4 to more than 10,000. These connections created the networks
that became the Internet.

6.5 Internet Management

Who owns the Internet? The truth is, no single organization or government can claim outright
ownership of the internet. Many organizations are responsible for different parts of the
network. Here are some examples:

• The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) issues standards for the World Wide Web.

• Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) is a large international community of network

designers, operators, vendors, and researchers. This group is concerned with the future
structure and smooth operation of the Internet. Like many organizations that set com-
puting standards, the IETF is “open, meaning any interested person can participate.

• Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) is a non-profit cor-
poration with a variety of responsibilities, including the management of domain names.

• Web Standards Project (WaSP) is a coalition that supports standards for simple, af-
fordable access to Web technologies.

Advantages - Freedom of the Internet: One advantage to the open quality of the
Internet is the ability to share information. Anyone can make an idea or opinion accessible
to anyone else.

Disadvantages - Pitfalls of the Internet: One of the major pitfalls of this open organi-
zation is that people can post whatever point of view or information they want, even if it can
sometimes be misleading or false. It is up to the users of the Internet to think critically about
the information they find. If you have a question about anything you find on the Internet,
ask an expert you trust about it.
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6.6 Accessing the Internet

There are different ways to connect to the Internet. The reasons for various options are
availability, location, speed, and price.

6.6.1 Dial-up, ISDN, and DSL Access

The least expensive way to get online is to use a dial-up connection between a standard phone
line and a modem. These connections are called dial-up because your computer must connect
to the Internet by using a telephone number to contact a server. This type of access uses a
modem and a standard phone line to connect to the Internet with Point-to-Point protocol
(PPP). Aside from the slow speed, a drawback of dial-up is that your computer is assigned
a temporary IP address; you can not run server software without a permanent IP address.
When the session is over, the connection is broken.

Some Digital Subscriber Lines (DSL) require a special telephone line. Integrated Services
Digital Network (ISDN) lines require a special ISDN adapter and modem. As a result, both
services cost more than regular phone service. Furthermore, DSL and ISDN are not available
in all areas. One drawback of DSL is that service does not extend more than a few miles
from telephone switching stations, so this service is unavailable in some areas.

6.6.2 Cable and Satellite

Cable television companies offer Internet access through cable modems. This access is at
speeds much faster than dial-up modems. You need a network card in your computer, a
cable modem, and cable access. Satellite access is also very fast for downloading files to your
computer, but it requires a phone line and a modem for sending files to outside users.

6.6.3 LAN Access

If a school or library has a LAN that is connected to the Internet, access to the Internet is
through the network. LAN access is generally much faster than dial-up access because LANs
usually access the Internet via a high-speed connection. But the performance you experience
depends on how many LAN users are trying to access the Internet at the same time. In most
cases, you have a permanently assigned IP address on a LAN.

6.6.4 Fibre Optics

An organization that needs a high bandwidth might use a T1 line (trunkline) for Internet
access. Internet service providers (responsible for maintaining backbones) need even faster
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connections, such as a T3 line. T1 and T3 lines use fibre-optic cables that are capable of
handling huge amounts of data. This technology is popular for Internet backbones and LANs.

To get an idea of just how fast a modern backbone is, compare the speed of an old-fashioned
dial-up modem to the speed of different types of fibre-optic lines. At one time, home comput-
ers came equipped with a 56K modem, which could transmit about 50,000 bits per second,
or approximately 5,000 characters per second. The following table illustrates the amount of
data that can travel across DSL, cable, and fibre optic lines.

Figure 6.2 : Comparison of Speeds of Internet Transmission Media

6.7 Getting Online

Having had access to the internet, one must select the way to get online. Choices include
Internet service providers and online services.

6.7.1 Internet Service Providers

Internet service provider (ISP) is a company that provides links from computers to the
Internet. For a fee, an ISP provides its subscribers with software, a password, an access
phone number, and a username. A username identifies user when they access the Internet.
ISPs do not guide a user through the Internet – it only provides an easy-to-use connection
to it. Users can subscribe to either a local ISP or a national ISP.

