COMPUTER SCIENCE PAPER 2 NOTES by Albert T Chuma

Algorithm design and problem solving | Programming | Databases |Boolean logic

Algorithm design and problem solving

The stages in the program development cycle:
• analysis
• design
• coding
• testing

★ computer systems and sub-systems

★ problem decomposition into component parts

★ methods used to design and construct solutions to problems

★ the purpose of an algorithm and the processes involved in it

★ standard methods of solution:

• linear search
• bubble sort
• totalling
• counting
• finding average, maximum, minimum

★ validation checks when data is input

★ verification checks when data is input

★ use of different types of test data including:

• documentation of a dry run using a trace table

★ writing, amending, identifying, and correcting errors in:

• flowcharts
• programs
• pseudocode.
The program development life cycle
The program development life cycle is divided into five stages: analysis, design,
coding, testing and maintenance. Four stages; » analysis » design » coding » testing
Analysis
• Before solving a problem, it is essential to define and document the problem clearly, known as
the "requirements specification" for the program.
• The analysis stage involves using tools like abstraction and decomposition to identify the specific
requirements for the program.
• Abstraction focuses on the essential elements needed for the solution while eliminating
unnecessary details and information.
• Decomposition involves breaking down complex problems into smaller, more manageable parts
that can be solved individually.
• Daily tasks can be decomposed into their constituent parts for easier understanding and solving.

Design
• The program specification derived from the analysis stage is used as a guide for program
development.
• During the design stage, the programmer should have a clear understanding of the tasks to be
completed, the methods for performing each task, and how the tasks will work together.
• Documentation methods such as structure charts, flowcharts, and pseudocode can be used to
formally document the design of the program.

Coding and iterative testing

• The program or set of programs is developed based on the design.
• Each module of the program is written using a suitable programming language.
• Testing is conducted to ensure that each module functions correctly.
• Iterative testing is performed, which involves conducting modular tests, making code
amendments if necessary, and repeating tests until the module meets the required
functionality.
Testing
• The completed program or set of programs is executed multiple times using various sets of test
data.
• This testing process ensures that all the tasks within the program work together as specified in
the program design.
• By running the program with different test data, potential issues and errors can be identified
and addressed.
• The testing phase aims to verify the overall functionality and performance of the program by
evaluating its behavior with a variety of inputs.
Computer systems, sub-systems and decomposition
A computer system is made up of software, data, hardware, communications and people; each
computer system can be divided up into a set of sub-systems. Each sub-system can be further divided
into sub-systems and so on until each sub-system just performs a single action. Computer systems can
be very large, very small or any size in between; most people interact with many different computer
systems during their daily life without realising it.For example, when you wake up in the morning, you
might use an app on your smartphone for your alarm, then you might check the weather forecast on
your computer before driving to work.
The alarm program is a very small computer system but when you check the weather forecast, you
obtain the information you need from one of the largest computer systems in the world.
The computer system and its sub-systems
In order to understand how a computer system is built up and how it works it is often divided up into
sub-systems. This division can be shown using top-down design to produce structure diagrams that
demonstrate the modular construction of the system. Each sub-system can be developed by a
programmer as a sub-routine. How each sub-routine works can be shown by using flowcharts or
pseudocode.
Top-down design is the decomposition of a computer system into a set of sub-systems, then breaking
each sub-system down into a set of smaller sub-systems, until each sub-system just performs a single
action. This is an effective way of designing a computer system to provide a solution to a problem, since
each part of the problem is broken down into smaller more manageable problems. The process of
breaking down into smaller sub-systems is called stepwise refinement.
This structured approach works for the development of both large and small computer systems. When
larger computer systems are being developed this means that several programmers can work
independently to develop and test different sub-systems for the same system at the same time. This
reduces the development and testing time.
Decomposing a problem
Any problem that uses a computer system for its solution needs to be decomposed into its component
parts. The component parts of any computer system are:

• inputs – the data used by the system that needs to be entered while the system is active
• processes – the tasks that need to be performed using the input data and any other previously
stored data
• outputs – information that needs to be displayed or printed for the users of the system
• storage – data that needs to be stored in files on an appropriate medium for use in the future.

