Unit – 2 Introduction to Tanning

Introduction about tanning, Classification and methods of tanning, syntans, their classification
and uses, post tanning and finishing operations.

It’s one of the oldest industries in human civilization. Indians, Egyptians, Greeks, Chinese, and
Mesopotamians had developed several different tanning processes centuries before
industrialization. The word ‘tanning’ is derived from the medieval Latin word tannare, which in
turn derivative of tannum, meaning the bark of an oak tree, it refers to the use of oak bark in
preserving hides.

2.1 Introduction about tanning

Tanning, in simple terms, refers to the treatment of raw hides and skins with tanning
substances to render the material immune to bacterial attack, i.e. to produce leather.
Additional changes introduced in the process of tanning are secondary and are related to the
tanning and retanning chemicals used.
A large number of different tanning methods and materials can be used, the choice is ultimate
dependent on the end applications of the leather.
Leather tanning is without a doubt one of the oldest human activities. In the beginning, skins
obtained from hunting and livestock breeding could be used for clothing or tents, but they
became stiff at low temperatures, while they rotted with heat. It was probably then that
attempts were made to render them more flexible and stronger by rubbing in animal fats, the
first rudimental tanning process is mentioned in Assyrian texts and in Homers Iliad.
Another process was smoking, which almost certainly started by accident, and which later
became formaldehyde tanning, as this substance is found in the vapors produced by burning
green leaves and branches. It was soon discovered that the rotting process could also be
stopped by drying, carried out by exposure to the sun or by the dehydrating action of salt.
Vegetable tanning was also known in very ancient times although it is not clear how the
tanning action of the tannin contained in the bark of some plants (especially oak) was
discovered. Another method known since the earliest times is tanning, based on the use of
alum, a mineral which is fairly widespread in nature, particularly in volcanic areas.
These methods, which gradually became more refined and efficient, allowed skins to be used
in the ancient world and continued to do so for century after century up to the present day.
That the use of these techniques was widespread is witnessed by numerous written
documents and paintings as well as archaeological finds. In Mesopotamia between the fifth
and the third millennium B.C., for example, the Sumerians used skins for long dresses and
diadems for ladies. The Assyrians used leather for footwear but also for liquid containers and
as inflated floats for rafts. The ancient in processed the type of leather known as the
"Morocco" today.
The Egyptians also achieved considerable skill in processing leather, which they used for
clothing (even for gloves), tools, arms or simply for ornament. The historian, Strabo, tells of
an interesting use developed by Phoenicians who made water pipes from it. During Roman
times, leather was widely used in all the provinces of the empire, and more efficient tanning
techniques were introduced where they had not been developed locally.

The Romans used leather both for footwear and clothing and for making shields and
harnesses. A tannery was uncovered amid the ruins of Pompei and the same equipment of
the kind still in use for centuries thereafter was found in it.
A considerable improvement in processing techniques occurred in the 12th century with the
result being that between then and the last century; there were no substantial changes to
tanning systems. Even oil tanning was used to produce protective garments while tawing
was widespread although the results were not always satisfactory. Often, finishing operations
were carried out to improve the malleability of the leather and improve its appearance,
especially by dyeing. The products, though essentially practical, also met decorative
requirements.

In the fourteenth century, for instance, leather was being used in combination with wood in
chairs, arm-chairs, and settles with craftsmanship that reached the levels of an art-form. This
was also the case later on with tapestries (especially in Venice in the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries) with chests and cases, and of course, with book bindings, perhaps the most lasting
and refined use of the material. Going back to tanning techniques, it is more or less in the
Middle Ages that the depilating action of quick lime was discovered, a technique which is
still valid and normally used today.
A radical shake-up was provided in the middle of the last century with the discovery of the
tanning power of chrome salts which led to a drastic improvement in production and was
applied in practice in industrial production towards the end of the century. Another
revolutionary element was the substitution of the tanning pit with the rotating drum, along
with the discovery of new types of tannins.
As a result of all these innovations, the time required for tanning was shortened incredibly
from eight months to a year, to a period of a few days today. But let us take a step back again
to have a look at the system and tools that were once used to work leather. We immediately
discover that from Palaeolithic times, almost to the present day, the processes and tools
remained almost unchanged, gaining only in efficiency and comfort.
Similar tools for fleshing, scraping, shaving, perching, and trimming are found in practically
every epoch known to us.

This is a further demonstration of the fact that leather tanning has gone hand in hand with the
history of mankind, maintaining those features of "craftsmanship" which even today with
increasing automation are an essential part of the personal sensibility and solid experience of
those carry it on.

Fig. Main operation in the transformation of skins and hides into leather.
* Splitting operation performed before or after tanning.
Fig. Input/output overview in a conventional Tannery – processing of bovine slated hide
(copyright: Maria Jose Escoto Palacios)
Fig. Proposal for valorization of solid wastes from tanneries and slaughter houses
(copyright: Maria Jose Escoto Palacios)

Fig. Hierarchical micro-structure of type 1 collagen

(copyright: Maria Jose Escoto Palacios)
Tanning and leather finishing facilities generally convert raw hides and / or skins into leather,
which is then finished and used to manufacture a wide range of products. Tanning is the process
used to stabilizing the raw hide or skin into leather, a non-putrescible product.
In general, the production processes in a tannery can be split into four main stages including hide
and skin storage, and operations involving the beamhouse , tanning, post-tanning, and finishing.

Fig. 1 Steps in Leather Manufacturing

Hide and Skin Prestorage / Storage, and Beamhouse Operations
Raw hides and skins are typically procured from the hide and skin markets or directly from the
abattoirs (slaughterhouses), and delivered to the tanneries or fellmongeries (facilities that treat
skins and hides, principally sheep skins, before tanning). Hide and skin curing is often performed
before transport to the tannery / fellmongery, as necessary, to prevent putrefaction. At the
tannery / fellmongery, hides and skins are preliminary sorted, trimmed, cured, and stored.
Sorting and Trimming
Sorting of hides and skins is conducted according to several grades of size, weight, quality and
sex. Trimming is generally carried out during the sorting process.
Curing and Storing
If the raw hides and skins cannot be processed immediately, they are typically cured to prevent
putrefaction. Curing methods for long-term preservation (up to six months) include salting,
brining, (shade) drying, or dry salting. Short-term preservation (typically two to five days)
involves cooling using crushed ice, or refrigerated storage, in addition to biocides / antiseptics /
fungicides (e.g.2- [thiocyanatomethylthio]-1,3-benzothiazole known as TCMTB, isothiazolones,
potassium dimethyl dithiocarbamate, sodium chlorite benzalkonium chloride, sodium fluoride,
and boric acid). Some of these agents are also used during soaking, pickling, and wet-blue
preservation. Although curing is often conducted in the abattoir or at the hide market, the process
may be repeated in the tannery for longer and more efficient storage. Hides and skins are
generally stored on pallets in ventilated or air conditioned / cooled areas. From storage, the hides
and skins are taken to the beam house. Processes typically carried out in the beam house of a
tannery include soaking, dehairing, liming, and fleshing, whereas fell mongeries typically carry
out similar processes specific to sheep skins.
Tanyard Operations
Tanyard operations transform cured hides into leather, and typically include deliming, bating,
degreasing, pickling, pretanning, tanning, draining /samming / setting, splitting, and shaving.
Deliming, bating, and pickling may also be conducted at fellmongeries, which sell pickled skins
as an intermediate product.

Fig. 2 Drum
Tanning
 Tanning allows stabilization of the collagen fiber through a cross-linking action. The tanned
hides and skins are tradable intermediate products (wet-blue). Tanning agents can be categorized
in three main groups namely mineral (chrome) tanning agents; vegetable tanning agents; and
alternative tanning agents (e.g. syntans, aldehydes, and oil tanning agents). About 90 percent of
leathers are tanned with salts of chromium (in its trivalent form), especially chromium (III)
sulphate.

