COURSE CONTENTS AND MODULEs
FOR
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
(PSY 101)
FOR
YEAR ONE STUDENTS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF
MARKETING, FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES,
NNAMDI AZIKIWE UNIVERSITY, AWKA, ANAMBRA
STATE, NIGERIA.
COURSE CONTENTS
1. A Brief History of Psychology; Aims of Psychology.
2. Early Schools of Psychology: Structuralism, Functionalism, Behaviourism,
Gestalt Psychology, Psychoanalysis.
3. Later Schools of Psychology: Cognitive, Evolutionary, Humanistic, Biological
and many others.
4. Fields of Psychology: Clinical, Industrial, Social, Environmental,
Developmental, School, Educational, Neuropsychology, Medical/Behavioural.
5. Psychology as a scientific discipline: principles that guide scientific research
such as objectivism, empiricism, determinism, scepticism, convergence of
operation, refutability, testability and many others.
6. Methods of Investigation in Psychology: experimentation, observation, case-
study, survey, archival.
7. Relationship between Psychology and other disciplines.
8. Current issues - Mind and Body, Nature and Nurture controversies
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the course, the students should be able to:
1. Discuss the aims of studying psychology;
2. Discuss and critically evaluate the schools of Psychology;
3. Discuss the historical antecedents to modern Psychology;
4. Explain different areas of specialization in Psychology;
5. Identify and describe the methods of investigation, data collection and
principles that guide scientific research;
6. Discuss the relationship between psychology and other disciplines; and
7. Critically evaluate the controversies in psychology.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY; AIMS OF PSYCHOLOGY
INTRODUCTION:
Psychology is concerned with almost all aspects of our lives. That is why, everyone is
interested to know about psychology. But, there are many misconceptions about psychology.
Many people think that psychology deals with treating mad people. Some others feel that
psychologists can read your mind just by looking at you or your face/forehead. They tend to
equate psychologists with astrologers (a person who uses astrology to tell others about their
character or to predict their future), gemologists (a specialist in gems or in the study of
precious stones), numerologists (an expert in numerology, that is defined as the study of
numbers in the belief that they have a special importance in people's lives), palmists (a person
who practises palmistry; a palm reader) or graphologists (the study of handwriting especially
for the purpose of analyzing the writer's personality), who claim to solve your problems of
life and predict your future.
You might have heard the terms ‘psychology’, ‘psychological’, ‘mental’ etc., but might not
know what psychology means or how it evolved. You may not also know whether psychology
is a science or art, and what characteristics made it what is it or its subject matter. In this
course, you will find answer to these and many more such questions.
PSYCHOLOGY: ITS ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION
The origin of psychology dates back to 1870s. The term ‘Psychology’ is derived from two
Greek words; “Psyche” (meaning breath, soul, life, or spirit) and “Logos” (meaning
knowledge or study or investigation of something). The word ‘Psychology’ was not in
common use before the nineteenth century, and the field of psychology did not actually
become an independent science until the middle of the nineteenth century. Thus, psychology
was previously more a subdivision of philosophy.
However, Psychology emerged as an independent academic discipline in 1879, when a
German Professor Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory at the
University of Leipzig, Germany. According to Bolles (1993), Wundt was a medical doctor by
training and early in his career, he was fortunate to work with some of the great physiologists
of the nineteenth century. Fittingly, his laboratory was established during the time he spent as
a professor of philosophy. In this Laboratory students were taught to study the Structure of
mind, which was analyzed through introspection – a procedure in which individuals or
subjects in psychological experiments were asked to describe in detail, their own mental
processes or experiences. This was however called structuralist approach. Thus, Wundt is
traditionally recognized as the founder, or father of the modern Psychology.
Prior to Wundt, it was not possible to major in psychology, because there were no official
psychologists or psychology departments. Wundt started studying the structure of mind which
meant the immediate (conscious) experience, the contents and processes of subjective
experience such as sensations, thoughts, feelings and emotions. Thus, formally, psychology
was recognized as an independent science in 1879.
Soon after the setting up of the Leipzig laboratory, an American psychologist, William
James, who had set up a psychological laboratory in Cambridge, Massachusetts developed
what was called a functionalist approach to the study of the human mind. He believed that
instead of focusing on the structure of the mind, Psychology should instead study what the
mind does and how behaviour functions in making people deal with their environment.
In the early 20th century, a new perspective called Gestalt psychology emerged in Germany
as a reaction to the structuralism of Wundt. It focused on the organization of perceptual
experiences. Instead of looking at the components of the mind, the Gestalt psychologists
argued that when we look at the world our perceptual experience is more than the sum of
the components of the perception. Example, light from a series of flashing bulbs falls on
our retina, we actually experience movement of light.