6.7.2 Online Services

An online service connects users’ computer to the Internet. Online services are businesses
that provide tools to help you navigate, or move to different parts of, the Internet. Online
services are not the Internet. These services are now almost all free.
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When a user registers for them on the Internet, special software is downloaded onto the
user’s computer. The software makes the connection to the service, which then guides the
user through content and activities. Three popular online service providers are Microsoft
Network (MSN), AOL, and Verizon. The functions of online service providers, Internet
portals, and search engines, to be discuss soon, will likely overlap. Also, the term online
service provider has broadened to include any business that offers services over the Internet –
from Amazon.com to banks offering online banking to entertainment sites, like youtube.com.

6.8 Internet Services

Different Internet services are used for accessing the World Wide Web, sending and receiving
electronic mail, and conducting file transfers.

6.8.1 Internet Software

Protocols for delivering an e-mail message are not the same as protocols for displaying a Web
page. Typically, different software exists for each Internet service. Web browser is used to
view Web pages e.g. Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome, and Microsoft Internet Explorer. Mail
programs are used to send and receive e-mail messages e.g. Hotmail and Gmail, Microsoft
Outlook etc. which can either be installed on the computer or are Web-based.

Portals

Internet portals provide organized subject guides of Internet content, and they are likely to
double as search engines as well. A search engine is software that finds and lists information
that meets a specified search. You begin searching by typing a keyword or phrase into a
blank field. Then, the search engine will give you the results of that search. Popular search
engines include Google, Yahoo, and Bing.

6.8.2 Accessing Information on the World Wide Web

The World Wide Web is a huge collection of hypertext documents called Web pages. In a
hypertext document, certain words or pictures can serve as hyperlinks. A hyperlink is a
link to another document on the World Wide Web.

Hyperlinks: Usually hyperlinks appear underlined, in a different colour, or highlighted.

Sometimes there are buttons or images that can be clicked. When the mouse is hoverer over
a hyperlink, the pointer changes to an icon of a hand. A user can click this hyperlink item
to be transferred to another document.
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URLs: Clicking a hyperlink result the Web browser retrieving and displaying the document
connected to that hyperlink. How does this work? Every document has a unique address,
called a uniform resource locator (URL), which tells exactly where the document is located
on the Internet. A hyperlink instructs the browser to go to the URL for that document.

6.9 The Electronic Mail (E-mail)

For many Internet users, electronic mail, or e-mail, has replaced traditional mail and tele-
phone services. E-mail is fast and easy. If e-mail addresses are organized into groups, users
can broadcast, or send, a message to a group in just one step.

6.9.1 E-mail Pros and Cons

E-mail is not free, and it is not instantaneous. However, users do not pay to send each e-mail,
as they would a letter. The cost of e-mail service is included in the fee users pay their Internet
service provider or online service provider. It costs the same and takes approximately the
same amount of time to send a message to someone in your own city as it does to send a
message halfway around the world.

6.10 File Transfer

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) lets users transfer files on the Internet. With an FTP client,
user can transfer files from an FTP server to computers in an operation called downloading.
In uploading, users transfer files from the client to the server.

FTP can transfer both text files and binary files. Binary files are program files, graphics,
pictures, music or video clips, and documents. Once a file is stored on an FTP server, their
URLs can be distributed so that others can also download the file from the server.

One difference between using an FTP server and using e-mail to transfer files is that with
FTP, the file stays on the server until owners take it off. With e-mail, a file that has been
transferred will be lost once the e-mail message has been deleted. (The file attachment
remains on the computer where it was sent from – unless it is deleted from there as well.
E-mail is considered a more secure method, however, because only the recipient of the e-mail
message has access to the attached files.

6.11 File Transfer Issues

Some file transfer issues are briefly discussed below.

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Computer Viruses

It is important to exercise caution when downloading files from the Internet, especially pro-
gram files. Files are commonly used to transmit viruses. A virus is a program created to
damage computers and networks. The damage caused may be minor or serious, such as al-
tering or destroying data. It is a good idea to check all downloaded files for viruses before
saving them. Most antivirus programs will do this for you automatically. Users should update
their antivirus programs regularly to be protected from the newest viruses. The Windows
operating system helps by giving a security warning when a download is about to begin. A
review of the advice is provided by clicking the Whats the Risk? link.

File Compression

The larger a file is, the more time it takes to travel over a network. File compression is a way
of reducing file size so it can travel more quickly over a network. If a large file is being sent,
it is important to compress it. It can also be convenient to compress multiple files into one
when sending them to someone in an e-mail attachment.

Some compressed files are set to decompress automatically. Others must be decompressed
using decompression software. The most widely used compression software for a Windows
system is WinZip. Macintosh computers use a program called StuffIt to compress files and a
utility called StuffIt Expander to decompress files.

6.12 Accessing Data on the Internet

Anyone with an Internet connection can find information on virtually any topic. Many
local governments ensure access to all citizens by making Internet access available at public
locations such as libraries.

6.12.1 Requesting Data on the Internet

When a Web page is requested through your Web browser, the request travels by local
connection to the ISPs local POP. From there, the ISP sends the request to a regional
backbone. The Web page request then travels to a NAP. As the request nears its destination,
it travels back through other regional backbones and local POPs until its trip is complete
and the Web page requested is displayed on a computer screen.
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6.12.2 Domain Names

Each computer that connects to the Internet has to be uniquely identified. To do this, every
computer is assigned a four-part number separated by periods called the Internet Protocol
(IP) address. For example, the IP address for your computer might be 123.257.91.7. The
administrator of the network to which your computer connects assigns your IP address.

A domain name identifies one or more IP addresses and is used to locate information on
the Internet. For example, an Internet server computers domain name might be umat.edu.gh
but its numeric IP address might be 206.166.48.45. The domain name and the IP address
are simply two ways to identify the same computer on the Internet.

Top-Level Domains

Every domain name has a suffix that tells which type of organization registered the name.
The most common domains are .com (commercial), .edu (education), .org (nonprofit orga-
nizations), .gov (government), .mil (military), and .net (network organizations). These are
called top-level domains. New top-level domain names such as .biz (business), .museum
(arts and culture), .pro (professionals), .info (information services), and .name (individuals)
are coming online to meet the growing demand for new classifications.

Acquiring a Domain Name

A special server called a Domain Name System (DNS) server matches the domain name
to the correct IP address. To get a domain name, the user or the ISP must contact a
registering organization, which then contacts InterNIC. InterNIC is a service organization
that maintains a central database of domain names in the United States. Other countries
maintain their own network information centres.

When a domain name is registered, a fee is paid to keep it in the database of domain names.
If the registration fee is not renewed, the domain becomes available for someone else. An
Accredited Registrar Directory provides a listing of accredited domain name registrars avail-
able on the InterNIC Web site. The central database of domain names is called the WHOIS
database. Information about the owner and servers of a certain domain can be looked up
on this database.
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6.13 Internet Communications

The Internet is fast becoming the main means by which people communicate over distances.
If a user has an Internet connection and an account with a communication service, the user
can communicate via e-mailing and newsgroups, or it can be more informal, through online
chat channels or forums, instant messaging, and social networking sites.

6.13.1 Newsgroups

The Usenet is a discussion system computer users can access through the Internet. It has
thousands of newsgroups on many subjects and contains messages newsgroup users have
posted. Usenet newsgroups are organized into categories called hierarchies. These hierar-
chies are divided into subcategories:

• Standard or world newsgroups, which feature high-quality discussions on any topic;

• Biz newsgroups, which are devoted to discussing commercial uses of the Internet; and

• Alt newsgroups, which can be created by anyone to discuss a specific topic and often
feature odd or offensive topics. Usenet servers are not required to carry alt newsgroups.

6.13.2 Internet Relay Chat

Internet Relay Chat (IRC) is an Internet service that enables users to join chat groups, called
channels, and enter into live or real-time conversations. Some cover a specific topic, and
others are gathering places for groups of friends. When a channel is joined, members find
others chatting away with messages that appear on-screen, prefaced by the senders nickname.
Normally, messages are seen by everyone in the channel, but it is possible to send a whisper
which can only be seen by the person it is sent.

In addition to IRC channels, most ISPs offer chat forums as well. Sometimes chat rooms are
not friendly places, but they are not entirely without rules. Every channel has a moderator
who can remove a sender from the channel for any reason. The standards of behaviour differ
from channel to channel, so it is best to practice respectful online behaviour.

Social Networking

Sites like Facebook and Twitter are social networking sites, or virtual communities that offer
real-time chatting options. On Facebook everyone has a “wall, and people that have been
invited to be friends can see the person’s wall and write on it. Facebook has a default setting
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that not only lets everyone on Facebook see your wall, your profile (the information you post
about yourself), and your photos, but it also lets marketers see and use your information. It
is up to the individual user to change the default privacy settings so that only friends can
see your wall.

Podcasts

A podcast is an audio or video file that is created for downloading to an iPod or an MP3
player, such as Microsofts Zune. Many radio stations create podcasts of popular programs
or parts of them. College teachers create podcasts and upload them to a special Apple Web
site called iTunes U or to other Web locations. Students can download the podcasts to their
iPods or MP3 player, or they choose to listen to them on their own computers.

Web Feed

A Web feed is a service that automatically downloads Web page content that a user has
signed up for. The content may include the text of news or opinions or audio/video files.
A site that offers a Web feed has a symbol such as RSS to indicate that a feed is available.
When a browser detects a feed on a Web page, it may also display a special Web feed icon.
When the button is clicked, the site asks the user to indicate how and where the content is
to be downloaded. Yahoo!, Google, AOL, etc. offer to manage Web feeds for users.

Blogs and Wikis

A blog – or Weblog – is a type of Web page diary. People create blogs to share their thoughts
and opinions. A blog is stored on a Web server, like a Web page, and the owner usually
updates it on a regular basis. Anyone with access to the Internet can read the blog. Often,
blogs provide a way for readers to comment on the blog content.

A wiki is a collaborative Web page. Anyone can edit or create content on the page. The
most notable wiki is Wikipedia.org, an encyclopedia Web site with user-generated content.
It is important to keep in mind that blogs and wikis reflect the opinions of the people who
write or edit the content; they may not always be accurate or up-to-date.

6.14 World Wide World Basics

Many people use the terms Internet and World Wide Web interchangeably. In fact, the World
Wide Web is just one part of the Internet. Web has a unique address, too, called its URL.
Like e-mail, newsgroups, and file transfer, the Web is a service supported by the Internet.
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Although these services share the Internet and many of its resources, each is different, with
its own set of protocols and applications. A Web of Documents The World Wide Web is a
huge collection of documents linked by hypertext. Writers format documents and add the
hyperlinks by using Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). People all over the world
create and format Web documents by using standardized HTML codes called tags. These
documents are saved, or “published to a server on the Internet. Then, when the documents
are accessed by a Web browser, each portiontext, images, sound, or animation – appears with
its intended formats.

6.14.1 Understanding Web Sites

A Web page is a document on the Web. A Web site is a collection of related pages. Moving
from one Web page to another is called browsing. When a URL is typed or a link is clicked
in the Web browser, it sends a request to the computer on the Internet that contains the
page identified by the URL. That computer is called a Web server. It stores Web pages and
responds to requests from Web browsers. When the server receives your request, it sends the
document to computers, and a browser displays the page on your screen.

Most Web sites have a primary page called the home page or index page which appears
when the sites URL is first entered. A URL can also contain other information to identify a
specific page on a Web site.

Protocol

The first part of a URL specifies the protocol required to access the document. Web doc-
uments use http:// or https://, indicating that the file should be retrieved using hypertext
transfer protocol (HTTP) or HTTP-secured. Some URLs might have other protocols, such
as ftp, which shows that the file should be retrieved with file transfer protocol.

Domain Name

The next part of a URL, such as www.umat.edu.gh, is the domain name of the server that
stores the Web site. This part of the URL usually takes you to the sites home page.

Path

The remainder of a URL, if any, defines the path to the documents location on the Web
server. Like any computer, a Web server stores files in folders, so the path lists the folder
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and subfolders, if any, containing the desired document. Thus, a URL such as http://www1.
umat.edu.gh/dw/ce/ identifies a folder named “ce on the sites Web server.

Resource File Name

At the end of a URL, the name of a file may be seen – the specific Web resource for which
you are looking. The resource may be an HTML document or a Web page, a video clip, a
text file, or another type of resource. The file name extension identifies the type of resource.

Figure 6.3 : Parts of the URL

6.15 Browsing the Web

A Web browser is used to display Web information on a computer. Although their look is
different, most Web browsers, including the popular Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome, and
Microsoft Internet Explorer, share some common features.

Navigation Buttons

Located on the browsers toolbar, navigation buttons let users perform certain operations
quickly. When Refreshed is clicked or Reload, the browser again downloads the page being
viewed. When the Back button is clicked, the browser reloads the previous page. The For-
ward button moves ahead to pages previously viewed before Back was activated. Address
Box If you type a URL in the Address box and press Enter, the browser will take you to
the Web page located at that URL. In some browsers, if you type a search phrase and press
Enter, the browser displays a page of search results.
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Favourites or Bookmarks

The Favourites feature in Internet Explorer and the Bookmarks feature in Mozilla Firefox
let users create a list of frequently visited Web pages. Then, rather than retyping the URL,
users can return to any bookmarked or favourite page by clicking its name in the list.

6.16 Customizing a Web Browser

A Web browser usually starts with a default page of the Internet service provider. Users can
customize the browser to suit their preferences. Most customization options can be found in
a dialogue box such as Internet Options in Internet Explorer. Some customizations that can
be made in the browser include

• Changing the start page to a preferred one or a blank page.

• Setting the security and privacy e.g. set a high security level to disable all Internet file
downloads, or a high privacy level to block from being automatically stored on your
computer.

• Organizing favorites or bookmarks by adding or removing sites.

6.17 Finding Information on the Web

Because the Web is so vast, it can be hard to locate information on a specific topic. Subject
guides and search engines can help.

Subject Guides

Many Web sites offer subject guides to the Web. Subject guides are pages grouped together
under headings like Careers, News, or Travel. These guides include only pages that provide
useful information about the subject.

Search Engines

If a user cannot locate what is sought for in a subject guide, a search engine can be used.
A search engine is a program or Web site designed to search the Web looking for docu-
ments that match specified criteria, such as keywords. In a matter of moments, the search
engine displays a list of links to pages that match. General search engines, such as Google,
DuckDuckGo, or Bing, search throughout the Web to find matches. Some search engines are
customized for a certain topic. For example, the Web site www.fedworld.gov, maintained by
the U.S. Department of Commerce, lets you search U.S. government documents.
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6.18 Electronic Commerce

Electronic commerce (e-commerce), is the use of telecommunications networks or the In-

ternet to conduct business. E-commerce is not new; companies have used wide area net-
works, or WANs, to do business for years. Thanks to the Internet and affordable computers,
e-commerce has become accessible to anyone who has an Internet connection and a Web
browser. More and more Internet users are researching products, shopping, opening bank
accounts, and trading stocks online. Many businesses realize that they may lose customers if
they do not have an online presence.

6.18.1 Online Banking

In online banking, customers use a Web browser to access their accounts, balance cheque-
books, transfer funds, and pay bills online.

Personal Finance Programs

Programs such as Microsoft Money or Apple Pay have features that can help users budget
their money, analyse spending habits, balance chequebook, and make account transactions.
One drawback to these programs is that, users can access their online account only from the
computer on which they keep their data. Another potential problem is that anyone with
access to that computer and password can view this data.

Web-based Banking

Web-based banking allows users to access their accounts in financial institutions. All the
data is stored on the banks computer, so users can access their accounts from any computer
that has an Internet connection. Users can learn about different types of services and interest
rates, transfer funds, check their statements, reconcile your accounts, or even pay bills online.

6.18.2 Online Shopping

When many people think of e-commerce, they think of shopping online. Online shopping has
grown in popularity due to security features built into popular Web browsers.

The Buyers Point of View

The World Wide Web is an excellent resource for researching products, services, and prices.
At many sites, buyers can read product reviews posted by other buyers. At other sites, they
can find vendors and product ratings.
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The Sellers Point of View

One of the main advantages of online business is low startup cost. For a small investment, a
vendor can open a Web storefront and sell products online to a wider variety of customers than
one physical location offers. Amazon.com, for example, was launched by Jeff Bezos in 1995.
Rather than visit a bookstore that stocks from 10,000 to 40,000 titles, consumers around the
globe can log on to Amazon.com and search a database of millions of titles. What started out
as The Earths biggest bookstore, has morphed into the Earths biggest store – period. The
Web site not only offers millions of books, music, and movies, but it also sells everything
from auto parts, toys, and electronics to cosmetics, prescription drugs, and groceries.