Vegetable Tanning
-Oak/chestnut bark/wood
- Leaves
-Fruits/flowers

Mechanical Process
Tanning
Chrome Tanning (90%)

Chemical Process
Alternate Tanning
-Syntan
- Aldehydes
-Oil Tanning

Fig. Tanning and its classification

Tanning involves a complex combination of mechanical and chemical processes. The heart of the
process is the tanning operation itself in which organic or inorganic materials become chemically
bound to the protein structure of the hide and preserve it from deterioration. The substances generally
used to accomplish the tanning process are chromium or extracts from bark of trees, such as chestnut.
These tanning agents give rise to the two predominant types of tanning operations - chrome and
vegetable tanning.

1. Chrome Tanning
First proposal for a chrome tannage were made by the German Chemist Knapp in 1858, it was not
until 1884 that a successful process was worked out by the American, Schultz (this was two bath
process). One bath process was introduced by another American Martin Dennis, in 1893. The
chrome tanning is much quicker than vegetable tanning.
The leather that you buy at the store is not naturally tanned. It is chemically tanned with chromic
acids. These acids are very cheap to use but are unfortunately quite toxic and make an inferior
leather.
Most leather produced is chrome tanned. Chromium is an element that can occur in three main forms.
Elemental chromium is metallic chromium and used in the formation of stainlesss steel or chromium
plating. Trivalent chromium (Cr III) is a safe form of the element and is essential for human
nutrition. It is also the form used for tanning leather. Chromium IV is the hazardous form of the
element. Over 85% of global leather production is tanned with chromium and it offers a versatile and
stable leather products for multiple uses. In some conditions, however, chromium III can convert to
the hazardous chromium IV. This is mainly because of poor process control in the tannery and non
ideal chemical selection. Chrome tanning produces leather, a pale blue colour due to chromium
commonly called wet blue and better suited for certain applications, particularly for the upper parts
of boots and shoes, and requires less processing time than traditional vegetable tanning. The general
steps required for chrome tanning of leather are shown in Exhibit 1 and described briefly below. No
two tanneries are identical; each has its unique characteristics and subprocesses; some perform only
some of the processes shown and ship their goods to another tannery to complete the processing.
Hides and skins are received from meatpacking plants by truck or railroad car. Each cattlehide is tied
in a bundle weighing approximately 25 kg. The bundles are cut open and the hides unfolded,
inspected, and usually split along the backbone, producing two sides from each hide. Next follows a
sequence of wet operations. The sides are soaked in water to return some of the lost natural moisture.
The remaining flesh or fatty substance adhering to the inside or flesh surface of the side is removed;
these fleshings are usually either rendered in the tannery or sold. The cattlehides are then soaked in a
lime and sulfide solution which either loosens or dissolves the attached hair. In some operations, the
hair is only loosened through the caustic action of the lime, with the hair removed mechanically,
followed by washing, drying, and sale as a by-product (for carpet pads and similar uses). However,
the more common approach for hair removal is to completely dissolve the hair and discharge it to the
wastewater stream. Following hair removal, the hides are ready to be prepared for the actual tanning
operation. The hides are placed in large rotating drums and treated in turn with an enzyme solution
and then a salt-acid solution. These operations (respectively called bating and pickling) prepare the
hide for the tanning process. While still in the drum after discharge of the pickling solution, the hides
are tanned. A chromium sulfate solution is added to the drum and the hides and chrome solution are
mixed for periods of up to 24 hours.
Following chrome tanning, all hides have a characteristic blue color caused by the chrome tanning
solution. Upon removal from the tanning drums, excess moisture is removed from the hides through
a wringing operation.

Fig.3 Process Flow Diagram of a Typical Chrome Tannery

Cattlehides are too thick for most purposes so the tanned hides are split using a machine similar to a
horizontal band saw. The splitting operation produces a grain side of more or less uniform thickness.
One surface of this grain side is the original outer surface of the cattlehide and retains the natural
grain. The splitting operation also yields a thin, inner portion of the hide known as a "split" or "blue
drop." Splits have no graining and are often used for suede garments. Both the grain side and the split
may be further processed to form a piece of material of uniform thickness. This operation is called
shaving and results in the removal of small pieces of leather with a consistency similar to very coarse
sawdust.
Another series of wet operations gives the leather the color and other properties desired in the
finished material. The tanned hides are placed into another drum for retanning, coloring, and
fatliquoring. Retanning is a second, shorter tanning operation normally using a tanning agent other
than chromium. After the retanning solution is discharged from the drum, a pigment is added in order
to dye the leather to the desired color. The coloring solution is also discharged from the drum and the
hides are taken out and wrung to remove excess moisture. Next a mixture of oils is added and the
hides and oil are rotated in the drum. This operation, called fatliquoring, helps to produce the desired
softness.
After removal from the retan, color, and fatliquor drum, the leather is dried and physically
conditioned. The two most common approaches to this conditioning are staking and buffing. Staking
is a form of massaging which makes the leather more pliable. Buffing is a light sanding operation
applied to either the grain surface or the underside of a piece of leather. It is used to improve the nap
of the underside or to smooth out surface imperfections on the grain surface.
One or more of several possible finishing steps give the leather the required pattern gloss or
waterproof qualities. Usually all leather receives at least one coat of a liquid finish material. Finishes
are either rolled or sprayed onto the leather. Often three or more coats of finish are applied to leather,
each one followed by a drying cycle. Other finishing operations include embossing, in which patterns
are pressed into the leather surface. Finally, the surface area of each piece of leather is measured
electronically and the area stamped on the underside. The leather is then packaged and stored for
shipment.
Chrome tanned leather holds its shape and suppleness better if it is exposed to water. Another
benefit to this kind of leather is that it can be tanned in different colors, as opposed to vegetable
tanned leather, which is varying shades of brown.
The chrome tanning quality is mainly dependent on the chrome liquor prepared for tanning. IT is
prepared in variety of ways. Some of the popular methds given below –
Chrome liquor – 1
Chrome alum crystals 100 lbs
Sodiumcarbonate (soda ash) 10lbs
Water to make up to 100 gallons.
The chrome alum may be dissolved either in the cold or hot water. In the former case the liquor
will be violet, and in the later it will be green. Both violet and green liquor will tan, but the
leather will be of different nature. The violet liquor produces an elastic and resilient leather,
while green one makes the leather compact in texture and smooth on the grain.
i. Violet liquor-
It is a tedious and slow operation to dissolve chrome alum in cold water. The operation can
be facilitated by taking sufficient water, nearly half filled wooden vat and suspending chrome
alum crystals in a gunny bag. The water should be stirred occasionally by a wooden stirrer.
When alum dissolved, the soda ash should be taken into bucket and dissolve in hot water.
The soda solution should be then be slowly and cautiously added to the alum solution with
constant stirring.
 ii. Green liquor –
For preparing the green liquor the chrome alum dissolved in hot water in a wooden vat. The
soda should be dissolved separately and then added in alum solution cautiously and slowly.
While adding soda solution stir the solution, so that CO2 easily comes out.
Chrome liquor – 2 (Hypo Liquor)
Chrome alum crystals 100 lbs
Hypo (Thiosulphate of soda) 24lbs
Water to make up to 100 gallons.
Follow the same procedure as for green liquor with the proportionate content. Then this hypo
liquor solution should be boiled for 20 to 30 minutes.
About 15 pounds of chrome alum are required to tan 100 pounds of pelt.
Glucose liquor – 3
Sodium or potassium bichromate 100 lbs
Commercial sulphuric acid 115 lbs
Glucose 25 lbs
Water to make up upto 100 gallons.
Wooden vat can be used for making this liquor. But they do not last long and often burst a leak.

