VARIABLE LOAD

Variable Load
OBJECTIVES:
By the end of this lecture, the students will be able to:
• Explain the electric power system from generation to distribution.
• Differentiate the types of load curves
• Review the different categories of load.
• Apply the definitions and equations related to variable loading in assessing power plants
• Analyze base load and peak load and the advantages of interconnecting grids
• Solve engineering problems on variable loading.
Variable Load
Electric Power System
Generation, Transmission and Distribution
Variable Load

“The power plant product is not

completed until the instant it is needed,
and then only in quantities exactly equal
to the instantaneous demand”
 Variable Load
A device which taps electrical energy from the
Load on a power station
electric power system

The load on a power station that varies from time to time

Variable Load due to uncertain demands of the consumers

Effects of variable load on a power station

 Need for an additional equipment.
 Increase in production cost
 Variable Load
Load Categories: mainly consists of lights, fans, refrigerators, air-conditioners, mixer,
grinders, heaters, ovens, small pumping motors etc.

mainly consists of lighting for shops, offices, advertisements etc., fans,

Domestic heating, air-conditioning and many other electrical appliances used in
commercial establishments such as market places, restaurants etc.
Commercial
Industrial
consist of small-scale industries, medium-scale industries, large-scale
Agriculture industries, heavy industries and cottage industries.

mainly motor pump-sets load for irrigation purposes.

Variable Load
The curve showing the variation of load on
Load Curves the power station with reference to time

Types of Load Curve:

1. Daily load curve
2. Monthly load curve
3. Yearly load curve
 Variable Load
Daily Load Curve Graph of load variations during the whole day (i.e., 24 hours)
are recorded half-hourly or hourly and are plotted against time.
 Variable Load
Daily Load Curve
 The daily load curve shows the variations of load on the power station during different hours
of the day.
 The area under the daily load curve gives the number of units generated in the day.
 The highest point on the daily load curve represents the maximum demand on the station
on that day.
 The area under the daily load curve divided by the total number of hours gives the average
load on the station in the day.
 The ratio of the area under the load curve to the total area of rectangle in which it is
contained gives the load factor.
 The load curve helps in selecting the size and number of generating units.
 The load curve helps in preparing the operation schedule of the station.
 Variable Load
 The can be obtained from the daily load curves of that month.
 For this purpose, average values of power over a month at different
Monthly Load Curve times of the day are calculated and then plotted on the graph.
 The monthly load curve is generally used to fix the rates of energy.

 Obtained by considering the monthly load curves of that particular

Yearly Load Curve year.
 The yearly load curve is generally used to determine the annual load
factor.
 Variable Load
Important Terms and Factors:
Connected load sum of continuous ratings of all the equipment connected to supply system.

Example 1: Typical House Equipment/Appliances

The sum of the connected
20 – 20kW Fluorescent lamp
loads of all the consumers is
1- 50” LED TV rated at 100kW ; 3- 32” LCD TV rated at 70kW each ;
the connected load to the
1- 9000 BTU airconditioner at 900kW ; 1 - 1000 kW microwave ;
power station.
1- 1100kW flat iron ; 1 – Desktop computer at 250kW ;
3 – 75kW electric fans ; 2 – refrigerators rated at 200kW each
1 – freezer rated at 400kW ; 1 – hair dryer rated at 1900kW

the connected load on this house is?

 Connected load = 6, 885 kW

Variable Load
Maximum Demand the greatest demand of load on the power station during a given period.

Example 2: Typical House Daily Load Curve

The station must be

capable of meeting the
maximum demand

the maximum demand of this house?

 Maximum Demand = 6 MW

Variable Load

Demand Factor The ratio of maximum demand on the power station to its connected load

The knowledge
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = of demand factor is vital
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 in determining the
capacity of the plant
equipment.

Example 3: Typical House Daily Load Curve

the demand factor of station based on this house daily load?

 Demand Factor = 0.871

Variable Load
The average of loads occurring on the power station in a given period (day
Average Load or month or year)
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 (𝑘𝑊ℎ) 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐷𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 =
24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

Unit generated/day= Area (in kWh) under daily load curve

𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 (𝑘𝑊ℎ) 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ

𝑀𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 =
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ

𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 (𝑘𝑊ℎ) 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

𝑌𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 =
8760 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
 Variable Load
TYPICAL HOUSE DAILY CONSUMPTION

CONSUMPTION
FROM TO DURATION (HRS)
(MW)

12 MN 2 AM 1 2

Example 4: Typical 2 AM 3 AM 1.5 1

House Daily
3 AM 4 AM 1.75 1

4 AM 5 AM 2.5 1
Consumption 5 AM 6 AM 3.5 1
the average load in kW
6 AM 7 AM 4.25 1 based on this house daily
7 AM 9 AM 3.8 2
load is?
9 AM 12 NN 2.5 3

12 NN 1 PM 3.5 1

1 PM 4 PM 4 3

4 PM 5 PM 4.5 1

5 PM 6 PM 5.5 1

6 PM 7 PM 6 1

7 PM 8 PM 4.25 1
Do a daily load curve
8 PM 9 PM 3 1

9 PM 11 PM 2 2

11 PM 12 MN 1 1
 Average Load = 3,097.917 kW

Variable Load
The ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a given period
Load Factor

The load factor plays key

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 role in determining the
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = overall cost per unit
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
generated. Higher the
load factor of the power
station, lesser will be the
cost per unit generated.
Example 5: Typical House Daily Load Consumption

the load factor of station based on this house daily load?

 Load Factor = 0.516

Variable Load

The ratio of the sum of individual maximum demands to the maximum

Diversity Factor demand on power station

The greater the diversity

factor, the lesser is the cost of
generation of power

𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
 Variable Load
The ratio of actual energy produced to the maximum possible
Plant Capacity Factor energy that could have been produced during a given period

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑

𝑃𝐶𝐹 =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑

If the time used is equal to the

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 total time of time period
𝑃𝐶𝐹 =
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑋 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

The plant capacity factor is an

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 indication of the reserve
𝑃𝐶𝐹 = capacity of the plant
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
 Variable Load
Reserve Capacity = Plant Capacity
– Maximum Demand

Example 6: Typical House Daily Load Consumption

Plant Capacity = 7.2 MW

the reserve capacity of station based

on this house daily load?

the Plant capacity factor of station based

on this house daily load?
 Reserve Capacity = 1.2 MW

Plant Capacity Factor = 0.430

Variable Load
The ratio of kWh generated to the product of plant capacity and the
Plant Use Factor number of hours for which the plant was in operation

𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟

𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑋 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑠𝑒

The plant capacity factor is an

Example 7: Typical House Daily Load Consumption indication of the reserve
capacity of the plant

the plant use factor of station based on this house daily load?
 Plant Use Factor = 0.430

Variable Load
Graph of load variations wherein the load elements of a load curve are
Load Duration Curve arranged in the order of descending magnitudes

Importance of Load Duration Curve

 The load duration curve gives the data in a more presentable form
 The area under the load duration curve is equal to that of the corresponding load curve
 The load duration curve can be extended to include any period of time
 By laying out the abscissa from 0 hour to 8760 hours, the variation and distribution of demand for an
entire year can be summarized in one curve (annual load duration curve)
Variable Load

LOAD LOAD DURATION

CURVE CURVE
 Variable Load
HOMEWORK 2:

A generation station of 1MW supplied a region which has the following demands:

Neglect transmission line losses and find the following:

1. Plot the daily load curve and the load duration curve.
2. Find the load factor, the reserve capacity, plant capacity factor, plant use factor, the hours that the plant has
been off and utilization factor.
 Variable Load
Average Load = 179.167 kW Example 9:

Load Factor = 0.199 or 19.9% A generation station has a maximum demand of 20 MW, a load
factor of 60%, plant capacity factor of 48% and plant use factor of
Reserve Capacity = 100 kW 80%. Find:

Plant Capacity Factor = 0.179

1. The daily energy produced
Plant Use Factor = 0.391 2. The reserve capacity
3. The number of operating hours per daily
4. The maximum energy that could be produced daily if the
Utilization Factor = 0.900
generation station was running all the time.
Hours Off = 13 Hrs.
 Variable Load
Energy Produced = 288 MWH

Reserve Capacity = 5 MW

Operating Hours = 14.4 Hrs

Maximum Energy = 600 MWH

Example 10:

A generation station of 10MW supplied two regions

(A and B) which have the following demands:

Find the diversity factor.

 Diversity Factor = 1.333

Variable Load
Load Curves and Selection of Generating Units
 Variable Load
Important Points in the Selection of Units

 The number and sizes of the units should be so selected that they approximately fit the annual load curve of
the station.
 The units should be preferably of different capacities to meet the load requirements. Although use of
identical units (i.e., having same capacity) ensures saving* in cost, they often do not meet the load
requirement.
 The capacity of the plant should be made 15% to 20% more than the maximum demand to meet the future
load requirements.
 There should be a spare generating unit so that repairs and overhauling of the working units can be carried
out.
 The tendency to select a large number of units of smaller capacity in order to fit the load curve very
accurately should be avoided. It is because the investment cost per kW of capacity increases as the size of
the units decreases.
 Variable Load
Example 11: Selection of generating units:

A proposed station has the following daily load cycle :

Time in hours 6—8 8—11 11—16 16—19 19—22 22—24 24—6

Load in MW 20 40 50 35 70 40 20

Draw the load curve and select suitable generator units from the 10,000, 20,000,
25,000, 30,000 kVA. Prepare the operation schedule for the machines selected
and determine the load factor from the curve
 Variable Load
Base Load and Peak Load on Power Station

Base load
The unvarying load which occurs almost
the whole day on the station

Peak load
The various peak demands of load over and
above the base load of the station
 Variable Load
Method of Meeting the Load:
base load power station The more efficient plant used to supply the base load
peak load power station The less efficient plant used to supply the peak load
 Variable Load
Example 12:

A base load station having a capacity of 18 MW and a standby station having a capacity of 20 MW
share a common load. Find the annual load factors and plant capacity factors of
two power stations from the following data :
Annual standby station output = 7·35 × 106 kWh
Annual base load station output = 101·35 × 106 kWh
Peak load on standby station = 12 MW
Hours of use by standby station/year = 2190 hours
Variable Load
Interconnected Grid System
The connection of several generating stations in parallel

Advantages  Exchange of peak loads

 Use of older plants
 Ensures economical operation
 Increases diversity factor
 Reduces plant reserve capacity
 Increases reliability of supply
 Variable Load
Homework #3 (TBS 09/12/24)
The annual load duration curve for a typical heavy load being served by a steam station, a run-of-river station and
a reservoir hydro-electric station is as shown. The ratio of number of units supplied by these stations is as
follows: Steam : Run-of-river : Reservoir : : 7 : 4 : 1
The run-of-river station is capable of generating power continuously and works as a base load station. The
reservoir station works as a peak load station. Determine (i) the maximum demand of each station and (ii) load
factor of each station.
 Variable Load
Homework #4 (TBS 09/16/24)
List down all your electrical appliances and usage at home and find the following:
1) What is the total connected load in Watts and the watt-hour consumption in a day?
Tabulate the data.
2) Draw the load curve and load duration curve
3) The average load and the load factor of the total system
4) Estimate monthly consumption in kw-hr and compare to electric bill (bring a photocopy
of your latest electric bill)
Variable Load

END