For example, the alarm app can be decomposed into:

• inputs – time to set the alarm, remove a previously set alarm time, switch an alarm off, press
snooze button
• processes – continuously check if the current time matches an alarm time that has been set,
storage and removal of alarm times, management of snooze
• outputs – continuous sound/tune (at alarm time or after snooze time expired)
• storage – time(s) for alarms set.
Methods used to design and construct a solution to a problem
Solutions to problems need to be designed and developed rigorously. The use of formal methods
enables the process to be clearly shown for others to understand the proposed solution. The
methods are: » structure diagrams » flowcharts » pseudocode
Structure diagrams -can be used to show top-down design in a diagrammatic form. Structure
diagrams are hierarchical, showing how a computer system solution can be divided into sub-systems
with each level giving a more detailed breakdown. If necessary, each sub-system can be further
divided.
Example: Alarm app for a smart phone

Activity; Break down the ‘Check time’ sub-system from the smart phone alarm app into further sub-
systems
Flowcharts
A flowchart shows diagrammatically the steps required to complete a task and the order that they
are to be performed. These steps, together with the order, are called an algorithm. Flowcharts are
an effective way to communicate how the algorithm that makes up a system or sub-system works.
Example; Checking for the alarm time

Flowchart for check time sub-system

Pseudocode
Pseudocode is a simple method of showing an algorithm. It describes what the algorithm does by
using English key words that are very similar to those used in a high-level programming language.
Data items to be processed by the algorithm are given meaningful names in the same way that
variables and constants are in a high-level programming language. However, pseudocode is not
bound by the strict syntax rules of a programming language. It does what its name says, it pretends
to be programming code!
Pseudocode is used to help you understand algorithms easily;
• a non-proportional font is used throughout
• all keywords (words used to describe a specific action e.g. INPUT) are written in capital
letters
• all names given to data items and subroutines start with a capital letter
• where conditional and loop statements are used, repeated or selected statements are
indented by two spaces.
Statements
The pseudocode for an assignment statement
A value is assigned to an item/variable using the ←operator. The variable on the left of the ← is
assigned the value of the expression on the right. The expression on the right can be a single value
or several values combined with any of the following mathematical operators.

Examples of pseudocode assignment statements

Activity

The pseudocode for conditional statements

When different actions are performed by an algorithm according to the values of the variables,
conditional statements can be used to decide which action should be taken.
There are two types of conditional statement:
1. a condition that can be true or false such as: IF … THEN … ELSE … ENDIF

2. a choice between several different values, such as: CASE OF … OTHERWISE … ENDCASE

IF … THEN … ELSE … ENDIF

For an IF condition the THEN path is followed if the condition is true and the
ELSE path is followed if the condition is false. There may or may not be an
ELSE path. The end of the statement is shown by ENDIF

There are different ways that an IF condition can be set up:

» use of a Boolean variable that can have the value TRUE or FALSE
For example:

» Comparisons made by using comparison operators, where comparisons are

made from left to right, for example: A > B means ‘A is greater than B’
Comparisons can be simple or more complicated, for example:
 The algorithm below that checks if a percentage mark is valid and whether it is a pass or a
fail. This makes use of two IF statements; the second IF statement is part of the first ELSE
path. This is called a nested IF.

Activity;
Re-write the algorithm to check for a mark between 0 and 20 and a pass mark of 10.

CASE OF … OTHERWISE … ENDCASE

For a CASE statement the value of the variable decides the path to be taken.
Several values are usually specified. OTHERWISE is the path taken for all other
values. The end of the statement is shown by ENDCASE.
Have a look at the algorithm below that specifies what happens if the value of
Choice is 1, 2, 3 or 4.

The pseudocode for iteration

When some actions performed as part of an algorithm need repeating this is called iteration. Loop
structures are used to perform the iteration.
Pseudocode includes these three different types of loop structure:

All types of loops can all perform the same task, for example displaying ten stars:

the FOR … TO … NEXT loop is the most efficient way for a programmer to write this type of task as the
loop counter is automatically managed.
FOR … TO … NEXT loops
A variable is set up, with a start value and an end value, this variable is incremented in steps of one until
the end value is reached and the iteration finishes. The variable can be used within the loop so long as
its value is not changed. This type of loop is very useful for reading values into lists with a known length.
REPEAT … UNTIL loop
This loop structure is used when the number of repetitions/iterations is not known and the actions are
repeated UNTIL a given condition becomes true. The actions in this loop are always completed at least
once. This is a post-condition loop as the test for exiting the loop is at the end of the loop.