Yet another reaction to structuralism came in the form of Behaviorism. Around 1910, John
Watson rejected the ideas of mind and consciousness as subject matters of psychology.
Watson was greatly influenced by the work of physiologists like Ivan Pavlov on classical
conditioning. For Watson, mind is not observable and introspection is subjective because
it cannot be verified by another observer. According to him, scientific psychology must focus
on what is observable and verifiable. He defined psychology as a study of behaviour or
responses (to stimuli) which can be measured and studied objectively. Skinner applied
and popularized the approach.
Sigmund Freud founded psychoanalysis as a system to understand and cure psychological
disorders. He viewed human behaviour as a dynamic manifestation of unconscious desires
and conflicts. While Freudian psychoanalysis viewed human beings as motivated by
unconscious desire for gratification of pleasure seeking (and often, sexual) desires.
The humanistic perspective in psychology took a more positive view of human nature.
Humanists, such as Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, emphasized the free will of human
beings and their natural striving to grow and unfold their inner potential. Humanists argued
that behaviourism with its emphasis on behaviour as determined by environmental
conditions undermines human freedom and dignity and takes a mechanistic view of human
nature.
DEFINITION OF PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology has been defined in a number of ways by various authors, with Psychologists
debating on whether psychology should focus on “mind”, “consciousness” or “behaviour”.
However, the term Psychology was first used by Rudolf Goeckle in 1950, and being a
subdivision of philosophy at that time, the ancient philosophers, who were interested in the
study of the soul, chronologically, gave the definitions of psychology. Thus, it was first
defined in terms of ‘the science of soul’. However, since the term ‘soul’ has very wide and
comprehensive meanings, it was considered as a vague term and was criticized severely, in
the middle ages. There were questions regarding the physical existence, weight, and volume
of soul. Thus, definition of Psychology as the study of soul became unacceptable primarily
because no convincing proof or evidence of the precise nature of soul was furnished. It was
discarded because of its METAPHYSICAL nature. It was found inadequate to satisfy the
canons of science;…….”. Thus, this definition was not accepted by psychologists.
Next, psychology was defined in terms of ‘the science of mind’, by some ancient Greek
philosophers. According to them, psychology was held as a branch of mental philosophy.
Since this definition does not include overt behaviour of human beings and mind cannot be
measured directly, this definition was also dropped by psychologists.
Then, psychology was defined as ‘the science of consciousness’ – by consciousness, the
psychologists meant awareness or wakefulness. However, this definition too is now obsolete
and it has been rejected due to the following reasons: Firstly, consciousness cannot be studied
objectively as it is more personal and subjective. Secondly, objection came from the fast
developing branch of the abnormal psychology which brought the study of unconscious part
of our mind within the province of Psychology. The term consciousness does not include
animal or human behaviour. The term consciousness also was supposed to have a
philosophical-tinge and not accepted by the modern scientific minded psychologists.
Finally, modern Psychology has been defined as ‘a science of behaviour.’ Modern
psychologists however rejected mind as the subject of psychology and insisted that
psychology be restricted to the study of behaviour – the observable (or potentially
observable) activities of people and animals. They held that there are no essential differences
between human and animal behaviour and that we can learn much about our own behaviour
from the study of what animals do.
Currently, a lot of definitions emerged from the modern conceptualization of psychology. As
such, Psychology today concerns itself with the scientific investigation of behaviour,
including from the stand-point of behaviour, much of what earlier psychologists dealt with as
experience”. Thus, some of the modern definitions of Psychology, in chronological order, are
as follows:
1. Psychology is the science of human and animal behaviour. It includes the application of
this science to human problems (Morgan et al., 1986).
2. The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes (Feldman, 1996).
3. The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes and how they are affected by an
organism’s physical state, mental state and external environment (Tavris & Wade, 1997).
4. Psychology is all about human behaviour, about mental processes, and about the context
in which behaviour and mental processes occur (Das, 1998).
5. The science of behaviour and mental processes (Lahey, 1998).
6. The science of behaviour and cognitive processes (Baron, 1999).
7. Scientific study of behaviour and mind (Nairne, 2003).
8. A science in which behavioural and other evidence is used to understand the internal
processes leading people (and members of other species) to behave as they do (Eysenck,
2004).
9. The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes (Ciccarelli & Meyer, 2006; Coon
& Mitterer, 2007, 2008).
