Telecommunication Systems & Networks

Krzysztof Włostowski

Institute of Telecommunication
Warsaw Univeristy of Technology
Telecommunication Systems & Networks

mgr inż. Krzysztof Wlostowski

Institute of Telecommunication
Warsaw University of Technology

room: 574
phone: (22) 2347896
e-mail: chrisk@tele.pw.edu.pl

course webpage: www.tele.pw.edu.pl/etsn/

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 Telecommunication Systems & Networks

Course arrangement

Lectures at Tuesdays 12.15 - 14.00, room 6

Course slides and other relevant materials will be available at the website:
www.tele.pw.edu.pl/etsn/

Attendance is at the discretion of the student. However, students who attend regularly will
receive some bonus points which will be added to their final score.

Projects:
no class for project, it will be realized in form of consultations,

Thursday 12-14, room No 574. Attendance is not obligatory.

2 person teams for each project

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Telecommunication Systems & Networks

Tutorial arrangement
Wednesdays, (even weeks – P) 2.15pm – 4pm, room 6)

18/10/2017 – no class

15/11/2017 – tutorial class

29/11/2017 – tutorial class

13/12/2017 – oral project presentations in front of class

3/01/2018 – oral project presentations in front of class

10/01/2018 – oral project presentations in front of class

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 Telecommunication Systems & Networks

Assessment schedule

first test: 6th of December 2017

second test: 10th of January 2018

tests correction: 17th of January 2018

you can retake first or second test

project presentations: 13th of December 2017, from 2pm (room 6)

3rd of January 2018, from 2pm (room 6)
10th of January 2018, from 2pm (room 6)

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Telecommunication Systems & Networks

Assessment

The assessment of the student skills consists of a project part evaluation and
theoretical part evaluation made in the written form (two tests). Maximum note
for the theoretical part is 60 points, first test is worth 20 points, 40 points is
assigned for the final test. Up to 40 points can be scored for a project. 51 points
is required to pass the course.

The final mark is based on the following rules:

A (5): 91-100 points
B+ (4,5): 81-90 points
B (4): 71-80 points,
C+(3.5: 61-70 points
C (3): 51-60 points
D (2): 0 -50 points, no pas

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 Telecommunication Systems & Networks

Project
Task:
Collaborative study and preparation of PowerPoint presentation on assigned
subject

Realization:
• 2 persons teams
• more than 10 pages PowerPoint presentation

Assessment:
• up to 40 points can be scored
• project should be presented in class presence, approx. 20 minutes
assigned for each presentation

presentations schedule:
Wednesday 14-16 room 6
13th December 2017, 3rd January and 10th January 2018

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 Telecommunication Systems & Networks

Project subjects

1. Satellite navigation systems

Review of existing and planned global and regional navigation satellite systems.
Main parameters, system elements and coverage of operation.

2. Cellular telephony networks

Comparison of cellular telephony standards used in different parts of the world. This
comparison should include transmission techniques and used frequency bands.

3. Internet access
Review of wired and wireless technologies allowing access to the Internet.
Architectures, main parameters and usage costs comparison.

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Telecommunication Systems & Networks

4. TV and radio broadcast

Terrestrial and satellite systems used for TV and radio programmes
broadcasting. Standards, platforms architecture and coverage areas.

5. Satellite telephony
Overhaul of satellite telephony systems. It include geostationary and non-
geostationary systems. System elements, main parameters, capacity and
coverage of operation.

6. E-learning platforms
Realizations, architectures of the systems used for distant learning. Description
of tools used in e-learning (applications, etc.).

7. NFC technology
Near-field communication (NFC). Description of NFC technology. Elements of
the system, protocols, range of use and typical applications.

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Telecommunication Systems & Networks

8. Sensor networks
Description of the of the sensor network (WSN) idea. WSN architectures,
system elements, protocols and applications.

9. Smart home
A smart home is a home that incorporates advanced automation systems to
provide sophisticated monitoring and control over the building's functions.
Description of the monitoring and control systems which can be used in smart
home. Exemplary solutions architectures.

10. VSAT networks

System description, ground and space segment elements. VSAT network
topologies, areas of use and applications.

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Telecommunication Systems & Networks

Lecture programme

Introduction, elements of communication systems

analog vs. digital communication systems
transmission lines, capabilities and networking uses of copper wire, coaxial
cable, fiber optics and in case of wireless transmission
methods of signal generation and receiving

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)

multicarrier transmission
inter-symbol interference reduction, signal generation and reception
applications

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Telecommunication Systems & Networks

Spread Spectrum System

idea of SS transmission
spreading techniques: Direct Sequence, Frequency Hopping,
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
applications

Telephony
telephone system, facsimile, Public Switched Telephone Network
Integrated services Digital Networks (ISDN)
cellular telephone systems
evolution of Cellular Radio Systems (IMTS, AMPS,..), GSM and IS-95 CDMA
3G systems , GPRS, UMTS and HSDPA
LTE (Long Term Evolution) networks

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Telecommunication Systems & Networks

Wireless communication
radio channel characteristics
Wireless Personal and Local Area Network
Wireless Metropolitan Area Network
satellite communication systems

Fiber Optic Communication

light wave communication systems
fiber structure and function types of fiber, components for optical networks
fiber optic data communication systems

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Telecommunication Systems & Networks

References

o Roger L. Freeman, Fundamentals of Telecommunications, John Wiley & Sons

o B. Sklar, Digital Communications: Fundamentals and Applications, Prentice Hall
o J.P. Laude, DWDM Fundamentals, Components and Applications, Artech House
o J. Proakis & M. Salehi, “Communication Systems Engineering”, Prentice-Hall
o T.Anttalainen, Telecommunications Network Engineering, Artech House,
o I.A. Glover, Digital Communications, Prentice Hall
o J. Fitzgerald and Alan Dennis, Business Data Communications and Networking, John
Wiley & Sons

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Telecommunication Systems & Networks

Telecommunications

transmission medium
signal
Sender Receiver

Data (information) is communicated using the signal

which is carried via electronic means over some distance.

Message is transmitted from one computer to another using communication device

Communication device - electronic device which make data transmission possible.
Modems,cables, ports are such a device examples.

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Telecommunication Systems & Networks

Analog Signals
A continuous waveform (voice communication)

Digital Signals
Discrete waveform, signal is represented by stream of bits

Information in digital form is currently dominant in most communication

systems, however analog information is still present in existing systems
(example: FM broadcast)

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Telecommunication Systems & Networks

Telecommunication system components

Computers, smartphones : informations source and

destination
Terminals: input & output devices
Communication channels
Signal processors: transmitter and receiver which include
modems, switches, multiplexers, frontend processors
Communications software
*

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Telecommunication Systems & Networks

• Information
Voice, music, video, data files, pictures…

• Channel
Rrepresent the physical transmission medium, can be a cable (e.g.,
copper wires in telephone or broadband internet), optical fiber, or free
space.

• Transmitter and Receiver

Transmitter perform process of converting information into a form
suitable for transmission over a channel.
Receiver perform inverse operation, signal transmitted over the
channel is converted back to information. A receiver would also
perform other tasks, such as combating not desirable effects
introduced by the channel
Modem – Transmitter & Receiver

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Telecommunication Systems & Networks

Main transmission parameters

Transmission Speed or Bit Rate - Rb

measured in bits per second (bps or bit/s)
• Modulation Speed or Symbol Rate - Rm
measured in bauds or symbols per second
• Bandwidth - B
capacity of channel; difference between highest and
lowest frequencies, measured in Hz
• Bit Error Rate (BER)
transmission quality indicator, shows error probability

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 Telecommunication Systems & Networks

Shannon formula

C = B log2 (1 + S/N)

Where :
C - capacity (max transmission bit rate) in bit/s
B – channel bandwidth in Hz
S – signal power in watts
N – noise power in watts

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Telecommunication Systems & Networks

What limits the ability to communicate ?

Transmission channel is subject to some kind of noise (unwanted,

random fluctuations in the signal) and interference.

Noise and interference attenuate the signal and effecting its

dostortions (changes signal shape).

Combat the effect of noise - aim of advances in communications technology

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Telecommunication Systems & Networks

analog
signal
Rb [bit/s] Rc [bit/s] RS [baud]
Source
encoder

Time Division Data Channel Digital

Multiplexer Encryption Encoding Scrambling Modulation

digital
signal

transmission channel

Demodulator Descrambling Channel Data Time Division users.

Decoding Decryption Demultiplexer

Rc [bit/s] Rb [bit/s]

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Electronics and Information Technology 22 22
Telecommunication Systems & Networks

Main elements of the transmission system

Multiplexer
Multiple analog or digital signals are combined into one signal.

Source encoder
Converts analog signal into digital form (stream of bits)

Data encryption
Used to protect data, process of encoding messages or
information in such a way that only authorized person/machine is
able to read it.

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Telecommunication Systems & Networks

Channel encoder
Used for error correction, improves the signal transmission quality.
Adds extra data bits to make the transmission of data more robust
to disturbances present during transmission.

Scrambling
Operation that allows to improve signal spectral properties, causes
energy spectral dispersal.

Modulation
Operation used to adapt the signal to the channel and to allow many
signals to share the same channel. Higher order modulation
scheme allow for a higher transmission rate, but require higher S/N
ratio.

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Telecommunications Media

Wired transmission
• Twisted pair wire cable
• Coaxial cable
• Fiber-optic Cable

Wireless transmission
• Radio transmission
• Microwave communications
• Cellular transmission
• Infrared transmission

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Telecommunication Systems & Networks

Twisted pair wire cable

This type of cable consists of two independently insulated wires
twisted around one another.
One wire carries the signal and the other wire is grounded.
Insulated pairs of wires are mainly used in stationary telephone
system, least expensive type of local-area network (LAN) cable
and in computer devices connections.