WHILE … DO … ENDWHILE loop

This loop structure is used when the number of repetitions/iterations is not known and the actions are
only repeated WHILE a given condition is true. If the WHILE condition is untrue then the actions in this
loop are never performed. This is a pre-condition loop as the test for exiting the loop is at the beginning
of the loop.

The pseudocode for input and output statements

INPUT and OUTPUT are used for the entry of data and display of information. Sometimes READ can be
used instead of INPUT but this is usually used for reading from files. Also, PRINT can be used instead of
OUTPUT if a hard copy is required.
INPUT
is used for data entry; it is usually followed by a variable where the data input is stored, for example:

OUTPUT
is used to display information either on a screen or printed on paper; it is usually followed by a single
value that is a string or a variable, or a list of values separated by commas, for example:
Explaining the purpose of an algorithm
An algorithm sets out the steps to complete a given task. This is usually shown as a flowchart or
pseudocode, so that the purpose of the task and the processes needed to complete it are clear to
those who study it. You will be able to practice this skill as you become more familiar with writing
and finding and correcting errors in algorithms.
Example; Output an alarm sound
The purpose of the following pseudocode is to output the alarm sound at the appropriate time. The
processes are: waiting 10 seconds, getting the current time, checking the current time with the
alarm time, and outputting the alarm sound when the times match.

Standard methods of solution

The ability to repeat existing methods is very important in the design of
algorithms; when an algorithm is turned into a program the same methods may
be repeated many thousands of times.
You need to be able to use and understand these standard methods used in
algorithms:
• Totaling
• Counting
• Finding maximum, minimum, and average (mean) values
• Searching using a linear search
• Sorting using a bubble sort.
All the standard methods of solution are shown as pseudocode algorithms and will be used to
practice program writing.
Totaling
Totaling means keeping a total that values are added to. For example, keeping a running total of the
marks awarded to each student in a class.

Counting
Keeping a count of the number of times an action is performed is another standard method. For
example, counting the number of students that were awarded a pass mark:

Counting is also used to count down until a certain value is reached, for example, checking the
number of items in stock in a supermarket:
Maximum, minimum and average
Finding the largest and smallest values in a list are two standard methods that are frequently found
in algorithms, for example, finding the highest and lowest mark awarded to a class of students.

If the largest and smallest values are not known, an alternative method is to set the maximum and
minimum values to the first item in the list. For example, using this method to find the highest and
lowest mark awarded to a class of students.

Calculating the average (mean) of all the values in a list is an extension of the totalling method, for
example, calculating the average mark for a class of students
Linear search
A search is used to check if a value is stored in a list, performed by systematically working through
the items in the list. This is called a linear search, which inspects each item in a list in turn to see if
the item matches the value searched for.
For example, searching for a name in a class list of student names, where all the names stored are
different:

Bubble sort
This method of sorting is called a bubble sort. Each element is compared with the next element and
swapped if the elements are in the wrong order, starting from the first element and finishing with
next-to-last element. Once it reaches the end of the list, we can be sure that the last element is now
in the correct place. However, other items in the list may still be out of order. Each element in the
list is compared again apart from the last one because we know the final element is in the correct
place. This continues to repeat until there is only one element left to check or no swaps are made.
For example, the bubble sort algorithm can be used to sort a list of ten temperatures stored in the
array, Temperature [], into ascending order. It could be written in pseudocode as:

Validation and verification

In order for computer systems to only accept data inputs that are reasonable and accurate, every
item of data needs to be examined before it is accepted by the system. Two different methods, with
very similar sounding names, are used. For data entry, validation ensures that only data that is
reasonable is accepted. Verification is used to check that the data does not change as it is being
entered.
Validation
Validation is the automated checking by a program that data is reasonable before it is accepted into
a computer system. When data is validated by a computer system, if the data is rejected a message
should be output explaining why the data was rejected and another opportunity given to enter the
data.
There are many different types of validation checks including:
• range checks
• length checks
• type checks
• presence checks
• format checks
• check digits.
Range check
A range check checks that the value of a number is between an upper value and a lower value. For
example, checking that percentage marks are between 0 and 100 inclusive:

Length check
A length check checks either:
that data contains an exact number of characters, for example that a password must be exactly eight
characters in length so that passwords with seven or fewer characters or nine or more characters would
be rejected, for instance

or that the data entered is a reasonable number of characters, for example, a family name could be
between two and thirty characters inclusive so that names with one character or thirty-one or more
characters would be rejected.
Type check
A type check checks that the data entered is of a given data type, for example, that the number of
brothers or sisters would be an integer (whole number).