Farina Liquor – 4
This is also similar to Glucose liquor and made in the following way –
Sodium or potassium bichromate 100 lbs
Sulphuric acid 115 lbs
Farina 30 lbs
Water to make up upto 100 gallons.
Farina is mixed with water and heated to about 150oF when granuals burst. The hot farina and
water mixture is then added slowly to the bicarbonate and acid mixture stirring all the time.
Basicity of the Liquor
The most important property of an one bath chrome liquor is its ‘basicity’ and determined as the
ration of the chromium to sulphuric acid in the liquor. There are chemical methods to determine
this, but unfortunately no well-equipped chemistry labs in the Indian chrome tanneries to find the
chromium and sulphuric acid content in the liquor. A liquor of 52 of chromium to 96 of SO4 will
produce a satisfactory tannage. This has the basicity of 52:96. The basicity can be increased by
adding soda or decreased by adding sulphuric acid to the liquor.
The proportion of sulphuric acid to 52 parts of chromium(one atom) in chrome liquor is called
Basicity number of Basicity Figure of the that liquor. Now a days a term degree of basicity is
used and it is the ratio of one atom of chrome to sulphuric acid. The basicity number is inversely
proportional to the degree of basicity. In the tanning process, hide fibers absorb chromium from
liquor. The rate of absorption is quicker when basicity is higher. Higher basicity liquor tanned
the leather quickly but of inferior quality. For quality leather the basicity of liquor is optimally
adjusted. The satisfactory basicity number for different hides are as follows:
Animal Skin Basicity number
Indian Cow hides 90-100

The Problems with Chrome Tan

There are some important issues related to chemical tanning-

- Pollution of waterways is the number one problem facing the modern leather tannery (as
well as the folks down-stream), and chrome compounds are the culprit.
- Chrome tan doesn't allow your skin to breathe which makes it very sticky and clammy
against the skin. It's also broken down by the alkalinity of perspiration and soaps (on the
other hand, you can boil chrome tan and it won't affect it a bit, in fact this is a common test
to make sure the hide is fully tanned). I personally think that those black leather jackets
folks where are pretty slick and comfortable.
- However, besides making an inferior leather and polluting the environment, you also have
to special order and deal with these very hazardous chemicals.
- Tanneries use chromium salts that lead to skin irritation and some cases cancer. Chrome
leather products those who comes in direct contact with skin such as gloves and footwear
contain high level of toxic chemicals may react with users’ skin.

2. Vegetable Tanning
Historically, vegetable tanning was done in a series of pits with different concentrations of
tannins. Today many tanners make fine leather using systems of drum and pits and some work with
drums alone, which can greatly reduce the time involved as the drum action speeds the penetration
of tan into the leather.
Vegetable tanning employs the use of extracts from the bark of various trees as the tanning agent.
Since the introduction of chrome tanning, vegetable tanning has decreased in importance. Soles of
shoes have been traditionally vegetable tanned; however, since the introduction of synthetic materials
for shoe soles, vegetable tanning has further decreased in importance. Vegetable tanning is also used
to produce leather used in crafts.
Generally speaking vegetable leathers have good substance, are well filled and comparatively free
from stretch, and can be worked to bring up the natural grain or embossed with various designs,
Early tanners use oak bark which yields excellent leather with a pleasant Characteristics and odor.
With the opening up of the trade routes many other materials were introduced, most of which have
their own characteristics and it is the custom, today, to use blends enabling the tanner to produce
leathers of many different kinds.
The selection of appropriate blend is one of the main problem of tanner. According to the
combination he can provide leather for any need, hard and firm, mellow and soft, light or heavy,
varying in its natural color from dark reddish brown to nearly white. Two englishmaen G. Biggin and
Sir Humphry Davy, who were the first systematically investigate the various tannin contents of
various plants. The vegetable tanning materials can be divided into two groups –
- Pyrogallol group - Infusion of these deposit a pale –colored sediment called bloom and
improves leather solidarity, wearing properties and resistance of water. Hence they are
favoured for sole leather, book binding, upholstery and other purposes where longevity is
essential. The following are the materials mainly used:
Sumach Leaves Sicily
Myrabolams Nuts India
Chestnut Wood France, Italy and USA
Divi-divi Pods Central America
Oak wood Wood Yugoslavia
Oak Bark Bark Great Bratain
 - Catecohol group – These deposit a reddish sediment. They tend to produce more solid
leather. Of pink to reddish color.
Gambier Leaves East Indies
Hemlock Bark Argentine
Mimosa Bark Australia
Pine Bark World wide
Formerly tanners prepared their own tannin infusions by steeping the ground material in
warm water; this process is called leaching.
The resultant liquors were weak and tanned slowly. The fresh or green hides go first into
comparatively oldest and most mellow liquor which is weak in tannin but comparatively rich
in non-tans, the final or freshest liquor is rich in tannin but by comparison, weak in non-tans.
The reason for counter current principle is that if the green hides were placed straight in a
strong liquor, the two outer surfaces would tan rapidly, forming layers impenetrable by
tannin practices, so that the interior would remain untanned. The hide would be case
hardened away. Too much hurry in the early stages is the cause of bad, cracky, half tanned
leather. This method of tanning is normally used for heavy leather. Light leathers such as
calf, sheep and goat skin are exclusively tanned in the drum, pigskins are exception. For
tanning of high class goat skin to produce morocco leather and for high grade calf skin,
process is known as bottle tannage is used. In this process tannin is penetrates the tight
textured goat skin, but slowly with ordinary methods.
Many of the basic steps used in the chrome tanning process are also present in vegetable tanning. The
sequence in which these steps are employed is somewhat different, and there are few finishing
operations associated with vegetable tanning. The processing of hides prior to vegetable tanning
begins with a soak in lime to loosen the hair. Hides are then removed from the lime solution and the
hair is removed mechanically. The hides are then soaked and rinsed, and 5-4 the fleshing operation is
accomplished. Note that in the chrome tanning process, fleshing preceded the hair removal operation.
After fleshing, the hides are trimmed into a roughly rectangular shape and then passed through a bate
and pickle operation similar to that used in the chrome tanning process. Coloring, the next operation,
is often done utilizing a weak tanning solution. Normally vegetable tanned leather is not highly
colored. After coloring, the hides are placed into vats containing the bark extract tanning solution and
moved from a strong tanning solution to a slightly weaker one, then rinsed and partially dried.
True splitting is not usually a part of the vegetable tanning process; however, an operation called
leveling is used to produce a uniformly thick piece of leather. Leveling removes only the thickest
portions of the underside of the hide, and no "split" is produced. Next, the hide is oiled, which is a
process similar to the fatliquoring in chrome tanning. Following oiling, the hide is dried and then
mechanically conditioned.
Virtually no finishing is done at vegetable tanneries. Few, if any, spray finishes are applied and often
the only finishing process employed is pressing to yield a smooth grain surface. Finally, the hides are
measured, packaged, and stored prior to shipment.
Leather that is vegetable tanned results in a leather that can be supple and strong.

Advantages of vegetable tanning

The vegetable tanning has big advantages unsurpassed by any other tanning methods. It provides
an alternative material in fashions, but also to make use of high quality.

- Color and texture have a more natural and organic look.

- It is irregular and handmade which can be leveraged for a unique and genuine aesthetic.
 - High durability and strength, being even far efficient than the majority of synthetic
materials.
- Neutral effect on user’s health
- Due to the gentle processes involving several weeks of treatment, the vegetable –tanned
leather has much longer life than chrome tanned leather.
- It is breathable and produts such as shoes made with it get more comfortable the longer
you use them.
- It also has a distinctively sweet, woody fragrance that is normally associated with leather.
- Can last an entire lifetime and / or bio degradable when it ceases to be used / maintained.
- Remarkable and sought-after aging qualities, a unique patina acquired with use.
- Reusability of the final product and in some cases of the leather
- Created by craftsmen with a historic and valuable knowledge.
- It can only be obtained from cattle that carried a good life, to get a good, strong leather
and it is always a sub-product of the meat industry
- Eco-sustainable industry
- Revitalizes the local society and general culture.
Disadvantages of vegetable tanning
- Production time (about 2-months) as compared to one day for chrome leather.
- High consumption of water, although the result is harmless (contrary to chrome and
aldehyde methods), the use must always be moderate
- Executed by experienced and hard to find workers, that doubles as an advantage that
makes this industry a fair trade one.
- Very high final costs.
- Keep the leather away from heat and never blow dry it, even if it gets wet.
- Cleaning regularly – Use animal hair brushes for cleaning, not brushed made with
synthetic bristles.
- More maintenance - Clean the product once a week. Apply oil or cream conditioner
directly on to the leather , working it into the grain with your finger. Occasionally wax
can also be applied.
-

Drawbacks of Vegetable Tanned Leather –

- The one major drawback of this kind of leather is that is easily damaged by water.
- Exposure to water will cause the leather to change colors, shrink, and become stiff.
- Harden moist/damp weather.
- Hide of varying shades

Leather is used for such a variety of projects that it is important to recognize what type of
leather is best suited for your intended use. Making the best selection will make your end
product more effective and longer lasting.