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Telecommunication Systems & Networks

Coaxial cable
A type of wire that consists of inner conductor wire surrounded by insulation and
then a grounded shield of braided wire.
The shield minimizes electrical and radio frequency interference.
Coaxial cabling is the primary type of cabling used by the cable television
industry and is also widely used for computer networks.
It is more expensive than standard telephone wire, but it is much less susceptible
to interference and can offer higher data transmission rate.

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Telecommunication Systems & Networks

Fiber-optic Cable
A technology that uses glass (or plastic) threads (fibers) to transmit data.
A fiber optic cable consists of a bundle of glass threads, each of which is
capable of transmitting data modulated onto light waves.

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 Telecommunication Systems & Networks

It is popular technology for local-area networks and often used as

backbone of networks.
Fiber optics advantages over metal lines:
• much greater bandwidth (large capacity, very high data rates - trillions of
bit/s)
• better immunity to interference
• much thinner and lighter
• data can be transmitted digitally rather than in analog form

Main disadvantages:
• expansive to install
• more fragile than wire and difficult to split.

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Telecommunication Systems & Networks

Radio transmission

Communication devices uses air (free space) as a transmission medium.

medium

Radio waves do not move in a strictly straight line.

Problems In wireless transmission

• signal absorption
Electromagnetic waves go through some material, they generally get
weakened or dampened. Different materials In different way absorb energy.

• signal reflection
The angle at which a wave hits a surface is the same angle at which
it gets deflected. Metal and water are excellent reflectors of radio waves.

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Telecommunication Systems & Networks

• signal diffraction
Because of the effect of diffraction, waves will “bend” around corners or
through an opening in a barrier.

• signal refraction
Refraction is the apparent “bending” of waves when they meet a material
with different characteristics. When a wave moves from one medium to
another it changes speed and direction upon entering the new medium.

• multipath propagation
Because radio waves do not move in a strictly straight line, signal that reach
the receiver is a superposition of transmitted signal copies. These copies
arrives with different powers, different delays and phase shift. Multipath
propagation causes InterSymbol interefrence (ISI) which limits transmission
speed.

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 Telecommunication Systems & Networks

Received power
Multipath propagation
1
2
3

3 Delay

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Telecommunication Systems & Networks

Microwave Communications
Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with frequencies that range from
about 500 MHz to 300 GHz or more.

They are used in technologies from mobile phones to satellites as well as in

home appliances.

Information is converted to a microwave signal, sent through the air to a

receiver, and than retrieved.

A lot of systems rely on microwaves to transmit data and it is still one of

the most viable technologies for a lot of industries. Line-of-sight devices
which must be placed in relatively high locations

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 Telecommunication Systems & Networks

Advantages:
• can transmit large quantities of information because of their high
frequencies.
• relatively low costs compared with other forms of data transmission, like
wire-line technologies

Disadvantages:
• microwaves do not pass through solid objects (in many cases line of sight
is required)
• are subject to electromagnetic and other Interference which degrade
system performance

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Telecommunication Systems & Networks

Cellular transmission

Signals from cells are transmitted to a receiver and integrated into the
regular network.

Refers to communications systems, especially the modern telephony

services (GSM), that divide a geographic region into sections called cells.

The purpose of this division is to make the most use out of a limited
number of transmission frequencies.

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Telecommunication Systems & Networks

Infrared transmission

Infrared is light that is beyond the red end of the visible spectrum, wavelengths
are in the range of 770 to 1400 nanometers.

Technology allows computing devices to communicate via short-range (up to

several meters).

Used to connect various computing devices. Requires line-of-sight for proper

communication.

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Telecommunication Systems & Networks

analog
signal
Rb [bit/s] Rc [bit/s] RS [baud]
Source
encoder

Time Division Data Channel Digital

Multiplexer Encryption Encoding Scrambling Modulation

digital
signal

transmission channel

Demodulator Descrambling Channel Data Time Division users.

Decoding Decryption Demultiplexer

Rc [bit/s] Rb [bit/s]

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Electronics and Information Technology
Telecommunication Systems & Networks

used abbreviations:
Rb [bit/s] – transmission bit rate of information signal
Rc [bit/s] – transmission bit rate of uncoded signal
Rm, Rs [baud] – modulation speed (symbol rate)
BER – bit error rate
B [Hz] – signal bandwidth
P, S [W] – signal power
C [W] – carrier power
Eb – energy per one bit
N [W] – noise power
N0 [W/Hz] – noise power density per 1Hz
G – gain
Eb = C/Rb N0 = N/B

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Digital modulations

x(t) s(t)
Modulator
Modulating signal Modulated signal
(digital) (analog)

x(t) = Σn bng(t-nTm)
Bn - stream of bits
g(t) – rectsngle pulse

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Digital modulations

amplitude angle

s(t) = A(t) cosΦ(t)

Φ(t) = ωo+ φ(t)
dΦ
___
ω = 2πf
2 = Momentary pulsation
dt

ωo Carrier pulsation

φ(t) Phase

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Digital modulations

Main modulation types

ASK - Amplitude Shift Keying

FSK - Frequency Shift Keying

PSK - Phase Shift Keying

QAM - Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
(Hybrid modulation combining amplitude and phase changes)

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Digital modulations

Spectral Efficiency

Γ = Rb/B [bit/s/Hz]
R - transmission bit rate (bit/s)
B - the bandwidth occupied by the signal

The spectral efficiency expresses the ability of the modulated

carrier to convey a given bit rate within a given bandwidth

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Digital modulations

ASK - Amplitude Shift Keying

/Tb

 A0 cos(2πf0t ) for binary „0”

s(t ) = 
 A1 cos(2πf0t ) for binary „1”

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Digital modulations

FSK - Frequency Shift Keying

f1 f2

t/Tb

 A cos( 2πf1t ) for binary „0”

s(t ) = 
A cos( 2πf2t ) for binary „1”

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Digital modulations

Frequency modulation - FSK

f1 + f2 f2 - f1
Centre deviation Δf =
frequency f0 = 2
2
2Δf
modulation index m= R
m

m = 0.5 modulation MSK (Minimum Shift Keying)

G(f)
m=0.5

f0-1/Tb f0 f0+1/Tb

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Digital modulations

PSK - Phase Shift Keying

φ0 φ1

t/T
t/Tbb

 Acos(2πf0t + φ0(t)) for binary „0”

s(t) = 
 Acos(2πf0t + φ1(t)) for binary „1”

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Digital modulations

Phase Shift Keying

BPSK DBPSK
Binary PSK Differential Binary PSK

phase phase shift

8-PSK
QPSK (4-PSK)
phase

phase

11

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Digital modulations

M-ary modulation

Modulator
M=2m
Data in channel signals
M-ary channel Encoder M-ary channel
symbol generator signal generator
m bits

RF signalling rate
Input bit rate Rs [baud]
Rb [bit/s]

The encoder provides a one-to-one mapping of the channel symbols.

Each channel signal conveys m bits:
Tm=mTb where Tb and Tm are bit and symbol durations
Rm=Rb/m

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Digital modulations

Modulated signal:

s(t) = A(t) cos(2πf0t + φ(t))

A(t) amplitude modulation
φ(t) angle modulation (phase or frequency)

s(t) = sI(t)cos2πf0t + sQ(t)sin2πf0t

sI(t) - inphase component, sQ(t) - quadrature component

A(t) = (sI2(t) + sQ2(t))1/2

φ(t)=arctg(sQ(t)/sI(t)

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Digital modulations

Quadrature component

q
sq sn

amplitude
A

φ phase
i
si
Inphase component

Graphical interpretation of modulated signal element

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Digital modulations

q
qn=±1
Tb
(01) (00)
1 Rb/2

Σ
{dn} S(t)
-1 1 serial/parallel 900
i converter.
Rb=1/Tb cos2πfct
-1
(11) (10)
Rb/2

in=±1

QPSK constellation QPSK/OQPSK modulator

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Digital modulations in nonlinear channels

Digital modulation is well suited to the satellite as it offers:

constant envelope
high spectral efficiency

Main PSK types used:

- BPSK biphase phase shift keying (M=2)
- QPSK quadriphase phase shift keying (M=4)
OQPSK offset QPSK
π/4QPSK

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Digital modulations in nonlinear channels

∆φmax=1800

∆φmax=900

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Digital modulations in nonlinear channels

Pi/4 QPSK
QPSK
∆φmax=1350
non-coherent demodulation

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 Digital modulations

Hybrid modulations – QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation)

0010 0001

0011 0000
16-QAM
(Γ = 4 bit/sHz)

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 Digital modulations

For BPSK and QPSK:

√
BER = 1/2erfc Eb/N0

When considering M-ary PSK (M>2) the error rate erformance

can be specified in terms of the symbol error rate (SER), and
approximate relationship is:
BER = SER/log2(M)

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Digital modulations

BER
Bit Error Rate

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Error correction

Channel Encoding
r
K=2i redundancy bits
N=2r+i
information data encoded data
symbols Channel symbols

information bit rate Encoder channel bit rate

Rb Rc
i - number of information bits r - number of redundancy bits

Channel encoder inserts redundancy bits for purposes

of error control and error correction

Code rate: k = K/N

Rc = Rb/k

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 Error correction

Coding gain

Typical values:
Code rate Required Eb/N0 Coding gain
k for BER=10-5
1 9.6dB 0dB
7/8 7.6dB 2dB
3/4 5.8dB 3.8dB
2/3 5.3dB 4.3dB
1/2 4.9dB 4.7dB

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Error correction

Error detection/correction techniques

ARQ - Automatic Repeat on Request

FEC - Forward Error Correction

- block codes
- convolutional codes
- turbo-codes

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 Error correction

ARQ FEC

DATA DATA DATA DATA

Buffering
Buffering +
+ Retransmissions
Retransmissions requests
Decode
Encoder
r(error
correctiion)

Error
Encoder
Detection

Transmission channel Transmission channel

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Error correction - ARQ

Header Data FCS

FCS (frame check sequence)