Presence check
A presence check checks to ensure that some data has been entered and the value has not been left
blank, for example, an email address for an online transaction must be completed.

Format check and check digit

Format check
A format check checks that the characters entered conform to a pre-defined pattern
Check digit
• A check digit is the final digit included in a code; it is calculated from all the other digits in the
code.
• Check digits are used for barcodes, product codes, International Standard Book Numbers (ISBN)
and Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN).
Verification

Verification is checking that data has been accurately copied from one source to another
There are 2 methods to verify data during entry
1. Double Entry \n
• Data is inputted twice, potentially by different operators.
• The computer system compares both entries, and if they differ, an error message is displayed,
prompting for the data to be reentered.

2. Screen/Visual check
• A screen/visual check involves the user manually reviewing the entered data.
• After data entry, the system displays the data on the screen and prompts the user to confirm its
accuracy before proceeding.
• The user can compare the displayed data against a paper document used as an input form or
rely on their own knowledge to verify correctness.

Test Data

• Test data refers to input values used to evaluate and assess the functionality and performance
of a computer program or system.
• It helps identify errors and assess how the program handles different scenarios

Normal Data
• Normal data is the test data which accepts values in acceptable range of values of the program
• Normal data should be used to work through the solution to find the actual result(s) and see if
they are the same as the expected result(s)
• e.g. in a program where only whole number values ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive) are
accepted, normal test data will be : 23, 54, 64 , 2 and 100

Abnormal Data
• Test data that would be rejected by the solution as not suitable, if the solution is working
properly is called abnormal test data / erroneous test data.
• e.g. in a program where only whole number values ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive) are
accepted, abnormal data will be: -1, 151, 200, 67.2, “Sixty-Two” and -520

Extreme Data
• Extreme data are the largest and smallest values that normal data can take
• e.g. in a program where only whole number values ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive) are
accepted, extreme data will be: 0 and 100
Boundary Data
• This is used to establish where the largest and smallest values occur
• At each boundary two values are required: one value is accepted and the other value is rejected.
• e.g. in a program where only whole number values ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive) are
accepted, one example of boundary data will be: 100 and 101. 100 will be accepted and 101 will
not be accepted

Trace Table

• A trace table is utilized to document the outcomes of every step in an algorithm. It is employed
to record the variable's value each time it undergoes a change.
• A dry run refers to the manual process of systematically executing an algorithm by following
each step in sequence.
• A trace table is set up with a column for each variable and a column for any output e.g.

Test data is employed to execute a dry run of the flowchart and document the outcomes in a trace
table. During the dry run:
• Whenever a variable's value changes, the new value is recorded in the respective column of the
trace table.
• Each time a value is outputted, it is displayed in the output column.

An example of trace table is given below using a past paper question:

Q: The flowchart below inputs the height of children who want to ride on a rollercoaster. Children under
1.2 metres are rejected. The ride starts when eight children have been accepted.
Complete the trace table for the input data: 1.4, 1.3, 1.1, 1.3, 1.0, 1.5, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.3, 0.9, 1.5, 1.6, 1.0