The kind of leather that would be used for upholstery is very different than the kind of leather
that would be used for clothing or saddles.
Fashion where someone wants to use a different kind of leather, such as crocodile or ostrich, it
is usually to make a fashion statement. The wide variety of available textures and colors mean
that there are leather choices that will suit many tastes.

Natural Tanning

Long ago, days before factories, before blue jeans, and even before Ronald Reagan; people all
over the world made their clothes, footwear and all kinds of stuff out of naturally tanned leathers.

You can make soft, washable leather with emulsified oils and woodsmoke. This is commonly
known as brain, smoke or Indian tanning. Animal brains are traditionally used as the source of
emulsified oils, hence the name, but you can also use eggs or a mixture of soap and oil. Brain tan
is ideal for clothing, bags, beadwork and all kinds of things (such as shoe-laces, pot holders, hair
ties, holding parts of your truck together).

Hides can also be tanned by soaking them in tannic acids derived from tree barks and certain
plants. This is known as bark tan. Bark tan makes a stiff, solid leather that is useful for saddles,
holsters and stiff bags.

Brain Tan

Brain tanning is the most popular method for home tanning. The tools and tanning agents are
common and easy to get, the entire tanning process can be done in a matter of days, and the
finished product is incredibly strong, soft, durable, washable and warm. It cuts the wind, allows
your skin to breath and stretches with the movement of your body. When a hide is brain tanned
with the hair and grain removed it is known as 'buckskin'. Buckskin can be made from any of the
hoofed animals including deer, elk, antelope, sheep, goat, buffalo, even cow (it is the way that a
skin is tanned that makes it 'buckskin', not the fact that it is made from a deer hide). This is also a
great way to tan furs.

Buckskin is particularly valued as a durable yet comfortable outdoor clothing, though it is also
excellent for pouches, moccasins and many other items. It is not water-proof.

Chrome-tanned sheep and deer skins are currently marketed as "buckskin" even though they
have very different physical properties than the traditional material. Traditional methods have
not been industrialized because the tanning process relies on physical manipulation more than
chemicals. This leaves it in the domain of the backyard tanner, where it has long been. The
mystique and reputation of buckskin remains strong however, and commercial interests will
continue to cash in on it.

Bark Tan

A very firm type of bark tan is still produced in many commercial tanneries and is readily
available through almost any leather dealer. This type of bark tan is not nearly as practical to
make at home as the hides must be soaked in tannins for three months to a year or more
(depending on how solid of a leather you want), and it takes a fairly large amount of shredded
bark or plant matter. In fact bark tanning was one of the very first trades to be industrialized in
the US, back in the 1700's (they had mules pulling a giant grinder that would crush the bark).

However, there has been a growing amount of interest in bark tanning at home, and creating
softer bark tans than what is commercially available.

Time needed for tanning harness and belting leather with bark is about four and half months and
six and half months for sole leather. Hence sole leather must be left for tanning 2-months longer.

2.3 Syntans

Leather industry is one of the oldest industries in India and one of the leading foreign exchange
earners for the country and has been characterised under the Red category - The most polluting
industries. The tanneries are associated with the generation of huge amount of liquid effluent.
The effluents generating from tanneries are complex waste induced by a series of chemical and
biological activity to convert the collagen matrix of the skin/hide in to the leather having high
concentration of pollutants and a great variety of composition, which results from changeability
of technological processes conducted in tanneries. Presence of refractory organic compounds like
tannin in tannery wastewater imparts recalcitrance and toxicity. Synthetic tanning materials or
syntan are high molecular organic compounds capable of rendering hides and skins into an
imputrescible substance called leather. Most widely known syntans such as melamine based
syntan, acrylic syntans are manufactured by treating aromatic substances, e.g., cresols, phenols,
naphthalene, etc., with formaldehyde and sulphuric acid. Choice of the raw materials used in the
manufacture of syntan depends mainly on nature of its applications. Syntans are not completely
absorbed by the skin and remain in effluent. Constituent of syntan such as Phenol and
formaldehyde are difficult to be degraded by biological treatment and found to be toxic to
aquatic life. This is invented during WW II, when vegetable tannins were being rationed as part
of the war effort, it’s easy to spot this kind of leather by its creamy white colour.

Formaldehyde, also called methanal (formulated HCHO), an organic compound, the simplest of
the aldehydes, used in large amounts in a variety of chemical manufacturing processes. It is
produced principally by the vapour-phase oxidation of methanol and is commonly sold
as formalin, a 37 percent aqueous solution. Formalin may be dehydrated to trioxane, a crystalline
trimer, or to an amorphous polymer, paraformaldehyde, which is a convenient source of gaseous
formaldehyde.
Formaldehyde and ammonia yield methenamine, or hexamethylenetetramine, which is used as a
urinary antiseptic. Nitration of methenamine gives the explosive cyclonite, or RDX.
Formaldehyde and acetaldehyde react in the presence of calcium hydroxide to give
pentaerythritol, the tetranitrate of which is the explosive PETN. Large quantities of
formaldehyde are used in the manufacture of urea–formaldehyde, phenol–formaldehyde, and
acetal resins. The reaction of formaldehyde with proteins leads to its use in the tanning industry
and in treating various vegetable proteins to render them fibrous. The reactivity with proteins is
also the basis for the use of formaldehyde as a disinfectant, anembalming agent, and a soil
sterilant.
Pure formaldehyde is a colourless, flammable gas with a strong pungent odour. It is extremely
irritating to the mucous membranes and is associated with certain types of cancer in humans and
other animals. Formaldehyde is classified as a human carcinogen(cancer-causing substance).

Considering the refractory nature of tannin observed in the biological treatment, alternate
methods involving advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) have been identified as a feasible
option. Ozone treatment of several types of wastewater containing refractory compounds such as
phenol, dyes, and pesticides has resulted in reduction in chemical oxygen demand (COD)
2,3,4,5. Ozonation of some biorefractory organic compounds like naphthaleine sulfonic acids can
improve biodegradability and thereby allowing an appropriate sequencing of ozonation followed
by an aerobic tannic acid by ozonation has reported total mineralization of tannic acid.

Not all process steps are performed in every tannery and their sequence may change depending
on the hides as show in the Table – 2.

Table 2 Sequence of processes according to different hides (CEC1992)

Processes Cow Hide Sheep Skin Pig Skin
Soaking Yes Yes Yes
Un-hairing Yes Fleshing and Yes
dewooling
Liming Yes - Yes
Deliming Yes - Yes
Bating Yes - Yes
Pickling Yes Yes Yes
Washing - Yes -
Degreasing - Yes* Yes*
Tanning Yes Yes Yes
Splitting Yes - Yes
Shaving Yes - Yes
Retanning Yes Yes Yes
Dyeing Yes Yes Yes
Fat-liquoring Yes Yes Yes
Drying Yes Yes Yes
Buffing Yes - Yes
Finishing Yes Yes Yes
Plating Yes Yes Yes
 Specific to skin process
How to check that the hide is tanned or not?