• parity bit
• checksum
• CRC (cyclic redundancy check)
CRC
16-bits G(x)=X16+X15+x5+1
32-bits G(x)=X32+X26+x23 +X22+X16 +X12+X11 +X10
+X8 +X7 +X5 +X4 +X2 +X +1

FCS
D(x)/G(x) = Q(x) + R(x)

D(x) - data polynomial

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 Error correction - FEC

Information word Code-word

(K-bits) (N-bits)

Block (N,K,dH)
Rb Encoder Rc
dH - Hamming distance

Block code with Hamming distance dH :

detection of dH-1 errors
correction of (dH-1)/2 errors

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Error correction - FEC

Example: information
word codeword

00 00101 A

Block code (5,2,3) 01 01011 B

10 10010 C

11 11100 D

Received:
Error correction
A (+3)
B (+4) decision
10110
C (+1) 10010 10
D (+2)

A (+3) Error detection

B (+2)
01110
C (+3)
D (+2)

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 Error correction - FEC

RS (Reed-Solomon) code
RS is byte byte oriented block code

(204,188,8)
N=204 bytes of codeword
K=188 bytes of information
t=8 number of bytes which can be corrected

advantages:
• high coding gain, for input BER=10-4 at the decoder output
BER can be reduced to 10-12
• possibility of error bursts correction due to byte structure of the code
• small overhead, 8% for (204,188) code

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 Error correction - FEC

RS codes are often used in connection with

other codes (mainly convolutional).

example: DVB-S system

transmitter

Data RS encoder Convolutional code

(204,188) Interleaver (k=1/2,2/3,3/4,..) Modulator RF

receiver

RS Convolutional
Deinterleaver
decoder
Demodulator RF
Data decoder

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Error correction - FEC

Convolutional encoder

0100 x1i

x1i,x2i
T T 00110101
0110

x2i
0111
N=1 K=2 M=3
k=N/K
G1(X) = 1 + X + X2 (G1 = 1 1 1)
G2(X) = 1 + X2 (G2 = 1 0 1)

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 Error correction - FEC

Convolutional code
trellis

Start 00 00 00 00 00
A 00
11 11 11 11 11
01 10

10 10 10 10 B 01
00 00 00

01 01 01 01 C 10
01 01 01
10 10 10
D 11
bit “0”
bit “1”

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 Error correction - FEC

Turbo encoder
xk
dk

encoder 1

+ T T T T

+ y1k
Interleaver

encoder 2

+ T T T T

{d} {x,y1,y2} +
y2k

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 Error correction - FEC

Turbo decoder

^
d ^
x ^
d
y1
DEC 1 Interleaver
Deinterleaver
y2
DEC 2

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Multicarrier modulation

SC - Single carrier systems

One carrier carries data stream

MC - Multi-carrier systems
Many carriers are used for data transmission. Data
stream is divided into sub-streams and each of these
sub-streams is transmitted using different carrier.

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 Multicarrier modulation

f1

Parallel / Serial Rb/N Modulator 1

f2

Data Rb/N Modulator 2 s(t)

Rb=1/Tb
Σ
fN
Rb/N
Modulator N

Multicarrier transmission

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Radio channel

Signal propagation in radio channel

• Multipath propagation
• Signal attenuation
• Signal reflection
• Signal diffraction
• Signal refraction
• Signal fading
• Doppler effect

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 Radio channel

Received power
Multipath propagation
1
2
3

3 Delay

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 Multicarrier modulation

Received signal is a sum of signals which arrives to the receiver on

different paths. Copies of the original signal reaches the receiver with
different power level, different delays and are shifted in phase.

It causes overlapping (interference) of transmitted signal elements.

Interference level depends on length (duration) of channel response
and transmission speed.

Inter-Symbol Intereference (ISI ISI) reduction is possible by employment

of multicarrier transmission - OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing).

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Multicarrier modulation

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing

Type of multicarrier (multitone) transmission)

Available bandwidth of the transmission channel is divided into

many (N) narrowbands (subchannels).

Data is transmitted parallelly in selected subchannels

Subchannels carriers are orthogonal (gap between carriers is

∆f=1/Tm, where Tm is a duration of modulated element)

Signal generation and reception are realized using Fourier

transform algorithms (IFFT in transmitter and FFT in receiver)

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 Multicarrier modulation

Channel with multipath propagation, max. channel response duration τmax=224µs

System with single carrier

transmission speed Rb =1/Tb= 7.4 Mbit/s.
ISI (Inter-Symbol Interference) level :
τmax /Tb= 1600
Multicarrier system (OFDM)
Data stream with speed Rb is divided into N parallel
sub-streams, each of speed Rmc = 1/Tmc = Rb/N .

ISI is reduced to level:

τmax /Tmc= τmax /(TbN)
For DVB-T (number of carriers is N=8192):
τmax /Tmc=0.2

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Multicarrier modulation

data
N carriers

frequency
B carrier
f0

B
symbol OFDM
T=1/f
0
time

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Multicarrier modulation

serial to symbol parallel to guard

parallel mapping serial interval
conversion conversion insertion

guard serial to
symbols to parallel to
interval parallel
bit streams serial
removal conversion
conversion conversion

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Multicarrier modulation

OFDM advantages
Reduction of signal distortions caused by
InterSymbol Interference (ISI)
Employment of slow bitrate parallel transmission instead of high bitrate
single stream transmission cause extension of modulated element
duration to the value related to channel response length.

High spectral efficiency

High flexibility enabling system optimization

from point of maximal transmission speed.
It is realised by proper allocation of power and modulation
format in frequency subchannels.

Institute of Telecommunication 80
Multicarrier modulation

OFDM Disadvantages

Susceptibility for signal fading (loss)

Precise synchronization reguired

Special training sequences and pilot signals are used.

Cannot be used in nonlinear channels

where constant envelope signals are required
OFDM signals characterize high amplitude changes.

Institute of Telecommunication 81
 Multicarrier modulation

DMT is a type of OFDM modulation and is used in DSL (Digital

Subscriber Loops) systems.

DMT use 224 carrier in downlink direction (downstream) and 32

carriers in uplink direction (upstream), the gap between adjacent
carriers is 4.3125kHz

Institute of Telecommunication 82
Multicarrier modulation

Applications:
Digital TV
DVB-T (Digital Video Broadcasting for Terrestrial)
Digital radio
DAB (Digital Audio Broadcasting)
High speed data transmission on wired subscriber loops
ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Loops)
VDSL (Very High Speed Digital Subscriber Loops)
Wireless Local Area Networks (Wi-Fi)
(IEEE 802.11g)
WiMax systems (802.16)
Cellular telephone network LTE (Long Term Evolution

Institute of Telecommunication 83
Multiplie Access

Multiple Access
Techniques

Institute of Telecommunication 84
Multiple Access

Fixed Assignment Protocols:

⌧ FDMA (SCPC)
⌧ TDMA
⌧ CDMA
Demand Assignment Protocols:
⌧ DAMA-TDMA
⌧ DAMA- FDMA
⌧ reservation ALOHA
Random Access Protocols:
⌧ ALOHA
⌧ S-ALOHA
⌧ SREJ-ALOHA

Institute of Telecommunication 85
Multiple Access

Desirable Features

High efficiency in terms of the throughput

Low access delay
Stability
Efficient starting up of new stations
Low complexity

Institute of Telecommunication 86
 Multiple Access

Advantages:
- network timing not required
Disadvantages:
FDMA - intermodulation noise reduces the usable output power, hence there
is a loss of capacity relative to single carrier capacity
- uplink control power required
- the frequency allocation may be difficult to modify

Advantages:
- uplink power control not needed
- no mutual interference between accesses
TDMA - digital circuitry
Disadvantages:
- network control (timing) required
- stations transmits high bit-rate bursts requiring large peak power

Advantages:
- antijamming capabilities
- network timing not required
CDMA Disadvantages:
- wide bandwidth per user required
- precision code synchronization neeed

Institute of Telecommunication 87
Multiple Access

Fixed Assignment

FDMA TDMA
frequency frequency

time time

The Frequency or Time resource is shared between stations

according to a scheme which does not vary with time

Institute of Telecommunication 88
Multiple Access

Demand Assignment

FDMA TDMA
frequency
frequency

pool of
pool of time slots
frequency
bands

time time

The Frequency or Time resource is shared between stations

according to the demand from individual stations

Institute of Telecommunication 89
Multiple Access

FDMA
Frequency Division Multiple Access

Available Channel Bandwidth

f1 f2 f3 f4

Institute of Telecommunication 90
Multiple Access

TDMA
Time Division Multiple Access

Preamble Data

Reference Burst

e1 e2 …. eN-1 eN
t

Frame

Institute of Telecommunication 91
 Multiple Access

carrier power
TF TDMA
speed RTDMA

TF
time RTDMA = RFDMA
TP TP
FDMA
carrier power
speed RFDMA

time

FDMA
RFDMA=64kbit/s
Example:
total throughput: 50x64=3.2Mbit/s

Rb=64kbit/s TDMA
N=50 terminals every terminal transmitting with speed RTDMA=3.2Mbit/s
17dB power increase high terminal cost

Institute of Telecommunication 92
 Spread Spectrum transmission

Spread Spectrum technique

Transmitter spreads baseband signal from bandwidth B to W
W/B - spreading factor (10-100000)
Receiver despreads only signal with proper address
Received signals with other addresses and jammer are spread by
the receiver and act as a noise
Addresses are periodic sequences that either modulate the carrier
directly (DIRECT SEQUENCE SYSTEMS) or change the frequency state
of the carrier (FREQUENCY HOPPING SYSTEMS)

CDMA is based on spread spectrum transmission

Institute of Telecommunication 93
 Spread Spectrum transmission

Power spectral density

Data signal

Data signal
after spreading

frequency
f0

W
B

Modulation gain
(spreading factor)
Data (information signal) Rb=1/Tb
W Rc
Spreading sequence (code) Rc=1/Tc =
B Rb