Riders Reject Height OUTPUT

0 0

1 1.4

2 1.3

1 1.1

3 1.3

2 1.0

4 1.5

3 1.2

5 1.3

6 1.4

7 1.3

4 0.9

8 1.5 Ready to go 4

Identifying errors
• Trace tables can be used to trace errors in a program. For example, if the requirement for the
previous question would be to accept riders that are of height 1.2 too, rather than rejecting
them, then the error would have been caught in the trace table as when 1.2 is entered, it would
increment rejected which it shouldn’t in our example
Writing and Amending Algorithms
There are a number of stages when producing an algorithm for a given problem:
1. Make sure that the problem is clearly specified – the purpose of the algorithm
and the tasks to be completed by the algorithm.
2. Break the problem down in to sub-problems; if it is complex, you may want to
consider writing an algorithm for each sub-problem. Most problems, even the
simplest ones can be divided into:
– Set up processes
– Input
– Processing of data
– Permanent storage of data (if required)
– Output of results
3. Decide on how any data is to be obtained and stored, what is going to happen
to the data and how any results are going to be displayed.
4. Design the structure of your algorithm using a structure diagram.
5. Decide on how you are going to construct your algorithm, either using a
flowchart or pseudocode. If you are told how to construct your algorithm,
then follow the guidance.
6. Construct your algorithm, making sure that it can be easily read and
understood by someone else. Precision is required when writing algorithms,
just as it is when writing program code. This involves setting it out clearly
and using meaningful names for any data stores. Take particular care with
conditions used for loops and selection, for example 'Counter >= 10' rather
than 'Counter ten or over'. The algorithms that you have looked at so far in
this chapter were not designed with readability in mind because you needed
to work out what the problem being solved was.
7. Use several sets of test data (Normal, Abnormal and Boundary) to dry run your
algorithm and show the results in trace tables, to enable you to find any errors.
8. If any errors are found, correct them and repeat the process until you think
that your algorithm works perfectly.
Have a look at this structure diagram and flowchart for the algorithm to select the largest, Max, and
smallest, Min, numbers from a list of ten numbers. This time the flowchart is more easily readable than
the structure chart:
Example 1: Writing algorithms in pseudocode
Tickets are sold for a concert at $20 each. If 10 tickets are bought then the discount is 10%, if 20 tickets
are bought the discount is 20%. No more than 25 tickets can be bought in a single transaction. a Use
pseudocode to write the algorithm to calculate the cost of buying a given number of tickets.
Explain how you would test your algorithm.

I would use test data with values of:

0, 26, Expected results rejected
1, 25, Expected results 20, 400
9, 10, Expected results 180, 180
19, 20, Expected results 342, 320
 PROGRAMMING
programming concepts:
• use of variables and constants
• input and output
• sequence
• selection including nesting
• iteration
• totaling and counting
• string handling
• operators – arithmetic, logical and Boolean
• procedures and functions including the use of:
• parameters
• local and global variables
• library routines
• creating a maintainable program

★ arrays: including one- and two-dimensional arrays, use of indexes, use of

iteration for reading from and writing to arrays

★ file handling: including opening, closing, reading from and writing to data and
text files.
 There are five basic constructs to use and understand when developing a program:
• data use – variables, constants and arrays
• sequence – order of steps in a task
• selection – choosing a path through a program
• iteration – repetition of a sequence of steps in a program
• operator use – arithmetic for calculations, logical and Boolean for decisions.
Data Types

• A data type is a classification of data into groups according to the kind of data they represent
• Computers use different data types to represent different types of data in a program
• The basic data types include:
o Integer: used to represent whole numbers, either positive or negative
▪ Examples: 10, -5, 0
o Real: used to represent numbers with a fractional part, either positive or negative
▪ Examples: 3.14, -2.5, 0.0
o Char: used to represent a single character such as a letter, digit or symbol
▪ Examples: 'a', 'B', '5', '$'
o String: used to represent a sequence of characters
▪ Examples: "Hello World", "1234", "@#$%
o Boolean: used to represent true or false values
▪ Examples: True, False

We can declare variables as follows:

Python Java Visual Basic

variable_name = data_type Dim variable_name As

Syntax
value variable_name; data_type
Example x=5 int x Dim x As Integer
It is important to choose the correct data type for a given situation to ensure accuracy and efficiency in
the program.
 Variables & Constants

Variables and constants are used to store a single item of data in a program. This can be accessed
through the identifier. Variables can be changed during program execution while constants remain the
same.

Declaring Variables and Constants

• Variables are declared using a data type, a name and a value (optional)
• Constants are declared using the 'const' keyword, a name and a value
• In all programming languages, variable names should follow certain rules, such as:
o Starting with a letter
o Not containing spaces
o Can contain letters, numbers, _ or $
o Not using reserved words (like if, while, for etc.)
• Examples of data types include integer, float, boolean, and string

Examples in Pseudocode:

Declare a variable called 'score' with a value of 10

score ← 10

Declare a constant called 'PI' with a value of 3.14

const PI ← 3.14

Examples in Python:

Declare a variable called 'score' with a value of 10

score = 10

Declare a constant called 'PI' with a value of 3.14

PI = 3.14

final double PI = 3.14;

Declare a constant called 'PI' with a value of 3.14

Const PI As Double = 3.14

Examples of Variables and Constant Program

total_price_var=0
ticket_price_const=25
number_of_tickets=input(“Enter number of tickets”)
total_price_var=number_of_tickets*ticket_price_const
print(total_price_var)
print(ticket_price_const)

Output

Output refers to the process of displaying or saving the results of a program to the user.

Pseudocode example:

OUTPUT "Hello, ", name

Python example:

print("Hello, ", name)

Input

Input refers to the process of providing data or information to a program.