As to when tanning is complete, small light skins are said to be done, when on pinching up a fold
a white line is produced which remains on flattening out the fold. A more certain test is to cut a
small piece from the thickest part of the hide (neck) and examine the freshly cut edge. If it seems
to be evenly colored all through the tanning is about done. If however, the outside color seems to
extend only part way through, it should be kept in the tan longer. The surest test is to boil the
small piece cut off, in water, a few minutes: if it curls up and become hard or rubbery it is not
done, and the skin should be left in until a small piece is changed but little by boiling.

As a general thing the amounts of tanning solution given as proper will be about exhausted by
tanning given as power will be about exhausted by tanning the indicated amount of hides, though
a few small skins may perhaps be tanned with it by allowing rather longer time and fortifying it
with some fresh solution. Generally it will be as well to dump out spent tan and some care should
be taken to dispose of it where farm animals will not drink it, as although not poisonous to
handles, it would if taken internally probably to fatal. It has a bad effect on soil, killing most of
vegetation it comes in contact with.

Machines used in Tanning

After liming process, limed hides are scraped to remove hair either by hand unhairing knife or by
machine as shown in Fig. Hides fleshed by machine have often gone over again be hand as
machine fails to cut the flesh of the softer bellies and pushes it towards the edges of the hide.

Lime splitting – The scudded hides are split by the Band Knife splitting machine as shown in
Fig.
Fig. Unhairing Machine or Scudding Machine Fig. Fleshing Machine

Fig. Band Knife Splitting machine

Fig. Splitting machine
The tanning may be done in the drum, paddle or pit. The first method (Drum tanning) is more
common.

A wooden drum made by pitch pine wood, which is an ideal material. Teak wood is also
sometimes used if pine wood is not available, but it is heavier and costly. The drums should be
fitted inside with shelves. The drum is fitted with gear to slowly rotate at the rate 10 rpm and
provided with a hallow axle through which the chrome liquor can be introduced. The drum size
varies according to the quantity and size of hides to be tanned. The typical drum size and weight
of pelts are given in the table below:

Table - Typical drum size and weight of pelts

Dia of Drum(ft.) Width (ft) Weight of pelt (lbs)

8 6 1000

7 5 750

6 4 400

Sufficient quantity of water is taken in the drum to get good quality leather. Too large quantity of
water produce soft leather (loose grains), while smaller amount of water imparts tightness to the
leather. 5% salt is added in drum water and then rotate for few minutes to dissolve. The chrome
solution is added and pelts are poured in drum solution and rotate. During rotation, the pelts
rubbed together, drum inside shelves and drum sides, which generate heat. If temperature
increases more than 21oC, then speed of drum is reduced or drum rotation may be stopped for a
while, so that temperature come back to normal inside drum.

If leather is pippy or loose little amount of soda ash (Sodium carbonate) should be added. This
increase basicity of liquor and the tannage heavier. The basicity number in starting of tanning is
about 100 and at the final stage it should be 90 or even 85.
Sammying and Shaving –

The amount of moisture removed (Drying), just after tanning to make hide for shaving. A little
further drying is necessary to make hides properly sammed (or half dried) to allow for
satisfactory shaving. For this hides are kept in yard or hung up for partial drying.

Fig. (a) Sammying Machine (b) Shaving Machine low and High Type

Sammying may be done by sammying machine shown in Fig. 6. This wrings the water out. A
hydro-extractor or centrifugal machine (just like washing machine drier drum) may also be used
with advantage.
The objective of drying is to dry the leather while optimizing leather quality. Drying techniques
include samming, setting, centrifuging, hang drying, vacuum drying, toggle drying ( leather dried
while held under tension on frames using toggles), paste drying (drying method used for upper
leather with corrected grain), and over drying. Samming and setting are used to reduce the
moisture content mechanically before implementing another drying technique. After drying, the
leather may be referred to as ‘crust’, which is a tradable and storable intermediate product.

In the shaving process thickness of leather is reduced to the required thickness. Also in this
process, the uniform thickness of leather achieved by cleaning and leveling the hide. Expert
shaver is need for this purpose. Chrome-tanned leather cannot be shaved on the beam by the
hand knife as vegetable tanned leather can be. For this purpose machines are used. It shaves
down the thicker part of the hide from the butt to the neck practically in one feed. This process is
not good for thin parts of hide like belly and the shanks. For thinner parts, old narrow type
machines are used. The quality of shaving depends on the uniform thickness of the hide, which is
measured by digital screw gauge also called leather thickness gauge.

The shaved hides are sorted for dyeing. Natural chrome leather is light blue in color and no
dyeing is needed for products like football, boots, etc. Dying is done to hide the defects or to
change color of leather.

Light shades of brown – Hides free from defects on grain

Dark brown color - Slight and coverable marks and stains

Black color – Deep marks and other flaws

Shaved sorted hides are weighed called shaved weight.

 Fig. Measuring machine

Finally, the iron is ironed or smooth plated in large factories this process is done by machines.
The machine contains a smooth brass plate which is heated by electric and pressed against
leather for ironing and box grain plate to emboss. Normally the temperature is 120-150oF and
pressure 200-300 tons on the total plate area.
 Fig. Power Hydraulic Embossing and Ironing Machine

Various Tanning Methods

It is clear that treating the skins and hides of animals is essential to how leather made. Various
tanning methds are compared in the following table:

Table – Comparison of different tanning methods

Method Description Ingredient Time (depends Applications
on skin size,
thickness,
chemical
concentration)
Vegetable One of the most Natural tannins Roughly 2 Book binding,
Tanning traditional tanning to (powder or liquid months are apparel, leather
produce rich, warm form) obtained needed stamping and
and natural looking from different carving
tones, though colors parts of plants
obtained can be (bark, wood,
limited leaves, fruits and
fruit pods). The
most frequently
used tannins are
obtained from
oak wood,
Chinese gallnut,
chestnut wood,
mimosa bark
Chrome Almost 80% leather is A solution of Only take up a Saddles, harness,
Tanning produced using chemicals, salt few days footwear and
chrome tanning. and acids leather goods
Aldehyde Aldehyde tanned Aldehyde About a week Automobile,
and leather is white or pale Tanning uses upholstery, kids’
formaldehy cream color. gluttar aldehyde leather shoes.
de Tanning formaldehyde Tanning or oxazolidine
is avoided due to compounds.
harmful effects on formaldehyde
workers. Tanning uses
formaldehyde.
Brain Produces soft, Emulsified oil About a week Clothing, bags,
Tanning breathable and durable obtained from Moccasin and
leather. Origin in animals’ brain lodge covers
norther tungus who like deers, cows
used reindeer’s spinal and buffalo have
fluid to tan reindeer enough lecithin
skin. Americans also to tan their own
used it for basin skin skins.
tanning.
Chamois It is originated in Cod oil or any About two weeks Jackets, small
Tanning before 18th century and other oxidizing bags, automobile
used by France glove mineral oil to drying and
making industry. produce buffing, Shoe
Leather produced is aldehyde for and jewel
porous, gentle and tanning. polishing clothe,
water absorbent grips for sporting
gear.
Rose Leather produced is Rose otto oil 4-5 days Wallet, watch
Tanning very valuable, offering obtained from bands, key fobs,
powerful rose distillation of handbags, and
fragrance even after rose petals accessories.
years of use. without any
chemicals
Synthetic The white color Automatic About a week Sporting goods
Tanning leather was invented in polymer like
world war II when the Navolac or
vegetable tanning was Noradol.
severely affected.
Alum It produces very light Aluminum salts, About a week Saddlery such as
Tanning shades of leather. It is Proteins (egg reins, straps and
of romans periods yolk and flour) whips.
and binders.
Practicle Problems in Tanning
i. Load of pelt into drum – In most of the small and medium scale tanneries, drum (of size
2.4m dia x 2.4m length) is loaded with pelt has door height 150cm to 170cm from ground.
Normal human height of Indian’s is around 160cm and he can lift the load upto shoulder
height comfortably. Hence, for ergonomically easy loading, the height of the drum door
should be at chest level of a person, so that speed and accuracy to react with stimuli to
perfrom taskare better.
ii. Washing procedure after every step – After completing every step the stock is to washed
properly. After washing the water is to be removed completely. But due to leather packed
one on another, it is difficult to make the drum completely empty from liquor and most of
the time atleast 10 to 15% of liquor will remain in the drum. This remaining liquor will cause
some damage to the consecutive process and need extra chemical to neutralize it. It also
need extra drumming time.
iii. Addition of chemical solution – While processing, chemical solution has to be fed to the
drum atleast 10 times through the axle manually, with the help of funnel and mug
pretanning, tanning and post tanning operations. For each feed, time taken may around 10
min. If this is not done, the quality of the leather gets affected.
iv. Unloading of processed leatehr – For taking out the processed leather from the drum,
normally the drum has to rotate atleast 15-20 minutes with door opened. In this prcocess
the stock revolves on the periphery of the drumand liquor spills over the drum and requires
extra water to wash the drum. At the same time the collection of stocks laying on the
ground affect its quality.
To overcome these problems the CLRI, chennai designed and developed in 1996 a new type of Drum
which is not only rotating, but have rocking action also to reduce the process time and make the
leather soft. It requires less water, energy, less chemicals, installation time and better efficiency.
Reduction in effluent treatment reduces overheads and environmental pollution. Also reduce the
leather production cost.