Institute of Telecommunication 94
 Spread Spectrum transmission

undesired signals satellite

2 3
data received
SPREADING DESPREADING data
1 W >> B 4

psd (power spectral density) psd

jammer
1 3 Signal + noise
+ other users signals.

frequency frequency
B fc
psd psd
2 4
W

fc frequency frequency

Institute of Telecommunication 95
 Spread Spectrum transmission

Direct Sequence System

satellite

d(t) 1 Tb
data X X X LPF X (..)dt
Tb 0
Rb=1/Tb
c(t) cos2πfct cos2πfct c(t)
Code
generator Rc >> Rb Code Code
Rc=1/Tc sync generator

Tb
data d(t) Tc
code c(t)

d(t) c(t)

c(t)
data
received

Institute of Telecommunication 96
Spread Spectrum transmission

CDMA receiver

recovered
data signal
X X
c(t) 2cos2πfct

KOD CODE CARRIER

SYNC GENERATOR RECOVERY

Coherent demodulation implies recovery of the transmitted

carrier at the receiver side. Despreading is performed prior to
demodulation in order to reduce interference from other than
desired carriers and improve carrier recovery performance

Institute of Telecommunication 97
 Spread Spectrum transmission

CDMA - code generation

f = 1/Tc
Clock
Shift register
n stages code
Tc Tc Tc Example:
rate: Rc=1/Tc
period: 2n-1 chips

Tc Tc Tc
+ + +
n=3

Code Correlation Function +

Rcode(δ)
2n-1 chips

-1/(2n-1) δ Shift register status

0 0 1
1 0 0
Tc 1 1 0
Code Power Spectral Density 1 1 1 1 period output
code sequence
0 1 1
∆f=Rc/(2n-1)
1 0 1
0 1 0
frequency
-Rc 0 Rc

Institute of Telecommunication 98
Spread Spectrum transmission

Frequency hopping (FH)

• Generated frequency depends on spreading code and data and is

changed every Tc
• Bit duration Tb
• Slow SFH (Tc ≥Tb, „hop” for a few data elements )
• Fast FFH (Tc < Tb, many „shops” per data element)
• Immunity to interference increasing with number of used
frequencies l

Institute of Telecommunication 99
Spread Spectrum transmission

Spreading sequences (codes)

Maximal length pseudorandom sequences

good auto and cross-correlation properties
small number of sequences
Gold and Kasami codes. Generated from maximal length
pseudorandom sequences , Similar correlation properties, more
sequences to use.
Walsh and Hadamard codes

Institute of Telecommunication 100 100

 Spread Spectrum transmission

Advantages:
interference protection and antijamming capabilities (immunity
increases with larger modulation gain)
Many users can share the same frequency band
Signal unavailable without spreading code knowledge
CDMA do no require network synchronization

Disadvantages:
Wide bandwidth required
Precision synchronization of spreading code required

Institute of Telecommunication 101

 Multiple Access - CDMA

transmitter receiver

User 1 noise

cos2πfct

User 2

cos2πfct

User n

cos2πfct

Institute of Telecommunication 102

 Multiple Access - CDMA

System capacity
assumption: noise - other users signals

K - number of users (stations)

Rb - data bit rate
Rc - code bit rate
C - carrier power
(Eb/N0)W - required value of (Eb/N0) for specified BER

C
Eb = N0 = (K-1)C
Rb Rc

Eb Rc 1 Rc 1
= Kmax= +1
N0 W Rb (K-1) Rb (Eb/ N0)W

Institute of Telecommunication 103

 Multiple Access

Random Access

Pure Aloha
• Every station starts transmission whenever it has something to transmit
• It is possible that two different station overlap their transmission (COLLISION)
• After every transmission the station should wait for an acknowledge from the
receiving station. If such acknowledge is not received, the information is
retransmitted after a random delay.

FCS Good transmission

Preamble Header Data
Collision
Aloha packet format
Retry of 5th

1 2 3 4 5 3r1 4r 6 5r 3r2
Retry of 4th Retry of 3r1st

Retry of 3rd

Institute of Telecommunication 104

 Multiple Access

Slotted Aloha, SREJ Aloha

Slotted Aloha packet format Sub-packet format SREJ-aloha

Preamble Header Data Preamble Sub-packet Data

FCS FCS
header

4 5
c1 c2 c3c4 c1 c2 e1 e2 e3
1 2 3 3r 4r1 5 4r2 a1 a2 b1 b2b3 d1 b2b3 b3
Retry of c1c2
Retry of 3rd Retry of 5th
Retry of b3
Retry of b2b3
Retry of 4th Retry of 4r1st

Institute of Telecommunication 105

OSI Model

Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI)

Conceptual model that characterizes and standardizes

the internal functions of a communication system by
dividing it into abstraction layers.

Model consists of seven layers and each of of it describes

set ofcommuniaction functions.

A layer serves the layer above its functions and is served

by the layer below it.

Institute of Telecommunication 2
OSI Model

System a System b
7. Application 7. Application

6. Presentation 6. Presentation

5. Session 5. Session

4. Transport 4. Transport
….
3. Network Network Network 3. Network
….
2. Data Link Data Link Data Link 2. Data Link

1. Physical Physical
…. Physical 1. Physical

Institute of Telecommunication 3
 OSI Model

Layer 1 - Physical Layer

Defines the electrical and physical specifications of the data. Shows the
relationship between a device and a physical transmission medium.

Layer 2 - Data Link Layer

Provides a reliable link between two directly connected nodes, by detecting
and possibly correcting errors that may occur in the physical layer.
The data link layer is divided into two sublayers:
Media Access Control (MAC) - controlling devices access to data and
transmission medium.
Logical Link Control (LLC) layer - error detection and packet synchronization.

Layer 3 - Network Layer

Provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length
data sequences from one node to another, nodes are in the same network.
Layer responsible for making routing decisions.

Institute of Telecommunication 4
 OSI Model

Layer 4 - Transport Layer

Responsible for establishing end-to-end connections, transfer of variable length
data sequences from a source to a destination through one or more networks.
Translates domain names into numeric addresses and segments messages
Maintains the logical connections between sender and receiver and the quality of
service.
Layer 5 - Session Layer
Establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and
remote applications. This layer is in most of cases implemented explicitly in
application environments.

Layer 6 - Presentation Layer

Realizes translation between application and network formats. It transforms data
into the form that the application accepts. Data is formatted and encrypted to be
sent across the network.

Layer 7 - Application Layer

Used by application program. Main functions: identifying communication partners,
determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication.

Institute of Telecommunication 5
 Comparision of OSI models

HUT Comms. Lab, Institute of Telecommunication 6

Networks and Services

Competing telecommunication networks

Institute of Telecommunication 7
Networks and Services

• Packet Switching (X.25)

• Frame Relay (FR)

• Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

• IP networks

• Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

• Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)

• T1, E1 Line

Institute of Telecommunication 8
Networks and Services

X.25

ITU-T standard protocol for packet switched wide area network

(WAN) communication.

An X.25 WAN consists of packet-switching exchange (PSE)

nodes as the networking hardware, and leased lines, plain old
telephone service connections or ISDN connections as physical
links.

X.25 is a family of protocols that was popular during the 1980s

Now is replaced by less complex protocols, especially by the
Internet protocol (IP), but is still used in niche applications

Institute of Telecommunication 9
 Networks and Services

Frame relay

Standard for wide area network technology, specifies the physical and
logical link layers of digital telecommunications channels

This technology uses a packet switching methodology and is designed for

data transport using Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
infrastructure but is also used in case of many other network interfaces.

The idea of Frame Relay is to provide a telecommunication service for data

transmission between local area networks (LAN's) and between end points
in a wide area network (WAN).

Frame relay puts data in variable-size units called "frames". In most of

services, network provides a permanent virtual circuit (PVC), from user point
of view the transmission is continuous, there are dedicated connection
without having to pay for a full-time leased line.

Institute of Telecommunication 10
 Networks and Services

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

Standard (ANSI and ITU) for transfer of a wide range of user traffic, including voice, data, and
video signals.

ATM was developed for the needs of the Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network and
designed to unify telecommunication and computer networks.
It can handle high volume data traffic, and real time voice and video transmission.

ATM is a core protocol used over the SONET/SDH backbone of the public switched telephone
network (PSTN) and Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN).

It's functionality is similar to both circuit switching and packet switching networks:
data are formatted into small, fixed-sized packets - called cells. The Internet Protocol (IP) and
Ethernet use variable sized packets and frames.

ATM nowadays became dominated by Internet Protocol (IP).

Institute of Telecommunication 11
Networks and Services

IP network
Uses Internet Protocols (IP) - set of communications protocols especially
designed for the Internet and similar computer networks. It is commonly
known as TCP/IP - the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet
Protocol (IP) are the first networking protocols defined in this standard.

TCP/IP provides end-to-end connectivity specifying how data should be

packetized, addressed, transmitted, routed and received at the destination.

Functionality of TCP/IP is organized into four layers.

link layer - containing communication technologies for a single network
segment (link)
internet layer - connect hosts across independent networks, establishing
internetworking,
transport layer - realize host to host communication
application layer - provides process of application data exchange.