'User Input' is data or information entered by the user during program execution.

Pseudocode example:

OUTPUT "Enter your name"

INPUT name

Python example:

name = input("Enter your name: ")

 Example programs
age=int(input("Enter your age"))
if age>18:
print("You are an adult")
else:
print("You are a kid")

height=float(input("Enter your height"))

if height>1.2:
print("You are tall")
else:
print("You are short")

Task 1
Volume of a sphere
To calculate the volume of a sphere, we use the formula

V=4/3*3.142*radius**3
Your task is to create a program that asks the user for the radius of a sphere, then calculate its
volume. The program must output a message showing the result calculated.
radius=float(input("Enter Your Radius"))
volume=4/3*3.142*radius**3
print(volume)

Task 2
Volume of a cylinder
To calculate the volume of cylinder, we can use the formula
V3.142*radius**2*height
Your task is to create a program that asks the user for the radius and height of a cylinder, and then
calculate its volume. The program must output a message showing the result calculated.
radius=float(input("Enter Your Radius"))
height=float(input("Enter Your height"))
volume=3.142*radius**2*height
print(volume)
SEQUENCE

What is Sequence?

• Sequence is a concept that involves executing instructions in a particular order

• It is used in programming languages to perform tasks in a step-by-step manner
• Sequence is a fundamental concept in computer science and is used in many programming
languages

Pseudocode example:
PRINT "Hello, World!"

x←5

y←10

z← x + y

PRINT z

Python example:
print("Hello, World!")

x=5

y = 10

z=x+y

print(z)

e.g.

Pi_const=3.142
radius=float(input("Enter the radius of the sphere"))
volume=(4/3)*Pi_const*radius*radius*radius
print(volume)

e.g.

Pi_const=3.142
radius=float(input("Enter the radius of the sphere"))
height=float(input("Enter the height of the sphere"))
volume=Pi_const*radius*radius*height
print(volume)
SELECTION

What is selection?

Selection is a programming concept that allows you to execute different sets of instructions based on
certain conditions. There are two main types of selection statements: IF statements and CASE
statements.

If Statements

IF statements allow you to execute a set of instructions if a condition is true. They have the following
syntax:

IF condition

THEN

instructions

ENDIF

Pseudocode example:

x← 5

IF x > 0

THEN

PRINT "x is positive"

ENDIF

Python example:

x=5

if x > 0:

print("x is positive")
age=input(“what is your age?)

if age>18:

print(“You are an adult”)

else:

print(“You are a kid”)

IF ELSE Statements

If else statements are used to execute one set of statements if a condition is true and a different set of
statements if the condition is false. They have the following syntax:

IF condition

THEN

Instructions

ELSE

Instructions

ENDIF

Pseudocode example:

x←5

IF x > 0

THEN

PRINT "x is positive"

ELSE

PRINT “x is negative”

ENDIF
Python example:

x=5

if x > 0:

print("x is positive")

else:

print("x is negative")

e.g. ODD OR EVEN

number=int(input("What is your number"))

if number%2==0:
print("It is an Even number")
else:
print("It is an Odd number")

Case statements
Case statements are used when there are multiple choices to be made. Different programming
languages provide different types of statement to do this. Have a look at the method your
programming language uses.
Pseudocode
INPUT Grade
Case of Grade
A: OUTPUT “Excellent”
B: OUTPUT “Not bad huh”
C: OUTPUT “Fair”
D: OUTPUT “Work harder”
OTHERWISE: OUTPUT “Invalid Input”
ENDCASE
 Python Code
Grade=input("Enter your Grade")
if Grade==("A"):
print("Excellent")
elif Grade==("B"):
print("Not bad huh")
elif Grade==("C"):
print("Fair")
elif Grade==("D"):
print("Work harder")
else:
print("Invalid Input")

e.g. Vowel or Consonant

character=input("What is your character?")
if character=='a':
print('a')
elif character=='e':
print('e')
elif character=="i":
print("i")
elif character==('o'):
print("o")
elif character==("u"):
print('u')
else:
print("This is a consonant")
Iteration

What is iteration?

Iteration is the process of repeating a set of instructions until a specific condition is met. It is an
important programming concept and is used to automate repetitive tasks.