Post Tanning Operations

The acidity of tanned hides are typically pH value between 3.8-4.2 and after pickling the value
comes down to the range of 2.8 – 3.2. After tanning and washing out, the next step is drying out
unless it is desired to color the leather. Never dry out sides or strips in the sun or near heat. A
shady, not too airy place is best. Do not let them dry without oiling while still damp. The
difference in time required to make leather is mainly due to the slow or quick action of the
tanning solutions. This varies from two or three days’ immersion in acid solution for light skins,
to as much as seven and a half month in bark solution required for sole leather.

Post-tanning operations involve

- neutralization and bleaching,
- re-tanning,
- dyeing, and
- fat-liquoring.
 These processes are mostly undertaken in a single processing vessel. Specialized
operations may also be performed to add certain properties to the leather product (e.g.
water repellence or resistance, oleophobicity (oil repellent or resist), gas permeability,
flame retardancy, abrasion resistance, and anti-electrostatic properties).

Neutralization
Neutralization is the process by which the tanned hides are brought to a pH suitable for re-
tanning, dyeing, and fat-liquoring. Neutralization is performed using weak alkalis such as:
- Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) or
- Ammonium bicarbonate
- Sodium formate, (HCOO Na) or
- Ammonium formate (NH4HCOO)
- Sodium acetate (CH3COONa) or
- Ammonium acetate (CH3COONH4).
After neutralization, leather may be dried, generating an intermediate tradable product
called white crust.
Bleaching
Vegetable-tanned skins and leathers with wool or hair may need to be bleached to remove
stains or to reduce the coloring before re-tanning and dyeing. Making the leather color fade
may be achieved using treatment with chemicals (e.g. bleaching agents) or exposure to the
sun / weather elements.
Re-tanning
The re-tanning process is performed to improve the leather characteristics and the re-wetting
properties (e.g. the introduction of liquid, such as water, into hides, skins or dried leather) of
the hides necessary to facilitate and optimize the subsequent dyeing process. A wide variety
of chemicals may be used for the re-tannage of leather, including vegetable tanning extracts,
syntans, aldehydes, resins, and mineral tanning agents.
Mordanting –

Mordant also called dye fixative – is a substance used to set or bind dye on fabrics or tissues.

Vegetable mordant

- Increase the affinity between chrome tanned leather and dyes.

- It makes the leather fuller, somewhat tightened and capable of taking bright gloss.

Dyeing

After mordant the leather is ready for dyeing. Dyeing is performed to produce colors in
hides/skins. Typical dyestuffs include water-based acid dyes. Basic and reactive dyes are less
commonly used. A wide range of dyestuff is available with different characteristics and physico-
chemical resistances (e.g. to light, PVC migration, sweat migration, among others).

What is the difference between coloring and dyeing?

There are three principal dyes -

- Basic Dye – Chemical salt of color base
- Acid dye – salts of colored organic acid with an inorganic base (most commonly
sodium).A strong acid must be added to the dye bath to decompose this salt and liberate
the color acid absorbed by leather.
- Direct or substantive dye –dyes are those which dye cotton directly without the help of
tannin or other mordant. This is most suitable for dyeing leather into deep black shade.
The majority of plant dyes, however, also need the use of a mordant, a chemical used to
fix the color in the textile fibers. These dyes are called adjective dyes.

Acid and direct dyes do not produce intense and brilliant shades as basic dye, but they dye
level and don’t exaggerate defects of the grain.

Vegetable Dye

The majority of natural dyes are vegetable dyes from plant sources – roots, berries, leaves,
and wood and other biological sources such as fungi and lichens. Archaeologists have found
evidences of textile dyeing dating back to the Neolithic period. In China dyeing with plants,
barks and insects has been traced back more than 5000 years. The essential process of dyeing
changed little over time. Many natural dyes require the use of chemicals called mordants to
bind the dye to textile fibers. In 21st century, the market of natural dyes in the fashion
industry is experiencing a resurgence. Western consumers have become more concern about
the health and environmental impact of synthetic dyes in manufacturing and there is growing
demand for the products that use the natural dyes. The types of natural dyes currently in use
by the global fashion industry include:

Animal derived dyes

- Cochineal insect (red)

- Cow urine (Indian Yellow)
- Lac inset (red, violet)
- Murex snail (purple)
- Octopus / Cuttlefish (Sepia brown)

Plant derived dyes

- Catechu or cutch tree (brown)

- Gamboge tree resin (dark mustered yellow)
- Himalayan rhubarb roots (yellow)
- Indigofera plant (blue)
- Kamala tree (red)
- Larkspur plant (yellow)
- Madder root (red, pink, orange)
- Mangosteen peel (green, brown, dark brown, purple, crimson)
 - Myrabolan fruit (yellow, green, black)
- Pomegranate peel (yellow)
- Teak leaf (crimson to marron)
- Weld herb (yellow)

Issue related to dye

Many mordants and dye, and some dye themselves, produce strong odors, and large scale dye
works were often isolated in their own districts.

Synthetic dye

The discovery of man made synthetic dyes in the mid 19th century triggered a long decline in
the large scale market for natural dyes. Synthetic dyes, which could be produced in large
quantities, quickly superseded natural dyes for commercial textile production enabled by the
industrial revolution,

Fat-liquoring
Fat-liquoring is the process by which leathers are lubricated to achieve product-specific
characteristics and to reestablish the fat content lost in the previous procedures. The oils used
may be of animal or vegetable origin, or may be synthetic products based on mineral oils.
Stuffing is an old technique used mainly for heavier vegetable-tanned leather. Sammed
leathers are treated in a drum with a mixture of molten fat. The re-tanned, dyed, and fat-
liquored leathers are then acidified by formic acid for fixation and usually washed before
being aged to allow the fat to migrate from the surface to the inside of the pelt.

The finished leather is measured with the measuring machine shown below. Leather is sold
by the square foot (area of leather) or by the pound (weight of leather). In tanneries the hides
are measured and usually sold in whole piece. Actually, the area of each hide is different and
no two pieces are exactly the same. The cut piece of leather also sold in square foot.

2.5 Finishing operations

The finishing stage is where the leather’s aesthetics are enhanced to impart a natural look.
The dressing and finishing is quite complicated process and require great skill. They have a
profound and important influence on the nature of finished product.
The softening and finishing are at once a very important and also laborious part of tanning. A
part of softening is accomplished by oiling, but all oil or grease applied should be worked
into the leather. Such rubbing, rolling and bending works the oil into the pores and lubricate
the fibers so they slide over each other. All softening process begin when the tanned skins
are partly dry and are continued until they are fully dry and sufficiently flexible. They should
be at least slightly damp at first and the oiling and working continued until dry.
Sole leather is not worked up soft but kept flat and dressed with heavier grease. Light leather
and skins for robe or garment use must be perfectly soft and require much working over.
Finishing operations enhance the appearance of the leather and provide the performance
characteristics expected in the finished leather with respect to color, gloss, feel, flex, and
adhesion as well as other properties including stretchability, break, light and perspiration
fastness, water vapor permeability, and water resistance.
Finishing operations can be divided into:
- Mechanical finishing processes and
- Surface coat applications.