Institute of Telecommunication 12
Telephone networks

PSTN - Public switched telephone network

The oldest (1880) network, initially used only for voice

communication
After 1960 more functions: data, fax, PCM….
Essential parameters
Analog access 300-3400 Hz
Bi-directional voice channel
End devices are power supplied by the telephone exchange, so
the devices are independent of local sources
Circuit switched connection
Switched bandwidth 64 Kb/s (digital exchanges)
No mobility (limited mobility, for example DECT=PABX )

Institute of Telecommunication 13
Telephone networks

Support for data traffic by

ISDN (integrated into exchanges)
xDSL (x digital subscriber line)

PSTN is an important backbone for other networks

The PSTN will be there for a long time and it seems that PSTN
can by used for modern communication also on high data bit
rates using various extension techniques

Institute of Telecommunication 14
Telephone networks

Subscriber CO
Line (Local Exchange)
Telephone

dial switch
T cradle switch tip (+)

off-hook
on-hook

mouth C
ear DTMF
SLIC
ringer
R ring (-)

Subscriber side

Institute of Telecommunication 15
Telephone networks
Subscriber Line Interface Circuit

ring switch
Telephone
T
tip (+)
crossconnect
Subscriber hybrid
current switch
Line
ring (-) detector

control channel
ring
generator ~ Processor
-48 VDC
(100Vrms 25 Hz)
Call States
idle on hook
dialing dialing in progress
calling after dialing
ringing incoming call
called call in progress

Telephone exchange side

Institute of Telecommunication 16
 Telephone networks

Local loop – connection of the end uses device to the telephony

exchange

• Device is without power when hook on cradle

• Call information is signalled with 65V alternating current
• When off hook power supplied at around 60V by a current level
20 – 40mA
• Dial plate cuts the local loop for well defined periods to
indicate dial information

Institute of Telecommunication 17
Voice connection

Institute of Telecommunication 18
Telephone networks

local loop
local loop Local
Exchange

Long distance
Local network Local
Exchange
Exchange
Trunk circuit

local loop

PSTN structure

Institute of Telecommunication 19
Telephone networks

country level

county level

city level

PSTN hierarchy

Institute of Telecommunication 20
Telephone networks

Elements of Telephone Network Architecture

Digital transmission & switching
Digital voice; Time Division Multiplexing
Circuit switching
User signals for call setup and tear-down
Route selected during connection setup
End to end connection across network
Hierarchical Network
Hierarchical structure;
simplified routing; scalability
Signaling Network
Intelligence inside the network

PSTN digitalization
More efficient use of resources (more channels on trunks)
Better voice quality (less noise and distortion)

Institute of Telecommunication 21
Telephone networks

Evolution of Telephone Networks

o Pulse Code Modulation- digital voice signal

Voice gives 8 bits/sample x 8000 samples/sec = 64x103 bit/s
o Time Division Multiplexing for digital voice
T-1 multiplexing (1961): 24 voice channels = 1.544 Mb/s
E-1 multiplexing : 32 voice channels = 2.048 Mb/s
o Digital Switching (1980s)
Switch TDM signals without conversion to analog form
o Digital Cellular Telephony (1990)
o Optical Digital Transmission (1995)
One OC-192 optical signal = 10 Gb/s
One optical fiber carries 160 OC-192 signals = 1000 Gb/s

Institute of Telecommunication 22
 Telephone networks

PCM – Pulse Code Modulation

Analog signal, continuous in time and value domain.

Signal is characterized by amplitude (signal strength)
and frequency
Bandwidth in telephony networks 300 Hz – 3.4k Hz

1. Sampling of a signal
According to Nyguist theorem sampling rate must be at
least twice the max frequency of analog signal
2* fmax = 2x3,4 kHz = 6,8k Hz
sample frequency was chosen as fS= 8 KHz
sample period is T=1/f=125µs

Institute of Telecommunication 23
 Telephone networks

2. Signal quantization

Continuous in value domain, must be translated

into discrete values.

A/D convertor quantizes the signal by splitting the

value domain into equal intervals.
Each sampled value is approximated and assigned
to one of the predefined intervals

Institute of Telecommunication 24
 Telephone networks

3.Signal encoding

Each quantization level is expressed as a digital data

(bits)

PCM defines 128 different levels for positive and 128

negative amplitude of the signal, resolution is 256 bit.
Each quantization value is represented by 8 bits

For sampling frequency 8 KHz bit stream rate is

64 kb/s

Institute of Telecommunication 25
 Telephone networks

Integrated Services for Digital Network (ISDN)

Communication standards for digital transmission of voice, video, data, and other network
services over the traditional circuits of the public switched telephone network.

Before ISDN, the telephone system was used to transport mainly voice, with some special
services available for data.

ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network system, but also provides access to packet
switched networks. ISDN allow digital transmission of voice and data over standard
telephone copper wires

ISDN integrates speech and data on the same line, also adds new features not available in
the classic telephone system.

Ensure better voice quality compare to analog phone systems. Circuit-switched connections
(for either voice or data), and packet-switched connections (for data), are multiple 64 Kb/s.

Institute of Telecommunication 26
Telephone networks

Integrated Services for Digital Network (ISDN)

Data speed is multiple of 64 kb/s

Access interfaces to ISDN:

Basic Rate Interface (BRI)
Primary Rate Interface (PRI)
Narrowband ISDN (N-ISDN)
Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN).

BRI provides a total data rate of 160 Kb/s, standard user connection consist of
2 B channels (for data - digitized voice) of 64 Kb/s each, and1 D channel (data
channel for signaling) of 16kbit/s and synchronization of 16 Kbi/s

B-ISDN channels consists of three or four BRIs’ (six to eight 64 Kb/s channels).

Institute of Telecommunication 27
 Source:
York University

Institute of Telecommunication 28
Telephone networks

Present PSTN

Core backbone

PSTN Network
subscriber line subscriber line

Analog voltages and copper wire used only in “last mile” (end user switch office),
Voice signal filtered to 4 KHz at input to digital network
Time Division Multiplexing of digital signals in the network
Extensive use of fiber optic and wireless physical links
T1/E1, PDH and SONET/SDH “synchronous” protocols
Signaling can be channel/trunk associated or via separate network (SS7)
Automatic routing
Complex routing optimization algorithms

Institute of Telecommunication 29
 Telephone networks

Voice - data - multimedia

PSTN exchanges apply ISDN technology (64 kb/s...2 Mb/s) both internally
and externally. B-ISDN is a broadband version B-ISDN (up to 100Mb/s).

PLMN:
Institute of Telecommunication Public Land Mobile
30 Network
30
 DSL Technology

DSL – Digital Subscriber Loop

Family of technologies that provide high-speed access to Internet by transmitting
digital data over existing local telephone loops in public switched telephone
network.

DSL technologies:
HDSL (High-bit-rate Digital Subscriber Loop)
not rate adaptive, speed 2.048 Mb/s

ADSL (Assymetric Digital Subscriber Loop)

Downstream bit rate 20 Mb/s, Upstream 1.5 Mb/s

VDSL (Very High-bit-rate Digital subscriber Loop)

Downstream bit rate 55 Mb/s, Upstream 3 Mb/s

VDSL2 (Very High-bit-rate Digital Dubscriber Loop)

Downstream bit rate 100 Mb/s, Upstream 20 Mb/s

Institute of Telecommunication 31
 DSL Technology

ADSL (Assymetric Digital Subscriber Loop) technology

• Asymmetric because provides higher speed (bit rate) in the downstream direction
(from the Internet user) than in the upstream direction (from user to the Internet).

• Bandwidth up to 1.1 MHz but the filter installed at the end of the line by the
telephone company limits the bandwidth to 3 KHz (sufficient for voice
communication). This was done to allow the multiplexing of a large number of
voice channels.

• Distance between the residence and the switching office, type and size of the
cable affect the bandwidth.

• Adaptive technology is used, that tests the condition and bandwidth availability of
the line before setting on a data rate.

• The data rate of ADSL is not fixed, changes depending on the condition and type
of the local loop cable.

Institute of Telecommunication 32
DSL Technology

• Modulation technique - DMT (Discrete Multitone Modulation)

• Each system can decide on its bandwidth division.

• Channel 0 is reserved for voice communication.

• Channel 1-5 are not used to allow a gap between voice and data communication.

• Channel 6 - 30 (25) used for upstream data transmission and control. 1 channel
for control and 24 for upstream data, each using 4KHz.

• Channel 31 – 255 (225) are used for downstream data transmission and control.
1 channel for control and 224 for downstream data.

• Data rates:

• Upstream = 64 Kbps to 1 Mbps

• Downstream = 500 Kbps to 8 Mbps

Institute of Telecommunication 33
DSL Technology

DMT is a type of OFDM modulation and is used in DSL (Digital

Subscriber Loops) systems.

DMT uses 224 carrier in downlink direction (downstream) and 32

carriers in uplink direction (upstream), the gap between adjacent
carriers is 4.3125kHz

Institute of Telecommunication 34
DSL Technology

System architecture

User site: ADSL Modem

Local loop connects to the filter which separates voice and data
communication.
ADSL modem modulates the data, using DMT, and creates
downstream and upstream channels.

Telephone company site: DSLAM

Device called a digital subscriber line access multiplexer (DSLAM)
is installed, perform functions similar to ADSL
DSLAM packetizes the data to be sent to the Internet (ISP Server)

Institute of Telecommunication 35
DSL Technology

System architecture

Institute of Telecommunication 36
Cellular telephony

Cellular system

Signal from a mobile unit (phone) to a base station is transmitted by radio

waves through the air, instead of through metallic wires.

However, the signal from the base station is sent to a mobile switching center
and possibly to a telephone central office through electrical wires where it is
switched to the appropriate destination

The antenna at the base station converts the radio waves to electrical signals
and circuits in the base station send the signal to the appropriate mobile
switching center

Institute of Telecommunication 2
Cellular telephony

The area is divided into a number of cells and a base station is positioned
within each cell

When a user is within a particular cell, the call is handled by the

corresponding base station within that cell.

The base station transmits the signal to the mobile switching center which
switches the signal to another base station, or to a Public Switched
Telephone Network (PSTN), depending on the destination of the call.