There are three main types of iteration:

• Count-controlled loops
• Precondition loops
• Postcondition loops

Count-controlled Loops

• A count-controlled loop is used when the number of iterations is known beforehand

• It is also known as a definite loop
• It uses a counter variable that is incremented or decremented after each iteration
• The loop continues until the counter reaches a specific value

Example in Pseudocode:

count ← 1
FOR i <= 10
OUTPUT count
NEXT i

Example in Python:

for count in range(1, 11):

print(count)

e.g.

for counter in range(1,10,1):

print(counter)

Results
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
for counter in range(1,10,2):
print(counter)

1
3
5
7
9

Pre-condition Loops

• A precondition loop is used when the number of iterations is not known beforehand and
is dependent on a condition being true
• It is also known as an indefinite loop
• The loop will continue to execute while the condition is true and will stop once the
condition becomes false

Example in Pseudocode:
INPUT temperature

WHILE temperature > 37 DO

OUTPUT "Patient has a fever"

INPUT temperature

END WHILE

Example in Python:

temperature = float(input("Enter temperature: "))

while temperature > 37:

print("Patient has a fever")

temperature = float(input("Enter temperature: "))

total=0
mark=int(input("Enter value for mark, -1 to finish"))
while mark!=-1:
total=total+mark
mark=int(input("Enter value for mark, -1 to finish"))
print(total)
The program will keep adding what the user enter until the user keys in the value “-1”.The total will be
printed.
For example, this loop runs as long as number is less than 10:
number = 0
while number < 10:
print(f"Number is {number}!")
number = number + 1
Here, the variable number is set to 0 initially.

Before any code is run, Python checks the condition (number < 10). It evaluates to True so the print
statement gets executed and Number is 0! is printed to the console.

number is then incremented by 1. The condition is re-evaluated and it is again True, so the whole
procedure repeats until number is equal to 9.

This time Number is 9! is printed and number is incremented, but now number is equal to 10 so the
condition is no longer met and therefore the loop is terminated.

It's possible that the while loop never runs if it doesn't meet the condition, like in this example:
number = 50
while number < 10 :
print(f"Number is {number}!")
Postcondition Loops

• A post-condition loop is used when the loop must execute at least once, even if the condition is
false from the start
• The condition is checked at the end of the loop

Example in Pseudocode:

REPEAT
INPUT guess
UNTIL guess = 42

Example in Python:

Postcondition loops don’t exist in Python and would need to be restructured to a precondition loop

Python does not have built-in functionality to explicitly create a do while loop like other languages. But it
is possible to emulate a do while loop in Python.

How to emulate a do while loop in Python

To create a do while loop in Python, you need to modify the while loop a bit in order to get similar
behavior to a do while loop in other languages.

As a refresher so far, a do while loop will run at least once. If the condition is met, then it will run again.

The while loop, on the other hand, doesn't run at least once and may in fact never run. It runs when and
only when the condition is met.

So, let's say we have an example where we want a line of code to run at least once.
secret_word = "python"
counter = 0

while True:
word = input("Enter the secret word: ").lower()
counter = counter + 1
if word == secret_word:
break
if word != secret_word and counter > 7:
break
The code will run at least one time, asking for user input.

It is always guaranteed to run at least once, with True, which otherwise creates an infinite loop.

If the user inputs the correct secret word, the loop is terminated.

If the user enters the wrong secret word more than 7 times, then the loop will be completely exited.

The break statement allows you to control the flow of a while loop and not end up with an infinite loop.

break will immediately terminate the current loop all together and break out of it. So this is how you
create the a similar effect to a do while loop in Python.
Totalling

• Totalling involves adding up values, often in a loop

• A total variable can be initialised to 0 and then updated within a loop, such as:

Pseudocode example:
total ← 0

for i ← 1 to 10

input num

total ← total + num

next i

output total

Python example:

total = 0
for i in range(1, 11):
num = int(input("Enter a number: "))
total += num
print("Total:", total)
 Counting

• Counting involves keeping track of the number of times a particular event occurs
• A count variable can be initialised to 0 and then updated within a loop, such as:

Pseudocode example:

count ← 0

for i ← 1 to 10

input num
if num > 5 then
count ← count + 1
end if
next i
output count

Python example:

count = 0
for i in range(1, 11):
num = int(input("Enter a number: "))
if num > 5:
count += 1
print("Count:", count)

(total=total+count)=total+=count

Counting

• Counting involves keeping track of the number of times a particular event occurs
• A count variable can be initialised to 0 and then updated within a loop, such as:
Pseudocode example:

Python example:

count = 0
for i in range(1, 11):
num = int(input("Enter a number: "))
if num > 5:
count += 1
print("Count:", count)

String Handling
Strings are used to store text. Every string contains a number of characters, from an empty string, which
has no characters stored, to a maximum number specified by the programming language. The characters
in a string can be labelled by position number. The first character in a string can be in position zero or
position one, depending on the language.

length – finding the number of characters in the string. For example, the length of the string "Computer
Science" is 16 characters as spaces are counted as a character. In Python, the len() function is used to
find the length of a string.

substring – extracting part of a string. For example, the substring "Science" could be extracted from
"Computer Science". In Python, the substring can be obtained using the slicing operator [:]

upper – converting all the letters in a string to uppercase. For example, the string "Computer Science"
would become "COMPUTER SCIENCE". In Python, the upper() method is used to convert a string to
uppercase

lower – converting all the letters in a string to lowercase. For example, the string "Computer Science"
would become "computer science". In Python, the lower() method is used to convert a string to
lowercase.
Pseudocode example:

string phrase ← "Save my exams"

length ← LENGTH(phrase)

substring ← SUBSTRING(phrase, 5, 2)

upper ← TO_UPPER(phrase)

lower ← TO_LOWER(phrase)

Python example:

phrase = "Save my exams"

length = len(phrase)

substring = phrase[4:6]

upper = phrase.upper()

lower = phrase.lower()

len("Computer Science")
len(MyString)
#Text in quotes can be used or a variable with data type string.

"Computer Science"[9:16]
MyString[9:16]

#Text in quotes can be used or a variable with data type string.

# Strings are treated as lists of characters in Python.
# First index is the start position of the substring.
# Second index is the end position of the substring.
# Python strings start at position zero.

"Computer Science".upper()
MyString.upper()
#Text in quotes can be used or a variable with data type string.

"Computer Science".lower()
MyString.lower()
#Text in quotes can be used or a variable with data type string.
#Sring handling

sample_string="abcdefghijkk"
length_counter=len(sample_string)
print(length_counter)

#Substring(Extracting one character)

character=sample_string[1]
print(character)

#Substring (extracting a range of character)

substring=sample_string[0:3]
print(substring)

#upper

uppercase=sample_string.upper()
print(uppercase)

#lowercase

sample = "ABBDWDAWD"
sample = sample.lower()
print(sample)
Arithmetic Operators

• Addition (+): Adds two values together

• Subtraction (-): Subtracts one value from another
• Division (/): Divides one value by another
• Multiplication (*): Multiplies two values together
• Exponentiation (^): Raises a number to a power
• Modulo (MOD): Returns the remainder of a division operation
• Integer Division (DIV): Returns the whole number of a division operatio

Pseudocode example:

a←5

b←3

c←a+b

d←a-b

e←a*b

f←a/b

g ← a MOD b

h←a^b

i ← a DIV b

Python example:

a = 5

b = 3

c = a+b

d = a-b

e = a*b

f = a/b

g = a%b

h = a**b

i = a//b
Logical Operators

• Equal to (=): Returns true if two values are equal

• Less than (<): Returns true if the first value is less than the second value
• Less than or equal to (<=): Returns true if the first value is less than or equal to the second value
• Greater than (>): Returns true if the first value is greater than the second value
• Greater than or equal to (>=): Returns true if the first value is greater than or equal to the
second value
• Not equal to (<>): Returns true if two values are not equal

Pseudocode example:
a←5

b←3

c ← (a = b)

d ← (a < b)

e ← (a <= b)

f ← (a > b)

g ← (a >= b)

h ← (a <> b)

Python example:

a = 5

b = 3

c = (a == b)

d = (a < b)

e = (a <= b)

f = (a > b)

g = (a >= b)

h = (a != b)
Nested Statements

• Nested statements involve including one statement within another statement. This can be done
with both selection (if/else) and iteration (for/while) statements
• In programming languages like Python, Java, and Visual Basic, nested statements are often
indicated by indenting the inner statement(s) relative to the outer statement(s)

Nested Selection

• Nested selection is an if statement inside an if statement

• If the first if statement is true, it will run the if statement which is nested inside
• Otherwise, it will skip to the "else if" or "else" which is part of that if statement

Pseudocode example:

if a > b then

if b > c then

output “a is the largest”

else

output “c is the largest”

else

if a > c then

output “b is the largest”

else

output “c is the largest”

Python example: