According to data or information collected

Qualitative - (non-numerical data) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be

used to gather in depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.
Quantitative - (numerical data) involves measurement and assumes that the phenomena under
study can be measured.
Mixed Research Mixed methods research combines elements of quantitative research and
qualitative research in order to answer the research question.
Mixed methods can help in gaining a more complete picture than a standalone quantitative or
qualitative study, as it integrates benefits of both methods.
Mixed methods research may be the right choice if the research process suggests that
quantitative or qualitative data alone will not sufficiently answer the research question.
Here are several common reasons for using mixed methods research:
Generalizability
Contextualization
Credibility
·Generalizability Qualitative research usually has a smaller sample size, and thus is not
generalizable. In mixed methods research, this comparative weakness is mitigated by the
comparative strength of "large N," externally valid quantitative research.
·Contextualization Mixing methods allows the researcher to put findings in context and add
richer detail to his/her conclusions. Using qualitative data to illustrate quantitative findings can
help "put meat on the bones" of the analysis.
·Credibility Using different methods to collect data on the same subject can make the results
more credible. If the qualitative and quantitative data converge, this strengthens the validity of
the research's conclusions. This process is called triangulation.
Experimental research Experimental research is research conducted in an environment or
setting designed to test the validity of a particular phenomenon. The researcher manipulates
one variable at a time, like patience or different groups of people to test their response to
something.
Laboratory Experiment It is also called experimental research. This type of research is
conducted in the laboratory.A researcher can manipulate and control the variables of the
experiment.
Field research is defined as a qualitative method of data collection that aims to observe,
interact and understand people while they are in a natural environment. For example, nature
conservationists observe behavior of animals in their natural surroundings and the way they
react to certain scenarios. In the same way,social scientists conducting field research may
conduct interviews or observe people from a distance to understand how they behave in a
social environment and how they react to situations around them.
Qualities of Good Research Instrument
1.Validity = degree to which a measuring instrument measures what it intends to measure
2.Reliability = extent to which the instrument is dependable, self- consistent and stable
consistency of responses from moment to moment ✓even a person takes the same test twice,
the test yields the same results ✓reliable test may not always be valid
3.Usability = otherwise known as Practicability degree to which the research instrument can be
satisfactorily used. It may be determined thru:
a. ease of administration
b. ease of scoring
c. ease of interpretation
d. low cost
e. proper mechanical make up
Types of Statistics
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS = it is used to determine the nature of variables without any
attempt to critically compare the extent of relationships or differences with other variables
Tools of Descriptive Statistics
1.Frequency Counting/Distribution is a table that displays the frequency of various outcomes in
a sample
2.Percentage-
3.Ranking
4.Measures of Centralities a. Mean b. Median c. Mode
CORRELATIONAL STATISTICS=used to determine the degree or magnitude of association
between two variables. Treats bivariate and multivariate problems
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS = used when in making inferences on the magnitude of differences
of the samples from a large universe.
used in testing hypothesis like differences bet. two or more variables
treats bivariate and multivariate problems
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
·A sample \ of the reflects the characteristics population
·A basic concept in sampling is that what is called randomness which simply means the act of
sampling is not purposive.
·Randomization seeks to insure that every individual in the population has an equal chance of
being included in the sample.
General types of sampling
Probability sampling
1. Simple Random sampling Selecting the individuals out of N such that individuals have
equal chances of being selected. Techniques suitable for homogeneous population.
To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number generators or other
techniques that are based entirely on chance. Example: Simple random sampling You want
to select a simple random sample of 1000 employees of a social media marketing company.
You assign a number to every employee in the company database from 1 to 1000,and use a
random number generator to select 100 numbers
2. Systematic random sampling Sample is s elected through simple random process .
Succeeding samples are chosen in a pre- established interval
3. Stratified sampling Divide samples in homogeneous groups calledstrata.Draw sample
from simple random sampling.Example: Stratified sampling The company has 800
female employeesand 200 male employees. You want to ensure that the sample
reflectsthe gender balance of the company, so you sort the population into twostrata
based on gender. Then you use random sampling on each group,selecting 80 women
and 20 men, which gives you a representativesample of 100 people.
4. Authoritative Sampling - 'Determines the target population or those to be involved in the
study. (Only those who met the qualification needed).
5. Snowball Sampling-Researchers use this sampling method if the sample for the study is
very rare or is limited to a very small subgroup of the population. This type of sampling
technique works like chain referral. After observing the initial subject, the researcher
asks for assistance from the subject to help identify people with a similar trait of interest.
How-to Formulate a Research Problem?
A researcher needs to consider the following in formulating a Research Problem:
1.IDENTIFY A GENERAL AREA OF INTEREST OR RESEARCH AREA Selecting a research
area is the very first step in writing a research.
It is important for the researcher to choose a research area that is interesting to him/her
professionally, as well as, personally.
Finding a research area and research problem that is genuinely interesting is a guarantee that
the whole process of writing of research will be much easier.
2. LEARN MORE ABOUT THE PROBLEM Learn more about the area of interest.
1. Background and specifics.
2. Needs to know about a particular topic before he/she begin his/her research.
3. Assess who or what it might affect and how the research could address those relationships.
4. consider whether ôther research groups have already tried to solve the problem in the
research and how his/her approach might differ.
3. REVIEW THE CONTEXT OF THE INFORMATION
This involves.