If a user moves from one cell to another, the call is “handed over” to the
base station of the other cell (hand-off operation)

The mobile unit and the base station communicate at a certain frequency

The signal from the mobile unit arrives at the antenna of the base station
and is converted into an electrical signal

Institute of Telecommunication 3
Cellular telephony

Many transmitters with small power (below 100 W)

Served area is divided into cells

Antenna in every cell

Base station consists of a transmitter, receiver and control subsystems

Base stations in most of cases is placed at the center of the cell

Every base station has assigned a frequency band

Institute of Telecommunication 4
Cellular telephony

Cells
Macro-cells
Radius larger than 1km
Hexagonal shape
Micro-cells
Radius larger than 100 m, smaller 1than km
Hexagonal or Manhattan shape
Pico-cells
Radius from a few up to 100 meters
Different shapes

Institute of Telecommunication 5
 Cellular telephony

Base station 3-sector antenna

Cellular telephony

Planning of cellular networks

cover the served area with a larger number of base stations

(BS)
Partitioning of an area into radio cells idealized as
hexagons, the hexagon is a rather good approximation of a
circle
Frequency channels could not be reused in neighboring
cells because of interference

Institute of Telecommunication 7
Cellular telephony

Cell radius should be different in size, it depends on density of users.

Ideal coverage pattern cannot generate holes and no cell superposition
Real coverage of a cell is in practice different from theoretical model.

Institute of Telecommunication 8
Cellular telephony

Base
station

Digital
Base Exchange
station of cellular PSTN
system

Base
station

Institute of Telecommunication 9
 Cellular telephony

BSS - Base Station System Radio link

to telephone network
MSC - Mobile Services Switching
Wired link
Centre

MS - Mobile Station

MS
BSS
BSS

MSC
BSS BSS
BSS

BSS BSS

Institute of Telecommunication 10
 Cellular telephony

First generation of digitally switched mobile networks started in the 1980’, several
competing standards in different countries
• NMT (Nordic Mobile Telephone) Scandinavian standard; adopted in most of
Europe
• TACS (Total Access Communication Systems), starts in 1985, UK standard; also
in Europe, Asia, Japan
• AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Service), US standard
• Radiocom 2000 (only in France), analog transmission of voice (no data services)
using FM modulation
Various bands were defined in different areas:
NMT: 450 MHz at the begining, 900 MHz later
TACS: 900 MHz and 1230 bidirectional channels (25KHz each)
AMPS: 800 MHz

Institute of Telecommunication 11
Cellular telephony

NMT 450 (1981) AMPS (1983)

1st generation systems
(analog)
NMT 900 (1986)
1G

CDMA (1991) D-AMPS (1991)

2nd generation systems
(digital) GSM (1992)

PDC (1993)
2G DCS 1800 (1994)

GPRS (2000)

3rd generation systems

UMTS / IMT2000 (2001)
3G

Institute of Telecommunication 12
Cellular telephony

1st generation – analog systems

• AMPS (USA), TACS (UK), JTACS (Japan, NMT (Scandinavia)
- analog FM transmission

2nd generation – digital systems

• GSM (Europe)
- freq. band 900 MHz , TDMA, 271 Kb/s
- freq. band 1800 MHz, TDMA, 271 Kb/s
IS-136 (North America)
- freq. band 800 MHz , TDMA, 48 Kb/s
IS-95 (North America) (cdmaOne)
- freq. band 800/1900 MHz, CDMA, 1.23 Mb/s
PDC (Japan
- similar to IS-136 (radio side) and GSM (network side)

Institute of Telecommunication 13
Cellular telephony

1G 2G 2.5G 3G 4G

Institute of Telecommunication 14
Cellular telephony

Systems used today

• Global System for Mobile Comm. (GSM)

• Digital AMPS (D-AMPS), US
• Code Division Multiple Access (IS-95) – Qualcomm,US
• Personal Digital Cellular (PDC), Japan

GSM is the dominant one. Originally pan-european systems, now

deployed worldwide in around 200 countries, more then 500 mobile
operators

Institute of Telecommunication 15
GSM architecture

Institute of Telecommunication 16
GSM

Frequency range

Uplink 890-915 MHz

Downlink 935-960 MHz

1 2 3 123 124
100 200 100
kHz kHz kHz

124 x 200 kHz carriers + 2 x 100 kHz guard bands on both ends of
the bandwidth

Institute of Telecommunication 17
GSM

GSM 900 GSM 1800 GSM 1900

Uplink 880-915 MHz 1710-1785 MHz 1850-1910 MHz

Downlink 925-960 MHz 1805-1880 MHz 1930-1990 MHz

Number of 174 374 299

frequencies

Institute of Telecommunication 18
GSM

Home Location Visitor Location

Register Register

BTS VLR
BSC HLR
Base Station
Controller

BTS
MSC

BTS
BSC EIR AuC
Equipment Identity
Authentication
Register
Center
Base Transceiver
Station

Institute of Telecommunication 19
GSM

BTS - Base Transceiver Station

BSC - Base Station Controller

HLR - Home Location Register

VLR - Visitor Location Register

EIR - Equipment Identity Register

AuC Authentication Center

Institute of Telecommunication 20
GSM

Location Area is covered by some number of BTS (Base Transceiver

Station) which are managed by some fewer BSC (Base Station
Controllers)

Millions subscribers which are using MS (Mobile Stations) will have to

setup thousands radio cells

Cells are covered by thousands BTS, which are operated by hundreds

BSC, which are handled by few tens MSC

The MSC uses the services of a Visitor Location Register (VLR), copies
of user data are placed in Home Location Register (HLR)

Institute of Telecommunication 21
GSM

• The backbone of a GSM network is a telephone network with additional

cellular network capabilities
• Mobile Switching Center (MSC)
It can be atypical telephony exchange (ISDN exchange) which supports
mobile communications
Visitor Location Register (VLR) - database, part of the MSC, contains the
location of the active Mobile Stations
• Gateway Mobile Switching Center (GMSC)
Links the system to PSTN and other operators
• Home Location Register (HLR)
Contain subscriber information, including authentication information in
Authentication Center (AuC)
• Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
Mobile Station Equipment Identity codes for example., blacklisting stolen
phones

Institute of Telecommunication 22
GSM

BSS functions

Transmission and reception of radio signals

Communication with MSC and mobile users
User localization
Testing of control and reconfiguration devices
Functions related with processing of speech signal
Functions of establishing connection, its supervision and
disconnection

Institute of Telecommunication 23
GSM

MSC functions

Establishing connection between mobile and fixed (PSTN)

subscribers
Establishing connection between mobile subscribers
Subscriber localization and connection handover
Other services for mobile subscribers
Collecting of billing data
Collecting of data related to traffic types and its volume
Other management functions

Institute of Telecommunication 24
 GSM

The Home Location Registers operated by each provider is the place where
subscriber information is kept, which services (voice, data, fax, roaming, ...)
the user is subscribed. Data is copied temporarily to VLR where the MS of a
user is registered.

The Authentication Center keeps the user access and authorization

information

The Equipment Identification Center keeps track of mobile equipment

(unique serial of Mobile Terminals (MT) – the MS without the SIM)

The mobile network is supervised by the Operation and Maintenance

Center

Institute of Telecommunication 25
GSM

Transmitter
270.83 Kb/s

Speech Channel Interleaver „burst” Encryption Modulator

Speech encoder encoder formatting
signal

Radio -
Interface
Receiver

Speech Channel „burst” Decryption Demodulator

Deinterleaver
decoder decoder De-format
Speech
signal

Institute of Telecommunication 26
 GSM

TDMA access
Frame 1 Frame 2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

DOWNLINK

Frame 1 Frame 2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

UPLINK

BS

MS1 MS7
MS0 MS5

Institute of Telecommunication 27
GSM Evolution

GSM
Global System for Mobile Communications

2G
HSCSD
57.6 Kb/s, 14.4 Kb/s. High Speed Circuit Switched Data

up to 170 Kb/s. GPRS

General Packet Radio Service
2.5 G

p to 380 Kb/s. EDGE

Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution 2.5 G

UMTS
7.2 Mb/s, 1.5 Mb/s. Universal Mobile Telecommunication 3G
System

Institute of Telecommunication 28
GSM Evolution

PSTN Internet Access to information,

voice and data
multimedia
ISDN+ Internet+

ISUP TCP / IP
GSM / UMTS
Backbone network
A lu
GSM radio UMTS terrestrial radio
access network access network
(UTRAN)

Wide area: GSM GSM / IMT-2000 Wide area:

64/115 kb/s 384 kb/s
IMT-2000 locally:
locally:
384 kb/s 2 Mb/s

Institute of Telecommunication 29
UMTS Architecture

Base Station
Network Subsystem
Mobile Station Subsystem Other Networks

MSC/ GMSC
BSC VLR PSTN
BTS
ME
SIM

EIR HLR AUC PLMN

RNS
GGSN
SGSN
Node RNC Internet
ME B
USIM

UTRAN
+
SD

Note: Interfaces have been omitted for clarity purposes.

Institute of Telecommunication 30
UMTS Architecture

UMTS network consists of three parts

Core Network (CN)

Provide switching, routing and transit for user traffic

UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN)

Provides the air interface access method for user equipment.