6.19 Getting More from Web Searches

Search engines index keywords in Web pages and maintain a database of those words. Users
can search for Web sites by typing one or more key words in the search engine; the engine
then displays a list of pages that contain the keyword or words. Often, a keyword search
can yield too many search results. Search effectiveness can be improved by using advanced
search tools such as Boolean operators and special symbols.

Inclusion Operators

An inclusion operator is a plus sign (+) or the word AND. It indicates that a user wants
to find only pages that contain a match for all the specified words. For instance, searching
for dog+husky finds only pages that contain both words.

Exclusion Operators

An exclusion operator is a minus sign (-) or the word NOT. It is used to find pages that
contain certain words but not others. For instance, searching for dog+husky-sled returns a
list of pages with the words dog and husky but not sled.

Proximity Operator

The operator NEAR is used to search for words that appear close together in a document.

Exact Phrase Search

Quotation marks are used around a phrase to find the phrase exactly as typed. For example,
searching for “Austin, Texas finds only pages that contain the exact phrase. It will not find
pages with just Austin, or just Texas.
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Parentheses

Parentheses are used to nest one expression within another. For example searching for (growth
OR increase) NEAR (Internet OR Web) find documents that mention the words growth or
increase within a few words of Internet or Web.

Wildcards

Many search engines use wildcards, or symbols that stand for other characters. The most
common wildcard is the asterisk (*). A single asterisk can represent one or more characters. A
search for harvest* returns pages with variations on the word, such as harvests and harvester.
Another common wildcard is the question mark (?). A single question mark represents a single
character. A search for to? returns pages containing words such as top or toy.

Advanced Searches

Many popular search engines feature special pages with tools for advanced searches. These
pages often appear as forms; instead of constructing complex keyword searches yourself, a
user can use the forms text boxes and options to create very sophisticated searches. Nearly
all such advanced search pages support Boolean operators, special symbols, and wildcards.

6.20 Evaluating Information on the Web

It is important to evaluate the information found on the Web for accuracy before it is con-
sumed. Some evaluation include the following.

Author

Authors should be identifiable. If this information cannot be located, there may be a reason
the author chooses to be anonymous. If a name cannot be located, conduct a search to find
out more about the person or organization responsible for the content in the site.

Language and Purpose

Evaluating whether the information is well-written and presented in a balanced, factual

manner or if it is biased or argumentative and filled with spelling and grammatical errors can
help determine the authors purpose.
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Content Validity

Does the author indicate the sources of the information? Do those sources appear to be
respected, valid, and authoritative? A search on the references or other sources can be ran
for validation.

Relevancy

Most search engines list results in the order of hits received. Thus, search engines sometimes
place popular sites before relevant sites. Dont be fooled into thinking that a page is relevant
simply because it appears at the top of a list of results.
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Chapter 7

Issues for Computer Users

7.1 Online Privacy

Many consumers share personal information about themselves, their habits, and their fi-
nances. However, such information is gathered without a persons knowledge or approval.

7.1.1 How Businesses Obtain Personal Information

Some businesses gather information from public records kept by the government. They may
also access information that people volunteer about themselves in several ways:

• Web site registration – Many Web sites require visitors to fill out registration forms.

• Online purchases – Some Web sites gather information about people who buy their
goods or services.

• Warranty registration – Products of all kinds come with a warranty that enables the
user to get help if the product breaks or fails. To take advantage of a product warranty,
users usually must register with the manufacturer. Some warranty registrations ask for
a great deal of personal information.

• Sweepstakes entries – Many people fi ll out sweepstakes entry forms hoping to win a
prize. In doing so, they provide important personal information.

What consumers may not know is that companies that gather personal information often sell
it to other organizations, such as marketing companies, whose job is to sell products and
services to consumers. As a result, marketing companies have access to enormous quantities
of data about people.