1. Defining and testing the environmental variablesin the research, which may help the
researcher create a clear and focused research problem.
2. It may also help in taking a note as to whichvariables are present in the research and how
toaccount for the impact that they may have on it.
3. By reviewing the context, the researcher can easilyestimate the amount of data his/her
research islikely to deliver.
4.DETERMINE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIABLES After identifying the variables
involved in the study
1. The researcher can learn how they're related to one another and how these relationships
may contribute to his/her research problem.
2. Researcher needs to consider generating as many potential perspectives and variable
interactions as possible.
3. Identifying the relationships between variables may be 'useful when deciding the degree to
which the researcher can control them in the research and how they might affect potential
solutions to the problem the researcher is addressing.
5.SELECT AND INCLUDE IMPORTANT VARIABLES
1. Inclusion of variables that are the most relevant to the study.
2. The researcher summarizes how he/she plans to take these variables into consideration and
how they might influence the results of the study.
3. Selecting the most important variables can help the reader understand the trajectory of the
research and the potential impact of the solution.
6.RECEIVE FEEDBACK AND REVISE The researcher may reach out to mentors, teachers or
industry experts for feedback about the research problem. They may present him/her with new
information to consider or suggest him/her to edit a particular aspect of the research design.
Revising the research problem can be a valuable step in creating impactful and precise
research. It is important to note that before asking for feedback, the researcher needs to
consider these aspects of his/her study:
·Does your research problem allow for several solutions and outcomes? Did you create a study
that has a testable hypothesis or theory? Did you define all the terms correctly?
·Is your research objective comprehensive? and
·Are all parts of your project understandable
Problem Statement
All research projects should start with a clear problem statement. A problem statement is a
formulation of an issue which is usually a 'gap' wvithin the field.
A research gap is an unanswered question, an issue, controversy, or untested hypothesis that
has not yet been addressed.
A problem statement is an explanation in research that describes the issue that is in need of
study.
What problem is the research attempting to address? Having a Problem Statement allows the
reader to quickly understand the purpose and intent of the research.
A statement of the problem is used in research as a claim that outlines the problem addressed
by a study. The statement of problem briefly addresses the question: What is the problem that
the research will address?
The main goal of a statement of the problem is to transform a generalized problem into a
targeted, well-defined problem; one that can be resolved through focused research and careful
decision-making.
DEVELOPING A HYPOTHESIS
STEP 1.ASK A QUESTION Writing a hypothesis begins with a research question that you want
to answer. The question should be focused, specific, and researchable within the constraints of
your project.
Example:Research question Do students who attend more lectures get better exam results?
STEP 2. DO SOME PRELIMINARY RESEARCH Your initial answer to the question should be
based on what is already known about the topic. Look for theories and previous studies to help
you form educated assumptions about what your research will find.
At this stage, you might construct a conceptual framework to ensure that you're embarking on a
relevant topic. This can also help you identify which variables you will study and what you think
the relationships are between them. Sometimes, you'll have to operationalize more complex
constructs.
STEP 3.FORMULATE YOUR HYPOTHESIS Now you should have some idea of what you
expect to find. Write your initial answer to the question in a clear, concise sentence.
Example:Formulating your hypothesis Attending more lectures leads to better exam results.
4.REFINE YOUR HYPOTHESIS You need to make sure your hypothesis is specific and
testable. There are various ways of phrasing a hypothesis, but all the terms you use should
have clear definitions,and the hypothesis should contain:
The relevant variables
The specific group being studied
The predicted outcome of the experiment or analysis
5.PHRASE YOUR HYPOTHESIS IN THREE WAYS
To identify the variables, you can write a simple prediction in if...then form. The first part of the
sentence states the independent variable and the second part states the dependent variable.
Example: If a first-year student starts attending more lectures, then their exam scores will
improve.
In academic research, hypotheses are more commonly phrased in terms of correlations or
effects,where you directly state the predicted relationship between variables.
Example:The number of lectures attended by first-year students has a positive effect on their
exam scores.
If you are comparing two groups, the hypothesis can state what difference you expect to find
between them.
Example: First-year students who attended most lectures will have better exam scores than
those who attended few lectures.
6.WRITE A NULL HYPOTHESIS
If your research involves statistical hypothesis testing,you will also have to write a null
hypothesis. The null hypothesis is the default position that there is no association between the
variables. The null hypothesis is written as H0, while the alternative hypothesis is H1 or Ha.
HO:The number of lectures attended by first-year students has no effect on their final exam
scores.
H1:The number of lectures attended by first-year students has a positive effect on their final
exam scores.
Criteria for Formulation of Hypothesis:
There exist two criteria for formulation of a good hypothesis. First, it is a statement about the
relations between variables. Secondly it carries clear implications for testing the stated relations.
Thus, these couple of criteria imply that the hypotheses comprise two or more variables which
are measurable or potentially measurable and that they specify the way in which they are
related. A statement which fails to meet these criteria is no scientific hypothesis in the true
sense of the term. However, there are legitimate hypotheses, formulated in factor analytic
studies.
THEORETICAL VS.CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
while a THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK covers the theoretical aspect of your study, that is, the
various theories that can guide your research, a CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK defines the
variables for your study and presents how they relate to each other.
The conceptual framework is developed before collecting the data. However, both frameworks
help in understanding the research problem and guide the development, collection, and analysis
of the research.