User Equipment (UE)

Terminals work as air interface counterpart for base stations. The
various identities are: IMSI, TMSI, P-TMSI, TLLI, MSISDN, IMEI,
IMEISV

Institute of Telecommunication 31
 UMTS

UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System

Main difference to GSM – new radio interface

• UTRAN (UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network)
• USRAN (UMTS Satellite Radio Access Network)

WCDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple Access) – Spread

Spectrum Transmission (Direct Sequence type)
• transmission speed: a few – several Mb/s
• 5MHz channel, QPSK modulation
• Transmission speed adaptation through proper selection of spreading codes
and number of data streams
Broadband applications:
• Internet access
• high-bit data streams (video)
• TV, radio

Institute of Telecommunication 32
UMTS

UMTS frequency band

1900-2025 MHz and 2110-2200 MHz for 3G

transmission

In United States, 1710–1755 MHz and 21102155 MHz

33

Institute of Telecommunication
UMTS - UTRAN

Wide band CDMA technology is selected for air interface

• WCDMA
• TD-SCDMA

Base stations are referred to as Node-B and control equipment for

Node-B is called as Radio Network Controller (RNC).
• Functions of Node-B
Air Interface Tx/Rx
Modulation/Demodulation
• Functions of RNC
Radio Resource Control
Channel Allocation
Power Control Settings
Handover Control

Institute of Telecommunication 34
UMTS

downlink 5MHz

PSTN

switch
(voice)

5MHz uplink

Internet
switch
(data)

Institute of Telecommunication 35
Standarization

Standardization of 3G systems

ITU (International telecommunication Union)

FPLMTS (Future Public Land Mobile Telecommunications
Systems)
IMT (international Mobile Telecommunications) -

Standardization of UMTS and LTE

ETSI (European Telecommunications Standard Institute)

3GPP (Third Generation Partnership Project) www.3gpp.org

Institute of Telecommunication 36
4G systems

4G and LTE (Long Term Evolution) systems

• Very high bit-rates (50-100 Mb/s)
• OFDM and MIMO technologies
• Better spectral efficiency
• Flexible utilization of 100 MHz band
• Enlarged system capacity
• Reduction of data transfer cost
• Multimedia applications

Institute of Telecommunication 37
4G systems

System operators advantages

• Very high network throughput
• Low latency
• Low operating cost
• All IP network
• Simplified upgrade from 3G network

Institute of Telecommunication 38
4G systems

End users advantages

• Faster data download and upload,
• better response for applications
• Improve end-users experience, multimedia
applications

Institute of Telecommunication 39
 4G systems - LTE

LTE main parameters

• Channel width 20 MHz
• Downlink bit rate -100 Mb/s
• Uplink bit rate – 50 Mb/s
• 4x4 MIMO
• 200 users per one cell
• Packet delay <5 ms
• Cell radius up to 5 km
• Appropriate for users in move (up to120 km/h)

Institute of Telecommunication 40
4G systems - LTE

OFDM

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing

SC FDMA

Single Carrier FDMA

Institute of Telecommunication 41
4G systems - LTE

LTE Radio Technologies

Uses Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) in

downlink
Uses Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access (SC-FDMA)
in uplink
Uses Multi-input Multi-output(MIMO) for enhanced throughput
Reduced power consumption
Higher RF power amplifier efficiency (less battery power used by
handsets)

Institute of Telecommunication 42
4G systems – LTE architecture

UE: user equipment

eNodeB 1 eNodeB: base station
S-GW: serving gateway
Cellular Core Network P-GW: packet data
network gateway
MME/HSS MME: mobility
management entity
HSS: home subscriber
eNodeB 2 server
S-GW 1
UE 1

P-GW
eNodeB 3 Internet and
S-GW 2
other IP Networks
UE 2
GTP Tunnels

Institute of Telecommunication 43
4G systems - LTE

Used techniques
OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing)
Adaptive modulation and coding DL/UP modulations: QPSK, 16QAM and
64QAM

SC-FDMA (Single Carrier – Frequency Division Multiple Access)

MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output)

A few antennas used to improve the quality of received signal in case of multipath
propagation channel. (2 or 4)x(2 or 4) downlink and uplink supported

HARQ (Hybrid Automatic Repeat on reQuest)

Hybrid error detection/ correction techniques. Convolutional codes and Rel-6 turbo
codes

SON (Self-Organizing Networks)

Automatic system for network configuration, optimization and servicing.

Institute of Telecommunication 44
 4G systems - LTE

SAE (System Architecture Evolution)

Backbone network architecture for LTE standard. Compare to previous
solutions it have larger throughput(100 Mb/s), network completely IP (with
new protocols - IPv4,IPv6).

HARQ (Hybrid Automatic Repeat on reQuest)

Hybrid error detection/ correction techniques.

SON (Self-Organizing Networks)

Automatic system for network configuration, optimization and servicing.

SAE (System Architecture Evolution)

Backbone network architecture for LTE standard. Compare to previous
solutions it have larger throughput(100 Mb/s), network completely IP (with
new protocols - IPv4,IPv6).

Institute of Telecommunication 45
Wireless transmission

Advantages of wireless transmission

• Mobility
• Network can be easily modified and extended
• Relatively simple installation without wiring up
• Scalability of the network
• Large coverage area

Institute of Telecommunication 2
Wireless transmission

Disadvantages of wireless transmission

• Throughput lower than in other systems
• Limited bandwidth
• High level of disruptions and distortions due to
multipath propagation, dispersing the energy and high
signal attenuation
• Must meet requirements of the electromagnetic
compatibility
• Lower security level than in other systems – eavesdrop
(listening in), intentional disruptions

Institute of Telecommunication 3
Wireless transmission

Personal access Local access

access through the

Access to media cellular network

Institute of Telecommunication 4
Wireless transmission

GSM WiFi Bluetooth WiMAX

Institute of Telecommunication 5
 Wireless transmission

Personal area networks (PAN)

Provide communication over a short distance that is intended for use with devices
that are owned and operated by a single user.

Local Area Networks (LAN)

Room, building, a group of PCs that share a circuit.

Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)

More than a few kms, connects LANs and BNs across different locations
Often uses leased lines or other services used to transmit data.

Wide Area Networks (WANs)

Far greater than 10 kms, same as MAN except wider scale

Institute of Telecommunication 6
Wireless transmission

Satellite (C, Ku, Ka)

Cellular digital
Wireless phones, toys

Cellular analog

Institute of Telecommunication 7
Wireless transmission

IEEE 802.15 IEEE 802.11 IEEE 802.16 Cellular networks

1000
Throughput Mb/s

802.15.3
100 UWB

802.11 a/g
Satellite
WiFi LTE systems

10 802.16 HSDPA
WIMAX 3G
802.11 b
WiFi
1 3G
2.5G
IEEE 802.15.1
Bluetooth 2G
range
PAN LAN MAN WAN WAN
10m 100m 50km

Institute of Telecommunication 8
Wireless systems

Personal Fixed Transferable Mobile

licensed and licensed and licensed
non-licensed non-licensed non-licensed

device – device - local access small cellular

zonal nomadic
device peripherals network network mobility WAN

WPAN WPAN WiFi fixed WiFi mobile mobile 2.5, 3G

802.15 802.15.x 802.11 WiMAX 802.11 WiMAX WiMAX 802.20

Institute of Telecommunication 9
 WPAN - Bluetooth

Wireless PAN technology that transmit

signals over short distances between cell
phones, computers, and other devices

Institute of Telecommunication 10
WPAN - Bluetooth

• 802.15 WPAN standard

• Short distances communication

• non licensed band - 2.45 GHz
• Technology: Spread Spectrum
(Frequency-Hopping)

• Bit rates up to 700Kb/s, range 10m

Institute of Telecommunication 11
WPAN - Bluetooth

Applications

 Access point for voice and data

 real time transmission of the speech and data

 Cable “substitute”
 eliminates a need to use cables

 Ad-hoc networks
 Bluetooth devices being in the range can connect themselves
 up to 10 devices can be connected

Institute of Telecommunication 12
WPAN - UWB

Ultra-Wideband Radio – UWB

standard 802.15.3

Institute of Telecommunication 13
WPAN - UWB

IEEE 802.15.3 standards

 impulse system, impulses are being sent have a

duration from tens of picoseconds up to nanoseconds
 no carrier generated, difficult synchronization
 large bandwidth required(GHz)
 small power consumption
 high bit rates, hundreds of Mb/s
 applications: communication with the peripherals

Institute of Telecommunication 14
WLAN – Wireless Local Area Network

Cable connection Access point

Access point

Institute of Telecommunication 15
WLAN

Wireless LAN (WLAN)

A local area network that uses radio signals to transmit and
receive data over distances of a few hundred feet

Wireless fidelity (Wi-Fi)

A means by which portable devices can connect wirelessly to a
local area network, using access points that send and receive
data via radio waves

Institute of Telecommunication 16
WLAN – Wireless Local Area Network

Important parameters
 Throughput
 Number of access points
 Connection with backbone network
 Area of coverage
 Energy consumption
 Security, noise immunity
 Licensing
 Roaming (possibility of the migration between cells)
 Dynamic configuration

Institute of Telecommunication 17
WLAN - WiFi

802.11b
 2.4GHz (bandwidth 80 MHz)
 Spread spectrum (DSSS)
 1.6-11 Mb/s, range about 100m (LOS)
802.11a
 5GHz (300 MHz)
 OFDM
 20-70 Mb/s
802.11g
 2.4 GHz i 5 GHz
 OFDM
 do 54 Mb/s

Institute of Telecommunication 18
WLAN - WiFi

Channel frequency (GHz)

802.11b 1 2.412
2 2.417
3 2.422
4 2.427
5 2.432
6 2.437
7 2.442
8 2.447
9 2.452
10 2.457
11 2.462
12 2.467
Bit rates: 13 2.472
5.5Mb/s or 11Mb/s 14 2.483

Institute of Telecommunication 19
 WLAN - WiFi

802.11n
Standard for 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands
20 or 40 MHz channel bandwidth
Adaptive OFDM /MIMO techniques in 20/40 MHz (2-4 antennas)
56 OFDM subcarriers, 52 for data and 4 are pilot tones
Modulations: from BPSK up to 64QAM
Throughput 150Mb/s (600Mb/s), up to 150 m range
Better methods of data packetization, better antenna use

Institute of Telecommunication 20
 WLAN - WiFi

802.11ac
Standard for 5 GHz bands
Mandatory 80 MHz channel bandwidth
Support for up to eight MIMO spatial stream (four in 802.11n)
Modulation 256-QAM,
Single link throughput of at least 500 Mbit/s

Institute of Telecommunication 21
 WLAN - WiFi

Wi-Fi Direct (Wi-Fi P2P)

Enabling devices to directly connect with each other without a wireless
access point.
Communication with more than one device simultaneously at standard Wi-
Fi speeds.
When a device enters the range of the Wi-Fi Direct host, it can connect to it,
and gather setup information.
Standard includes WPA2 security and features access control.