7.1.2 Protecting Privacy

Some people say that individuals should have the right to refuse to provide information
about themselves, as well as the right to have information about themselves removed from a
database. Although such a guarantee does not yet exist, users can protect their privacy. The
main thing to do is be careful to whom personal information is given.
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7.1.3 Respecting Others Privacy

Not only do users have to guard their own privacy, but they also need to make sure not to
infringe on the privacy and rights of others. That means users should not take steps that
interfere with the privacy of others. Do not breach friends or lecturers privacy by posting
personal information about them online, via texts, or in e-mails.

7.1.4 Expectations of Privacy

Remember that everything sent by e-mail can be forwarded and is on record. Employees of
a company have no right of privacy for their e-mail when they use their employers computer
system. Although the employer may not say so, every message might be read by someone
who alerts management if anything seems amiss. Employees may face serious consequences
if they disclose inside information to competitors, threaten or harass other employees, or tell
jokes.

7.2 Cybercrime Techniques

Many cybercrimes are based on the ability of people to tap illegally into computer networks.
They may create a virus, worm, or Trojan horse program to infiltrate computers and damage
or delete data. Or, they may use a variety of other criminal techniques.

Scanning

Some intruders develop programs that try many different passwords until one works. This is
called scanning, or probing. Networks can be blocked from scanners by limiting the number
of failed attempts to log onto the system. After three password failures, for instance, the
network can refuse access.

Superzapping

A program called a superzapper allows authorized users to access a network in an emergency

situation by skipping security measures. In the hands of an intruder, a superzapper opens
the possibility of damage to the system.

Spoofing

Some intruders spoof, or use a false Internet Protocol (IP) or e-mail address to gain access.
Intruders assume the IP address of a trusted source to enter a secure network and distribute
e-mails containing viruses.
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Phishing

Phishing criminals try to lure victims into giving them user names, passwords, bank account
numbers, or credit card details, usually by using an e-mail that looks like it comes from an
official and legitimate source. For example, in a phishing scam, a thief sends e-mail message
that looks as if it is from your bank, asking you to verify or update your account information.
The thief captures the information you enter and can then steal from your account.

Time Bombs

A time bomb is a program that sits on a system until a certain event or set of circumstances
activates the program. For example, an employee could create a time bomb designed to
activate on a certain date after he or she resigns from the company. Although a time bomb is
not necessarily a virus, these malicious programs are often categorized or described as viruses.

Trap Doors

Some employees may create a trap door, or a secret way into the system. Once they quit
working for the employer, they can use this to access the system and damage it. Not all
trap doors are viruses, but some viruses are trap doors. Many Trojan horse programs, for
example, act as trap doors.

Scams

Some criminals use advertisements and e-mail messages to scam users into sending them
money. For example, they might claim a user has won a lottery, and if a tax or fee is paid,
the winnings will be sent.

7.3 Types of Cybercrime

Crimes using the Internet can take many different forms. They affect individuals, businesses,
and government agencies.

Fraud

When someone steals a user’s personal information, he or she can impersonate the user and
make credit card purchases in the user’s name or access bank accounts. This is called identity
theft. The criminal leaves users with bills and a damaged credit rating.
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Piracy

Software piracy is the illegal copying of computer programs. It is estimated that about one
third of all software in use is pirated. Most programs that people buy are licensed only to
the purchaser. In other words, it is illegal for you to copy such a program and give it to
a friend. It is also illegal to accept a copy of software from someone else. Software piracy
affects software publishers. They lose money when people use illegal copies of programs to
avoid paying for legitimate copies.

Theft

The vast majority of computer thefts occur “on the inside (by employees), leaving no signs
of forced entry. The hardest crime to detect is memory shaving. In this act, a thief steals
some of a computers memory chips but leaves enough so the computer will start. The crime
might go unnoticed for days or weeks.

Vandalism

Some Web servers are not properly secured. As a result, intruders can vandalize a Web site
by placing prank material on it.

7.4 Avoiding Cybercrime

Many computer crimes start when an unauthorized user hacks, or gains unauthorized entry,
into a computer network. This often happens when the intruder learns the password to access
the victims computer and the network. Following are ways such criminals learn passwords.

Guessing

Too often, computer users choose passwords that are easy for them to remember, such as
birthdates, names of pets, names of celebrities, and names of family members. Unfortunately,
these passwords are also easy for intruders to guess.