10. The science that studies behaviour and mental processes (Rathus, 2008).
As is evident in the above definitions, study of behaviour (human and animal) has been
emphasized in all of them. In addition, most authors have also included ‘cognitive/mental
processes’ in their definitions of psychology. Thus, the modern definition of psychology
combines both observable behavior and inner thoughts, and feeling, and it is now referred to
as “the science of behavior and mental processes”.
PSYCHOLOGY, AS A SCIENCE
Psychology has been defined as the scientific study of the mind and behavior, with
Psychologists actively involved in studying and understanding mental processes, brain
functions, and behavior. The field of psychology is considered a "Hub Science" with strong
connections to the medical sciences, social sciences, and education (Boyack, Klavans, &
Borner, 2005).
However, a study of what science is and the characteristics of science that psychology shares
in help in the understanding of psychology as a science. Science is a systematized body of
knowledge gathered through carefully observing and measuring events (Morgan et al., 1986).
It is an approach to knowledge, based on systematic observation (Lahey, 1998). The sole aim
of science is to classify, understand, and unify the objects and phenomena of the material
world. By using a combination of accurate observation and experimentation, logic and
intuition, scientists seek to understand the rules that govern all levels of the natural universe.
Importantly, the observation of events are systematized in various ways, but mainly by
classifying and establishing general principles and laws to describe and predict new events as
accurately as possible.
Indeed, Psychology studies behaviour in the same way that the other sciences study their
subject matter and therefore shares a number of features with them. In common with other
sciences, psychology, as a science, has the following characteristics, as described by Morgan
et al. (1986).
Empirical Observation
Psychology, as a science, is first of all, and above all, empirical. That is to say, it rests on
experiment and observation, rather than on argument, opinion, or belief. Thus, it is this
emphasis on the empirically observable that made it necessary for psychology to change its
definition from the study of the mind (because the mind itself could not be directly observed)
to the science of behavior. We can directly observe and carefully measure externals such as
what a person does, says, and marks down on a psychological test. We cannot directly
observe a person's mind (e.g., internal thoughts, emotions).
Systematic approach and theory
Data from observations and experiments are essential to science, but for them “to make some
sense” in helping us to understand events, they must be ordered in some way. The scientist
tries to find a limited number of principles which will summarize the data economically.
Scientific theories are important tools for the organization of data.
Measurement
Another distinguishing feature of many sciences is measurement, defined as assignment of
numbers to objects or events according to certain rules. Physics is ranked highest (most
scientific) among the sciences as it has developed the most precise measurements.
Definition of Terms
Careful definition of terms is essential to clear thinking in science. The procedure in
psychology is to define concepts by relating them to observable behaviour (operational
definition). When we define a concept operationally, we define it in terms of measurable and
observable operations. For example, the concepts of length, height in physics, and concepts
like intelligence, motivation, personality in psychology are defined in terms of observable
operations, which can be performed to measure them.
The above characteristics are common to all sciences including psychology. However,
psychology is a different type of science (Behavioural science). In physics or chemistry,
researchers investigate processes and events which remain stable and constant to a large
extent. This makes it possible to measure and predict with a reasonable degree of accuracy.
But it is not the case with human behaviour, which is highly complex, not easily controllable,
and appears to be much more unpredictable than the reactions of physical and chemical
substances. Whereas other sciences investigate things around man, psychology studies man
himself. The methods used in psychological research include observation, interviews,
psychological testing, laboratory experimentation, and statistical analysis.
Thus, psychology is categorized under the youngest group of scientific inquiry, the
‘Social/Behavioural Sciences’, which also includes subjects like anthropology, economics,
education, geography, history, linguistics, sociology etc.(Rush, 1972).
The first group of sciences are the ‘Physical Sciences’, which include subjects like physics,
chemistry etc. Next is the ‘Biological / Life Sciences’ that include such subjects as biology,
botany, zoology etc. The application of knowledge to practical problems is an art; it is the
skill or knack for doing things which is acquired by study, practice and special experience.
Since principles and laws of psychology are applied to solve human problems in a number of
situations (families, schools, organizations, environment) as well as treating behaviour
disorders and emotional problems, it is also an art.
AIMS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology—the scientific study of the mind and behavior—has four main aims, they
include:
to describe behavior
to explain behavior
to predict behavior
to change/control behavior.
To Describe Behaviour
The first goal of psychology is simply to describe behavior. Simply describing the behavior of
humans and other animals helps psychologists understand the motivations behind it. Also,
through describing the behavior of humans and other animals, we are better able to understand it and gain
a better perspective on what is considered normal and abnormal. Psychology researchers utilize a range of
research methods to help describe behavior including naturalistic observation, case studies, correlational
studies, surveys, and self-report inventories.