Mechanical Finishing Processes

A wide range of mechanical finishing operations may be performed to improve the
appearance and the feel of the leather. The following list of operations includes commonly
used mechanical finishing operations, although the list is not exhaustive and many other
operations exist for special leathers:
 Conditioning (optimizing the moisture content in leathers for subsequent operations);
 Staking (softening and stretching the leather);
 Buffing / dedusting (abrading the leather surface and removing the resulting dust
from the leather surface);
 Dry milling (mechanical softening);
 Polishing;
 Plating / embossing (flattening or printing a pattern into the leather).
These operations may be conducted before, after, or in-between the application of coatings.
Surface Coat Application
A wide range of surface coat application methods exist, including the following:
 Padding or brushing the finishing mix onto the leather surface;
 Spray coating, which involves spraying the finishing material with pressurized air in
spray cabinets;
 Curtain coating, which involves passing the leather through a curtain of finishing
material;
 Roller coating, which involves the application of finishing mix through a roller;
 Transfer coating, which involves the transfer of a film / foil onto leather previously
treated with an adhesive.
Finishing products include polyurethanes, acrylic-based chemicals, silicon, oily and waxy
compounds, among others.

Robe Skins

Horse and cattle hides, when selected and tanned properly, can be made into warmest and
handsomest of robes. Everyone likes to use nice furs. There is a warmth and luxury about
them not to be matched by any cloth or fiber. All ingenuity of man has never been able to
produce any textile which affords such a light, warm covering as Nature’s production against
the cold.
In selecting hides for robes get those with good length of hair and free from blemishes, if
possible. The usual size robe is 60 x 72 inches and one horse or cow hide of average size
will make one.
 It will require 2or 3 yearlings or kips and 4 to 8 calves or 6 to 10 sheep or goatskins to make
such a robe. Brown or black sheep pelts with a medium or short fleece make nice robes and
warm ones, too.
Use care in soking robe skins not to loosen the hair or grain in any place. A good soaking
solution for skins to be tanned with the hair on is made as follows:
24 gals. Cold, soft water
3 pts soft soap
3 oz. borax,
4.5 oz. sulphuric acid.
Large dry hides should soften in this solution overnight and small or green ones need but a few
hours to make them soft and flexible, ready for fleshing. Flesh thoroughly on beam, then wash
well in clean water, put on the beam again and work over again to get rid of dirty water. Once
completely clean then hides are tanned.

How do we protect stored hides?

Cured hides and skins are often attacked by insects and worms during storage and transportation.
This is especially true in the case of dried hides and skins not cured with salt and of those in
tropical and semi-tropical countries. Hide poisons are applied as protection against insects and
worms.

How to fold a hide?

As a rule hides are folded so that the hair side is out.
1. Fold in the head and neck on the body of the hide, flesh surfaces together, and turn in the tail.
2. Make a narrow fold on each side by throwing the belly edge and leg upon the body of the hide.
3. Fold the legs back on these laps.
4. Bring the break of each fold near the middle line of the back
5. Complete the side folds by bringing the two breaks of the fold thus made together, with the middle line of
the back as the main fold, thus making one long, rectangular bundle.
6. Throw the butt end of the folded hide forward about 4/5th of the distance to the neck fold.
7. Fold the forward portion of the bottom lap back on top of the first fold.
8. Bring the break of the rear fold even with that of the fold just make. This makes a neat square bundle ready
or tying.
9. Tie the bundle tightly by passing the rope around it in two directions. Wire should never be used, as it is
liable to damage the hide by rusting.
10. When more than one are to be shipped place two folded skins together and tie into one bundle instead of
typing each one separately.
Sheepskins are bundled differently from either cattle hides or calfskins. Lay the wool side down, the fold the
skins along the median line of the back, having the wool side out. As many as five skins folded in this manner
can be placed in a single bundle for shipment. It is not advisable to place more than that number in one bundle,
as the wool helps to generate heat very rapidly.
 Classes and Grades

In general leather is produced in the following grades –

- Top grains leather includes the outer layer of the hide known as the grain, which features finer,
more densely packed fibers, resulting in strength and durability. Depending on thickness, it may
also contain some of the more fibrous under layer, known as corium. Top grain leather contains
o Full grain leather, which contains the entire grain layer, without any removal of the
surface. It is considered as highest quality leather used in furniture and footwear. Full
grain leather is finished with a soluble aniline dye. Russia leather is a form of full grain
leather.
o Corrected grain leather – It has the surface subjected to finishing treatments to create a
more unifrom appearance. This usually envolves buffing or sanding away flaws in the
grain, then dying and embosing the surface.
o Nubuck is a top grain leather that has been sanded or buffed on the grain side to give a
slight nap of short protein fibres, producing a velvet like surface.
- Split leather is created from the corium left once the top grain has been seperated from the
hide, known as the drop split. In thicker hides, the drop split can be furhter split into middle split
and flesh split.
o Suede is made from the underside of a split to create a soft , napped finish. It is often
made from younger and smaller animals, as the skins of adults often result in a coarse,
shaggy nap.
o Bicast leather is a split leather tha has a polyurethane or vinyle layer applied to the
surface and embossed to give it the appearance of a grain. It is slightly stiffer than top
grain leather but has a more consistent texture.
o Patent leather is leather that has been given a high gloss finish by the addition of a
coating.
- Bonded leather, also called reconstituted leather, is a material that uses leather scraps that are
shreded and bonded togather with PU or latex onto fiber mesh. The amount of leather fibers in
the mix varies from 10% to 90% affecting the properties of the product.
-
 During certain times of the year, hides and skins often are damaged by grub holes and because
of this a selection or grading based on the number of grub holes is generally made during the
grubbling season. Packer hides with fewer than 5 grub holes are graded as no. 1, While those
with 5 or more are graded as No. 2.

Stages of hides / skins from raw to finish

 Raw hides / skins (Called before its tanning operations)

 Green hides / skins (Called when removed from carcass)

 Pelt (Called after pickling and before tanning)

 Wet blue (Called after tanning when it is wet & blue in color)

 Crust (A stage when hides / skins are dyed & dried)

 Finished Leather (After the completion of all finishing operations)