Finding

Sometimes people keep passwords written on pieces of paper near their computer. Other
times, criminals simply look over someones shoulder as he or she types the password and use
it later. An intruder can also search the trash in the hopes of finding user IDs and passwords.
 105

Sniffing

Some criminals may use packet sniffers. A packet sniffer is a program that examines data
streams on networks to try to fi nd information, such as passwords and credit card numbers.

Pretending

Some intruders pretend to be network administrators. They call network users and ask for
their passwords, claiming that the passwords are needed to solve a problem in the system.

Modifying

Network software makes the people who administer a system into superusers. Intruders who
have superuser access can modify virtually any fi le on the network. They also may change
user passwords to ones they know.

7.5 Protecting Personal Data

It is in your best interest to protect your computer and its data. Here are some ways to help
protect personal information.

Use Strong Passwords

Whenever a password is created, things like family names, nicknames, or birth dates should
be avoided. Use a combination of at least six upper- and lowercase letters, numbers, and
symbols. Often the site will let users know if your password is strong enough. Remember to
change your password every so often. A record passwords should not be kept on computer
or a piece of paper near the computer. Passwords must never be given to anyone, and typed
while someone is watching.

Browse Anonymously

When online, surf from sites that protect identity. Anonymizer and IDZap are two sites
offering this service.

Use a Different E-mail Address

Although this may not be possible at school, on a home computer you can sign up for a free
e-mail account from a Web site such as outlook or gmail. That address should be used when
registering at Web sites or participating in other public Internet spaces. This will protect
from unwanted mail, or spam, at your primary e-mail address.
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Avoid Site Registration

Be careful of Web sites that require you to register. Do not fill out a registration form unless
the site clearly says that the data will not be shared with other people without your approval.

7.6 Safe Social Networking

Here are some safety tips for online social networking:

• Do not add just anyone as a friend. This person will see everything you post, including
pictures and status updates.

• Check your settings. If you do not understand how to manage your account, get an
expert to help you make sure you maintain your privacy.

• Give only trusted persons access to monitor your social networking activity.

• Do not write or post anything online that you would not want your grandparents or
teachers to see or that you would not want posted about yourself.

• Never give out private information such as your phone number or address.

• Never agree to meet a new online friend in person.

• If you feel uncomfortable about an online experience, immediately tell a trusted indi-
vidual.

7.7 Practising Netiquette

The Internet has an informal set of rules for expected behaviour called netiquette. As an
ethical computer user, you have a responsibility to use netiquette at all times. The rules
of netiquette are similar to general standards for good behaviour. Some ways to practice
netiquette include:

• Send e-mails only to people who really need to see a message.

• Keep e-mail messages short.

• Avoid sending extremely large files via e-mail.

• Do not use impolite or rude language when communicating online.

• Do not pretend to be someone else when communicating online.

 107

• Do not use someone elses work without citing the source.

• Do not share files illegally.

7.8 Protecting the Computer

Although corporations and government agencies are far more likely to be targeted than an
individual or a school, any system is vulnerable.

7.8.1 Antivirus Programs

Variously called virus protection programs, or virus checkers, antivirus programs pro-
tect computers from viruses. These programs use a special technique to examine program
and data files. Once they find a virus, they delete it or at least quarantine the virus so it can
do no harm.

Simply installing an antivirus program is not enough to protect the computer. New viruses
are created every day. Software publishers update their antivirus programs to defeat each new
attack. Users must update their version of the program to take advantage of these changes.
Fortunately, the companies generally make it easy to download updates over the Internet.
To protect computers from viruses, follow these simple rules:

• Install an antivirus program on your computer.

• Be sure to keep this program up-to-date.

• Always check files downloaded from the Internet for viruses before saving them to the
hard drive.

• If an antivirus program can do so, set it to monitor incoming e-mail messages and to
check files.

• Always check disks borrowed from someone else before using them on your computer.

7.8.2 Firewalls

To help block unauthorized users from accessing the computer through a network, install
and activate a firewall. A firewall is a program that restricts unauthorized access. Most
operating systems, including Microsoft Windows, come with a firewall, and so do many
antivirus programs.