To Explain Behaviour
Once a specific behavior has been described, psychologists then attempt to go beyond the
obvious and explain why people act the way they do. Through a series of rigorous tests,
scientific experiments, and observations, psychology expounds on the reason behind
someone’s actions. Explaining behavior provides answers to why people behave the way they
do under different circumstances.
Throughout the history of psychology, many theories have been formulated to explain all
aspects of human behavior. While some are classified as mini theories (those that focus on
minor aspects of human thoughts and action), a large part of psychological studies revolves
around the grand theories that encompass intricate details to explain everything about human
psychology.
Some of the well-known theories that explain all aspects of human psychology include
Pavlov’s theory of classical conditioning, which refers to a learning procedure where two
kinds of biologically potent stimuli are linked together to produce a newly acquired learning
response from an animal or a person. According to John Watson, the American psychologist
who popularized the behaviorism theory, Pavlov’s classical conditioning theory explains that
everything about human behavior—from speech to emotional responses—is simply patterns
of stimulus and response (“Classical conditioning,” 2007).
To Predict Behaviour
Making predictions based on how people previously thought and acted is one of the primary
goals of social psychology. By analyzing past observed behavior, psychological studies aim
to predict and anticipate how a certain behavior will appear again in the future. This allows
psychologists to form a pattern of behavior and better understand the underlying causes of
people’s actions.
By analyzing qualitative data consisting of thought and action patterns, psychologists and
researchers can accurately make guesses about human behavior without necessarily
understanding the mechanisms behind a certain phenomenon (“How the goals of
psychology,” n.d.). For instance, when qualitative data reveals that certain scores in aptitude
tests predict student dropout rates, the information can be used to estimate the number of
students who might leave school each year. Successfully predicting behavior is important to
the last and most important goal in psychology, which is to control or change behavior.
To Control/Change Behaviour
Aside from treating mental illnesses and enhancing well-being, changing or controlling
human behavior is one of the primary goals of research in psychology (“How the goals of
psychology,” n.d.). Various psychological studies about human behavior are used to
influence, change, or control behavior using previously gathered data about human behavior.
In psychology, there are a number of theories that deal with changing or controlling people’s
behavior. Some of these widely known theories include the health belief model, the theory of
planned behavior, diffusion of innovation theory, social cognitive theory, the transtheoretical
model, and the social norms theory.
Whether behavior can be successfully changed or controlled largely depends on one’s ability
to accurately define a behavioral issue, assess the fundamental causes of these problems, and
develop and implement theory and evidence-based interventions.
EARLY SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY:
Structuralism, Functionalism, Behaviourism, Gestalt Psychology, Psychoanalysis.
When psychology first emerged as a science separate from biology and philosophy, the
debate over how to describe and explain the human mind and behavior began, leading to
many schools of thought in Psychology. Hence, the different schools of psychology represent
the major theories within the field of psychological science that contributed to the growth of
Psychology. However, the early schools of psychology are: Structuralism, Functionalism,
Behaviorism, Gestalt, and Psychoanalysis.
The Structuralist School of Psychology
Structuralism is widely regarded as the first school of thought in psychology. This first school
of thought, structuralism, was advocated by the founder of the first psychology lab, Wilhelm
Wundt. Almost immediately, other theories began to emerge and vie for dominance.
Structuralist got its name from its objective, which is to explore the structure of the mind.
This outlook focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components.
Major thinkers associated with structuralism include Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener.
The focus of structuralism was on reducing mental processes down into their most basic
elements. The structuralists used techniques such as introspection to analyze the inner
processes of the human mind. The introspective experimental technique used by the
structuralists involved having trained observers examine their inner responses. Using this
approach, also known as experimental self-observation, experimenters like Wundt trained
people to analyze their thoughts as carefully and objectively as possible. While these methods
were understandably not the most empirically rigorous, the structuralist school of thought
played an important role in the development of experimental psychology.
The Functionalist School of Psychology
The American psychologist, historian, and philosopher William James developed the school
of functionalism in the late 19th/early 20th century, after strong criticism of the structuralist
approach. Unlike structuralism, which broke experiences down into small elements, the
functionalist approach focused on the whole of an experience. Functionalists define a mental
state not by what it is made of, but by what it does. A particular mental state depends on its
function to be understood. Thus, it focused on the mind's functions and adaptations. Instead
of focusing on the mental processes themselves, functionalist thinkers were interested in the
role that these processes play.
In a functionalist approach, for example, instead of trying to understand the underlying
processes that cause mental states, the focus would be on understanding the function that
those states serve. Gaining a better understanding of the purpose would allow psychologists
to better understand how the mind allows people to respond and adapt to their environments.