2.6 Some Technical Terms

Adsorbable Organic Halogen (X) - the total concentration in milligrams per litre, expressed as
chlorine, of all halogen compounds (except fluorine) present in a sample of water that are
capable of being adsorbed on activated carbon.
Advanced (plant or processing) - a plant which has adopted measures to reduce its
environmental impact, or processing within such a plant.
Age allow the completion of tanning or fatliquoring within the hide or skin material during a
planned pause in processing.
Aniline leather a leather that has been coloured with aniline dyestuffs only, with little or no
finishing, to obtain a 'natural' leather look.
Animal by-products regulation Regulation EC No 1069/2009 laying down health rules
concerning animal by-products not intended for human consumption, as implemented by
Regulation EC No 142/2011.
Basic chromium sulphate Cr(OH)SO4 or chromium(III) hydroxide sulphate (CAS No. 12336-
95-7).
Bating the manufacturing step which follows liming and precedes pickling. The purpose of
bating is to clear the grain, reduce swelling, peptise fibres and remove protein degradation
products.
Beamhouse/Limeyard that portion of the tannery where the hides are soaked, limed, fleshed and
unhaired, when necessary, prior to the tanning process.
Biofilter packed bed scrubber in which micro-organisms digest substances dissolved in the water
film, usually packed with wood chips.
Bovine of or from ox,steer, cow, calf and buffalo.
Brining curing hides by washing and soaking in a concentrated salt solution.
Snuffing – In order to remove slight grain defects or to provide a slightly roughened surface,
which will hold finishes securely, a very thin film is removed from the grain surface by pressing
the leather against a rapidly revolving cylinder covered with emery paper. The grain pattern is
only slightly affected by this process.
Buffing – This process is similar to snuffing, but a thicker layer is removed. This is an abrasive
treatment of the leather surface. If it is carried out on the flesh side, a 'suede' leather is obtained.
If it is carried out on the grain side, a corrected grain or a nubuck leather is obtained.
By-product object or substance meeting the requirements of Article 5 of Directive 2008/98/EC
or any succeeding directive.
Calf skin the skin of a young immature bovine animal not exceeding a certain weight.
Collagen the principal fibrous protein in the corium of a hide or skin that, on tanning, gives
leather.
Conditioning introduces controlled amounts of moisture to the dried leather, giving it a varying
degree of softness.
Conventional (plant or processing) a plant which has not adopted measures to reduce its
environmental impact, or processing within such a tannery.
Crust leather leather which has simply been dried after tanning, retanning and dyeing, without a
further finishing process.
Curing preventing the degradation of hides and skins from the time they are flayed in the
slaughterhouse until the processes in the beamhouse are started.
Degreasing removing, as far as possible, the natural grease in the skin.
Deliming removing the lime from hides coming from the beamhouse before tanning.
Dewooling separating the wool from sheepskins.
Drum a cylindrical closed process vessel rotating on a horizontal axis (see Figure 2.3).
Dyeing giving the desired colour by treatment with natural or synthetic dyestuff.
Embossing printing a pattern into the leather surface using heat and pressure. It is sometimes
carried out with rollers but more often with platesupon which the pattern has been engraved.
Embossed leathers are usually vegetable tanned, chromed leather is not so amenable to
embossing.
Existing (installation, plant or processing vessel) an installation, plant or processing vessel
which is not a new installation, plant or processing vessel.
Fatliquoring incorporating fat or oil into the leather in order to give it flexibility and
impermeability.
Fellmongery plant in which goatskins or sheepskins are processed to the pickled state.
Finishing a) mechanical finishing operations to improve the appearance and the feel of the
leather e.g.: conditioning, staking, buffing, dry milling, polishing, plating/embossing
b) applying or fixing a surface coat to the leather.
Fogging the propensity of finished leather to release condensable volatile matter. The limitation
of this property is an important specification for automotive leathers.
Glazing - Many leathers are given a bright, glass like finish with the help of glazing machines,
which draws a glass or agate tool rapidly across it under pressure.
Grain can mean: a) the outer, or hair side, of a hide or skin that has been split into layers or b)
the pattern visible on the outer surface of a hide or skin after the hair or wool has been removed.
Greaves the solid residue which remains after rendering or fat extraction.
Green fleshing fleshing done prior to liming and unhairing.
Hard COD total residual COD, including the inert non-treatable fraction and that part beyond
the capacity of a particular treatment.
Hides the pelts of large animals, such as cattle or horses.
Horse' wooden or plastic trestle on which hides or skins are piled up to age after tanning or
fatliquoring.
Inclined processor another name for a mixer.
Leather is a general term for hide or skin which still retains its original fibrous structure more or
less intact, and which has been treated so as to be non-putrescible.
Limed hide or skin hide or skin obtained after elimination of hair, epidermis and subcutaneous
tissue. This is the name given to hides and skins after liming.
Lime fleshing fleshing done after the liming and unhairing.
Liming is the process which causes a controlled alkaline hydrolysis of the collagen in order to
remove the hair or wool, epidermis and subcutaneous tissue and thus to give a certain flexibility
to the leather.
Mineral tanning the tanning process where the tanning agents are mineral salts such as those of
chromium, (or occasionally aluminium, or zirconium).
Mixer cylindrical processing vessel, open at one end, rotating about an inclined axis. Also
known as an inclined processor. An example is shown in Figure 2.2.
Neutralisation bringing the tanned hides to a pH suitable for the process of retanning, dyeing
and fatliquoring.
New (installation, plant or processing vessel)
an installation, plant or processing vessel introduced onto the site of the installation following the
publication of the bat conclusions.
Ovine of or from sheep.
Painting unhairing a skin by the action of a paste (the painting lime) applied on the flesh side.
The painting lime is made of water, lime, sodium sulphide and a thickening agent.
Particulate Matter (as an air pollutant)
solid or liquid particles small enough to be suspended in air. Unless a size fraction is stated
particulate matter includes all sizes of particles which can become suspended.
Pickled pelt a skin after pickling and able to be sold at this stage.
Pickling the process that follows bating, whereby the skin or hide is immersed in a brine and
acid solution to bring it to an acid condition.
Pit an open tank (often set into the ground).
Plating flattening leather by heat and pressure.
Qualified random sample a composite sample of at least five random samples taken over
a maximum period of two hours at intervals of no less than two minutes, and blended.
Raw hide hide as received by the tannery; or the commodity consisting of such hides.
Rawhide material consisting of hide (or skin) which been cleaned and dried, but not tanned.
May be a tannery by-product.
Retanning subjecting a skin or hide, which has been more or less completely tanned, to a second
tanning process involving similar or, more usually, different tanning materials, to produce leather
with specific properties.
Rinsing / running water washes
washing accomplished by the continuous inflow and outflow of water in a treatment apparatus.
Now unusual because of the high water consumption.
Salting curing using dry salt (NaCl) hides or skins are dried as a result.
Samming or Sammying mechanical reduction of water content by squeezing between rollers.
Produces an effluent containing substances used in the preceding step.
Setting out mechanical finishing process to flatten the surface. Removes some water.
Shavings leather particles obtained during thickness levelling on leather with the help of a
cylinder equipped with cutting blades.
Soaking first process in the manufacture of leather, to rehydrate and wash the hides or skins.
containing a limited amount of water requires more robust geared drives because the mass being
rotated is uneven. When less water is present, the quantity of each process chemical discarded
unreacted is reduced. There is also a reduction in the energy used to heat water, because heated
water use is reduced.
Skin the pelt of a small animal, such as calf, pig or sheep.
Split the non-grain part of a split hide.
Splitting the horizontal splitting of hides and skins into a grain layer and, if the hide is thick
enough, a flesh layer. Splitting is carried out on splitting machines, fitted with a band knife.
Splitting can be done in the limed condition or in the tanned condition.
Staining – This consists in coloring the leather by wiping over the surface with a dye solution, in
which the flesh surgfac is not colored.
Staking softening and stretching of leather.
Tallow non-edible or 'technical' fat.
Syntans or syn-tans synthetic tanning agents.
Tanning (process step) stabilisation of collagen fibres by tanning agents so that the hide or skin
is no longer susceptible to putrefaction or rotting. For clarity, the general meaning of tanning has
been used only in defining the scope of the BREF.
Tanyard the part of the tannery where the processes of pickling and tanning are carried out.
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen the sum of nitrogen present as organic nitrogen, ammonia and
ammonium compounds measured using the Kjeldahl technique.
Trimming cutting off some of the edges of the hides and skins, such as legs, tails, face, udders
etc. This process is generally carried out during the sorting process, but is also done in other
stages in the tanning process.
Trimmings the residues arising from the trimming the hides and skins.
Upholstery leather leather manufactured for covering furniture, or seats of aircraft
or vehicles.
Urban waste water treatment plant a plant subject to Directive 91/271/EEC.
Vegetable tanning the tanning process carried out with vegetable tanning agents, which are
leached from wood, bark, leaves, roots etc.
Wetting back re-hydration.
Wet blue a hide or skin which has been limed and chromium-tanned, therefore blue in colour,
and left moist. It may be stored or traded in this state.
Wet white a hide or skin which has been limed and has been tanned with non-chromium agents
and therefore remains off-white in colour, and moist. May be stored for a limited period or traded.
Reference:
You tube video may be seen

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SWUCC00yGd8

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zbj1QicTdpI

? Difference between wet blue and wet white Hide?