INTRODUCTION TO FLUID

MECHANICS
OVERVIEW;
▪In this module, we discuss properties that are encountered in the
analysis of fluid flow. First, we discuss intensive and extensive
properties and define density and specific gravity. This is followed by a
discussion of the properties of vapor pressure, energy and its various
forms, the specific heats of ideal gases and incompressible
substances, and the coefficient of compressibility. Then we discuss the
property viscosity, which plays a dominant role in most aspects of fluid
flow. Finally, we present the property surface tension and determine
the capillary rise from static equilibrium conditions.
▪Fluid properties are not just theoretical concepts – they have
profound real-world applications across various disciplines. In
engineering, the understanding of fluid properties is crucial for
designing efficient systems, such as pipelines, pumps, and heat
exchangers. In physics, fluid properties explain phenomena like
capillary action, weather patterns, and ocean currents. In chemistry,
they play a role in chemical reactions, solubility, and phase changes.
Biology relies on fluid properties to understand blood flow, cell
movement, and respiratory processes. Even in everyday life, fluid
properties influence activities like cooking, swimming, and weather
prediction.
Fluid Mechanics – is the branch of science which deals with the
behavior of fluids (gases or liquids) at rest and in motion.

Fluid – is a substance that cannot maintain its own shape but takes the
shape of its container. Liquids and gases are both classified as fluids.
Parts of Fluid Mechanics:
a. Fluid Statics – is the study of fluid at rest
b. Fluid of Kinematics – is the study of fluid in motion neglecting
pressure forces.
c. Fluid Dynamics – is the study of fluids in motion considering the
pressure forces.
 CHAPTER 1

PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
A. Density (Mass Density) – is defined as the ratio of mass per unit volume (e.g. A
homogeneous material such as iron or ice has the same density throughout).

mass of fluid m
𝝆= =
volume v
Where: For Water:
𝝆 = 1,000 kg/m³
= 1.94 slugs/ft³
1 slug = 32.174 lbm
For an ideal gas law;

P
𝝆=
RT

Where: P = absolute pressure of gas (Pa, psi)

J 𝑓𝑡.𝑙𝑏
R = gas constant (for air, R = 287 = 1,716 )
kg °𝐾 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 °𝑅
T = absolute temperature, (°K, °R)
Specific Weight Density – is defined as the ratio of weight of the fluid
to the volume of the fluid.

W N KN
γ= ; 3 or
v m m3

Where: W = weight of the fluid = m x 𝐠

V = volume of the fluid
γ = specific weight density
N = kg-m/s²

For water: γ = 9.81 kN/m³ = 62.4 lb/ft³

g = 9.81 m/s² = 32.2 ft/s²
Specific Volume – is defined as the ratio of volume per unit mass

V m³
𝞾= ;
m 𝑘𝑔

1
𝞾=
𝝆
Where: 𝞾 = specific volume
V = volume of fluid
m = mass of fluid
Specific Gravity – is defined as the ratio of weight density of liquid to
the weight density of the standard liquid (water)

weight density of liquid γ𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑

𝞻= =
weight density of water γ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

density of liquid 𝝆𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑

𝞻= =
density of water 𝝆𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Where: specific gravity of mercury = 13.6

specific gravity of water = 1.0
Densities of common substances:

Material Density (kg/m³) Material Density (kg/m³)

Air (1 atm) 1.20 Concrete 2.0 x 10³
Ethanol 0.81 x 10³ Aluminum 2.7 x 10³
Benzene 0.90 x 10³ Iron (Steel) 7.8 x 10³
Ice 0.92 x 10³
Water 1.0 x 10³
Seawater 1.03 x 10³
Blood 1.06 x 10³
Glycerine 1.26 x 10³
Viscosity – it is defined as the resistance offered to a layer of fluid when it
moves over another layer of fluid. Also called as Dynamic Viscosity

du Fy
𝞃= 𝞵 =
d𝑦 AV
𝞃
𝞵=
du/dy

Where: 𝞵 = coefficient of viscosity (constant of proportionality)

du
= rate of shear strain or velocity gradient
d𝑦
Kinematic Viscosity – it is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to the
mass density of a fluid

𝞵
𝞶=
𝝆

Where: 𝞶 = Kinematic viscosity

𝞵 = Dynamic viscosity
𝝆 = Density of the fluid
Unit use for Viscosity

𝐍.𝒔𝒆𝒄
For Dynamic Viscosity;
𝐦²
1 N.𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒.𝑠𝑒𝑐
Where: 1 Poise = = 1 = 0.1 Pa.sec
10 m² cm²

𝐦²
For Kinematic Viscosity:
𝐬𝐞𝐜

Where: 1 stoke = 0.0001 m²/sec

Newton’s Law of Viscosity
It states that the shear stress in a flowing fluid is directly
proportional to the rate of shear strain. Fluids which obey
Newton’s Law of Viscosity are called NEWTONIAN FLUIDS, and
which do not obey are NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS.
Viscosity variation with Temperature
For Liquids: viscosity decreases as temperature increases
For Gases: viscosity increases as temperature increases
In everyday terms, viscosity is thickness. Thus, water is thin, having a lower viscosity, while
honey is thick, having a higher viscosity. The less viscous the fluid is, the greater its ease of
movement (fluidity).
The study of viscosity is known as Rheology. An instrument used to measure the viscosity is
the Viscometer. For liquids with viscosities which vary with flow conditions, an instrument
called a Rheometer is used.
A fluid with large viscosity resists motion because its strong intermolecular forces give it a
lot of internal friction, resisting the movement of layers past one another.
On the contrary, a fluid with low viscosity flows easily because its molecular makeup results
in very little friction when it is in motion.
Types of Fluid
A. Ideal Fluid – A fluid which is incompressible and in which viscosity is zero.
B. Real Fluid – A fluid which is incompressible and in which viscosity is present.
C. Newtonian Fluid – A fluid in which shear stress is directly proportional to the
velocity gradient.
D. Non-Newtonian Fluid – A fluid in which shear stress is not proportional to the
rate of shear strain.
E. Ideal-Plastic Fluid – A fluid in which shear stress is more than the yield value and
in which shear stress is directly proportional to shear strain.
Surface Tension – is defined as a tensile force acting on the
surface of a liquid in contact with air or between two
immiscible liquids.

F W N
𝝈= = ;
L A m
Where: F = Force, N
L = Length, m
W = Work, N-m
A = Area
Surface Tension in Water Droplet:

4𝝈 N
P= ;
d m

Where: P = Pressure Force (Intensity of pressure)

𝝈 = Surface Tension
d = diameter of water droplet
Surface Tension for Soap Bubble:

8𝝈 N
P= ;
d m

Where: P = Pressure Force (Intensity of pressure)

𝝈 = Surface Tension
d = diameter of soap bubble
Some Important Values,
▪Surface tension for air-water interface, σ= 0.073 N/m
▪Surface tension for air-mercury interface, σ=0.480 N/m
Capillarity/Capillary Action – it is defined as the rise or fall in the
level of liquid in a tube when it is immersed in a liquid
compared with the adjacent general level of liquid.
Expression for Capillary Rise

4𝝈
h=
ρgd

Where: h = capillary rise (m)

𝝈 = Surface Tension (N/m)
𝝆 = density of water (kg/m³)
𝐠 = acceleration due to gravity (m/s²)
d= diameter of glass tube (m)
Expression for Capillary fall
4𝝈𝐶𝑜𝑠𝚹
h=
ρgd

Where: h = capillary rise (m)

𝝈 = Surface Tension (N/m)
𝝆 = density of water (kg/m³)
𝐠 = acceleration due to gravity (m/s²)
d= diameter of glass tube (m)
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝚹 = Angle of contact
Pressure - is the amount of force exerted on a given area.

F
P= ; Pa
A

Where: P = Pressure in Pa (Pa = N/m²)

F = Force (N)
A = Cross sectional area (m²)
Other application of Pressure:

P = 𝝆𝐠h

Where: P = Pressure in Pa (Pa = N/m²)

𝝆 = density of the fluid
𝐠 = acceleration due to gravity
h = height of the tank
Sample Problem No.
1. A reservoir of an unknown liquid has a mass of 900 kg and a volume
of 0.5 cu.m. Find its (a) weight, (b) density, (c) specific weight, (d)
specific gravity, and (e) specific volume.
2. Find the mass and weight of the air at the storage room with
dimension of L=5m, W=6m, H=3.5m.
3. Calculate density, specific weight, and weight of 1 Liter of gasoline
with specific gravity = 0.5
4. A plate 0.01m distant from a fixed plate moves at 0.5m/s and
requires a force of 4N per unit area to maintain this speed. Determine
fluid viscosity between the plates.
5. Find the surface tension in a soap bubble of 5cm diameter when
the inside pressure is 4.5 Pa above atmospheric pressure.
6. Calculate the capillary effect in a glass tube of 0.03m diameter
when immersed in water. The temperature of the liquid is 20C, with the
surface tension of 0.065 N/m.
Vapour Pressure and Cavitation
Vapour Pressure – is the pressure exerted by the vapor on a liquid

Cavitation – It is a phenomenon when liquid passes from low pressure region to

high pressure region.
- When the pressure in a liquid drops below the vapor pressure, the
liquid locally vaporizes
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity – the ratio of the change in unit pressure to the
corresponding volume change per unit volume.

−V (ΔP)
K= ; N/m²
ΔV

Where: K = Bull Modulus of Elasticity

ΔV = change in volume = V2 – V1
V = original volume
ΔP = change in pressure = P2 – P1
Compressibility – the fractional change in the volume of a fluid
per unit change in pressure.

−Δ𝑉 1
𝜷= =
V (ΔV) 𝐸𝑏

Where: 𝜷 = Compressibility
ΔV = change in volume = V2 – V1
V = original volume
ΔP = change in pressure = P2 – P1
Sample Problem No. 1

1. A liquid compressed in a container has a volume of 2 Liter at a

pressure of 2 Mpa and a volume of 1 Liter at a pressure 3 Mpa. Find
the Bulk Modulus of Elasticity.
Conversion of Units

1 N.𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒.𝑠𝑒𝑐
▪ 1 kg = 2.205 lb 1 Poise = =1 = 0.1 Pa.sec
10 m² cm²
▪ 1 kg = 9.81 N 1 stoke = 0.0001 m²/sec
▪ 1 ton = 907.185 kg = 2,000 lb
▪ 1 slug = 32.174 lb
▪ 1 km = 1,000 m
▪ 1 m = 100 cm = 3.28 ft = 1.094 yards = 1,000mm
▪ 1 ft = 12 inches
▪ 1 inch = 2.54 cm = 25.4 mm