The functionalist school was interested in the purpose of thoughts and behaviors, whereas
structuralism was concerned with the elements that make up consciousness. While
functionalism largely disappeared as a school of thought, its influence persisted in applied
psychology, behaviorism, and educational psychology.
Unlike some of the other well-known schools of thought in psychology, functionalism is not
associated with a single dominant theorist. Instead, a number of functionalist thinkers are
associated with this outlook, including John Dewey, James Rowland Angell, and Harvey
Carr.
The Behaviorist School of Psychology
Behaviorism became a dominant school of thought during the 1950s. It was based upon the
work of thinkers such as John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, and B. F. Skinner. It emphasizes
experience and one's environment over internal or subconscious forces. Behaviorism believes
that human psychology is better understood through a subject's behavior, rather than their
personal beliefs or thoughts.
According to this school of thought, behavior is learned through two types of conditioning,
classical and operant. Classical conditioning is a type of learning that involves associating a
previously neutral stimulus with a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a
response. In classical conditioning, however, an association is forged between two stimuli; a
conditioned stimulus, and an unrelated unconditioned stimulus, to create a behavior. A classic
(and famous) example of this is Pavlov's dog. This experiment involving dog, consists pairing
the sound of a bell with the presentation of food. After an association is formed, the
previously neutral stimulus will produce the same response as the natural stimulus. Operant
conditioning: This type of learning involves using rewards and punishments to create an
association between the behavior and the consequences of that behavior.
The behavioral school of psychology significantly influenced the course of psychology.
Many ideas and techniques that emerged from this school of thought are still widely used
today. Behavioral training, token economies, aversion therapy, and other methods are
frequently used in psychotherapy and behavior modification programs.
The Gestalt School of Psychology
Gestalt school of thought was popularized by Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt
Koffka.
It is a school of psychology based upon the idea that people experience things as unified
wholes. This approach to psychology began in Germany and Austria during the late 19th
century in response to the molecular approach of structuralism. Instead of breaking down
thoughts and behavior to their smallest elements, the gestalt psychologists believed that you
must look at the whole of experience. According to Gestalt thinkers, the whole is greater than
the sum of its parts, a philosophy known as holism. Thus, a central tenet of Gestalt
psychology is holism, which emphasizes the whole over the sum of its parts.
Some examples of Gestalt thinking include explanations for optical phenomena, such as
visual illusions. Wertheimer described the phi phenomenon by observing how alternating
railway lights created the illusion of movement. The phenomenon suggests that a succession
of images seen in rapid sequence are perceived as moving.
The Psychoanalytic School of Psychology
Psychoanalysis is a school of psychology founded by Austrian scholar, Sigmund Freud. It
focused on the workings of the unconscious mind to explain human behavior. This school of
thought holds that all people have unconscious desires, memories, and thoughts, resulting in
repressed emotions. Psychoanalysis aims to make these unconscious elements conscious to
find catharsis.
Thus, this school of thought emphasized the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior.
Other major psychoanalytic thinkers included Anna Freud and Otto Rank and neo-Freudians
such as Erik Erikson, Alfred Adler, and Karen Horney.
Freud believed that the human mind was composed of three elements: the id, ego,
and superego.
The id consists of primal urges.
The ego is the component of personality charged with dealing with reality.
The superego is the part of the personality that holds all the ideals and values we
internalize from our parents and culture.
Freud believed that the interaction of these three parts explains personality and human
behavior. Freud stressed the importance of the proper development of id, ego, and superego
across his five Psychosexual Stages of Development, which include 1) the oral stage (birth to
1year, erogenous zone – mouth); 2) Anal Stage (1-3years, erogenous zone – bowel and
bladder control)’ 3) Phallic Stage (3 – 6 years, erogenous zone – genitals); 4) the Latent
period (6 – puberty, erogenous zone – sexual feelings are inactive); and 5) the Genital stage
(puberty to death, erogenous zone – maturing sexual interests). Unresolved conflicts during
any stage of development can cause one to become fixated in that stage, emphasizing or
repressing certain behaviors or personality traits.
Other important theories within the psychoanalytic school included the idea of the conscious
and unconscious, Freud's psychosexual approach to personality development, and the concept
of life and death instincts.
Freud's work also played an important role in the development of talk therapy as an approach
to treating mental illness. Many traditional Freudian approaches to treatment are no longer in
favor, but modern psychoanalytic therapy continues to play an important role in psychology
today. Research has shown that using self-examination can play an important role in
emotional growth.
Recap
Freud's school of thought was enormously influential, but also generated considerable debate.
This controversy existed not only in his time but also in modern discussions of Freud's
theories.