Wi-Fi Direct certification program is developed and administered by the Wi-Fi

Alliance (group that owns the Wi-Fi trademark)

Institute of Telecommunication 22
WLAN - WiFi

Authorization - WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access)

 Open system
 exchange of ID`s , lack of the authorization

 Authorized access
 authorization using secret keys
 Protection WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy), can easily be broken
if the used key is ciphered for every transmission
 increasing keys length (from 40 to 128 and more bits) can be a
solution for WEP

Institute of Telecommunication 23
WLAN - WiFi

Authorization IEEE 802.1x

 802.1X - EAP (Extensible Authentication Protocol)

 Dynamically changing encryption keys.
 In typical 802.1x realization, the customer can automatically change
encryption keys so often in order to minimize the “ probability of
breaking „ of current key.
 Authorization server, typically RADIUS server, is being named
authentication server (AS). Device between, like e.g. access point is
determined as authenticator.
 802.1x provides redundancy in relation to the widened management.

Institute of Telecommunication 24
WLAN - HiperLAN

ETSI standard, alternative for 802.11

HiperLAN/1 (1991r.)
Range ok. 50m
Throughput 10Mb/s
FSK and GMSK modulations
HiperLAN/2 (2001r.)
Physical layer similar to802.11a
Modulations: BPSK – 64QAM
Network layer: ddynamic TDMA (CSMA/CSA w 802.11a) protocols

Institute of Telecommunication 25
WMAN

Worldwide Interoperability for

Microwave Access

WiMAX is an organization of leading companies in the

telecommunications market.
market. Its main objective is to
promote communication standards (e
(e..g. IEEE 802
802..16)
16) for
wireless MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
Network).. Among the
founders of the WiMAX feature Nokia, Fujitsu, Intel and
Analog Devices.
Devices.

Institute of Telecommunication 26
WMAN - Wimax

802.16 802.16a 802.16REVd 802.16e

(2001) (2003) (2004) (2005)

802.16c
(2002)

Institute of Telecommunication 27
WMAN - Wimax

Designed for WMAN networks

An alternative to the techniques used for broadband

access may be used to connect the 802.11 hot-spots to
the Internet.

Range up to 50km without the need for direct visibility

(Line of Sight) to the base station

Throughput up to 280MB/s (base station) which allows to

join hundreds of users with T1 / E1 speeds and
thousands of home users with DSL speeds.

Institute of Telecommunication 28
WMAN - Wimax

Institute of Telecommunication 29
WMAN - Wimax

Base station

Modulation and coding depends on physical conditions

Institute of Telecommunication 30
WMAN - Wimax

Institute of Telecommunication 31
WMAN - LMDS

Local Multipoint Distribution Services - LMDS

• Broadband wireless access to the Internet

• Point – multipoint transmission
• Frequency: 26-29GHz
• Range: a few km2
• Bit rate up to155 Mb/s
• Modulation: BPSK- 64QAM
• Enterprise applications

Institute of Telecommunication 32
 Satellite communication

Satellite Communication combines the missile and microwave technologies

Satellite - a space station that orbits the Earth receiving and transmitting
signals from Earth-based stations over a wide area

Institute of Telecommunication 34
Satellite communication

 1957 first satellite SPUTNIK: 85 kg in Earth orbit

 1963 first geostationary satellite SYNCOM
 1965 first commercial geostationary satellite Satellit „Early Bird“ (INTELSAT I): 240
duplex telephone channels
 1976 three MARISAT satellites for maritime communication
 1980 VSAT technology
 1982 first mobile satellite telephone system INMARSAT-A
(starts fully operational GEO global systems, for mobile maritime service)
 1988 First Land Mobile Satellite System
OMNITRACS starts to provide in North America land mobile satellite
messaging and localization services
 1990 Digital TV broadcasting
 1991 ITALSAT (Italy)
The first satellite with on board processing and multibeam coverage
 1999 global satellite system for small mobile phones (Iridium)

Institute of Telecommunication 35
Satellite communication

Advantages of Satellite Communication

• LARGE CAPACITY
One satellite = 10 transponders = 10x120 Mbit/s
Total transmission capacity = 1 Gbit/s

• LARGE COVERAGE areas and long range mobility

• DISTANCE INSENSITIVE COST

• WIDEBAND SERVICE
allows for transmission of:
- TV
- high bit data
data rate

• BROADCAST TRANSMISSION CAPABILITY:

allows for point to multipoint distribution of information

Institute of Telecommunication 36
 Satellite communication

Services

 FSS - Fixed Satellite Services (VSAT networks,..)

 MSS - Mobile Satellite Services (Inmarsat
systems,...)
 BSS - Broadcasting Satellite Services ( TV, DVB..)
 RDSS - Radiodetermination Satellite Services (GPS)

Institute of Telecommunication 37
Satellite communication - applications

 Traditionally
• radio and TV broadcast satellites
• military satellites
• navigation and localization (GPS)
• weather satellites
 Telecommunication
• global telephone connections
• backbone for global networks
• connections for communication in remote places
or underdeveloped areas
• global mobile communication

Institute of Telecommunication 38
 Satellite communication

Evolution of satellite communication

year
2000 OBP personal communication systems
(On-Board Processing)
multibeam systems ISL (Intersatellite Links) digital TV (DVB)
SS-TDMA 30/20GHz
VSAT networks
multibeam systems TDMA/PSK
1980 transponder hopping 14/12 GHz CDMA/PSK mobile systems
Inmarsat

FDMA/FM telephony
global beam 6/4 GHZ SCPC/FM TV
1965

System Technology Transmission Services

Institute of Telecommunication 39
Satellite orbits

Orbit Classifications:

Based on the inclination over the equatorial

plane:
– Equatorial (i=0 °)
– Polar (i=90 °)
– inclined (0 °<i<90 °)

Based on eccentricity:
• Elliptical
• Circular

Institute of Telecommunication 40
Satellite orbits

Institute of Telecommunication 41
Satellite orbits

Circular Orbits

LEO

GEO

MEO

LEO: 300 - 2000 km LEO: Low Earth Obit

MEO: Medium Earth Orbit
MEO: 5,000 - 20,000 km
GEO: Geostationary Earth Orbit
GEO: 35,786 km

Institute of Telecommunication 42
 Satellite orbits

Geostationary Orbit (GEO)

 Circular orbit with zero inclination (equatorial)

 The satellite orbits around the Earth at altitude of 35,786 km and in the same
direction as the Earth.
 The period is equal to that of the rotation of the Earth and in the same
direction.
 The satellite thus appears as a fixed point in the sky and ensures continuous
operation as a radio relay in real time for the area of visibility of the satellite
 One satellite covers 43% of the Earth’s surface.

 high attenuation level (power loss) (200dB) on the path

 large signal delay (238-284ms)

Institute of Telecommunication 43
 Satellite orbits

Geostationary Orbit
RO= 35786 km

RE= 6378 km

RE
sat RO
17.40

Delay (propagation time):

τmin = 2RO/c = 238ms
τmax = 2(RO+ RE)/(c•cos17.4O) = 284ms

C= 300000 km/s - light speed

Institute of Telecommunication 44
 Satellite orbits

Low Earth Orbit (LEO)

 Circular Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
 The altitude of the satellite is constant and equals to several hundreds of
kilometres.
 The period is of the order of one and half hours.
 The orbit is nearly 90o inclination, which guarantees that the satellite will
pass over every region of the Earth.
 much smaller attenuation compare GEO satellites
 low signal delay

 short period satellite visibility (through earth station),

many times during the day
 Doppler effect
 many satellites are required for establishing continuous transmission

Institute of Telecommunication 45
 Satellite orbits

Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)

 Circular Medium Earth Orbits (MEO), also named

Intermediate Circular Orbits (ICO)
 The altitude is about 5,000 - 20,000 km
 With constellations of about 10 to 20 satellites, a continuous
coverage of the World is guaranteed

Institute of Telecommunication 46
 Satellite communication – frequency bands

Uplink Downlink
Band
(GHz) (GHz)
C 5,925-6,425 3,700-4,200 6/4
X 7,900-8,400 7,250-7,750 8/7
Ku 14,000-14,500 10,950-11,200 14/11
11,450-11,700
Ku 14,000-14,500 11,700-12,200 14/12
17,300-18,100 12,200-12,700 DBS
Ka 27,500-30,000 17,700-20,200 30/20

L 1,6265--1,6605
1,6265 1,530
1,530--1,559 mobile
S 2,6 2.5 mobile

FSS transponders: Typical values

 Bandwidth: 36 to 72 MHz
 EIRP 30 to 52 dBW

Institute of Telecommunication 47
Satellite communication – frequency bands

Institute of Telecommunication 48
Satellite communication

Satellite
Control Station
(TT&C)
Downlinks
Uplinks
Space Segment

Ground Segment
Earth Station

Institute of Telecommunication 49
 Satellite communication

Evolution of GEO satellites

EUROSTAR 2000
EUROSTAR 2000 EUROSTAR 2000+
EUROSTAR 2000+ EUROSTAR 3000
EUROSTAR 3000 EUROSTAR 3000
EUROSTAR 3000
(NILESAT) (ASTRA 2-B) (INTELSAT X) (INMARSAT 4)

Total mass 2.3 t 3.4 t 6.4 t

Lauched 1991 1996 2008

Institute of Telecommunication 50
Satellite communication – space segment

PAYLOAD FUNCTIONS:

• collect microwave signals from given zone of earth

• amplify radiofrequency carrier

• convert carrier frequency fro uplink to downlink frequency

• transmit microwave signals to given zone of earth

Institute of Telecommunication 51
Satellite communication – space segment

Satellite
bandwidth: 0.5  1.5 GHz
transponder
bandwidth: 24  72 MHz

uplink downlink

Institute of Telecommunication 52
Satellite communication – space segment

• Transponder frequency and bandwidth

• G/T (dB/K) in each point of satellite reception
coverage
• EIRP (dBW) Effective Isotropic Radiated Power.
It is satellite PTGT product.
• Transponder operation point. It works in saturation in
order to use all available power

Institute of Telecommunication 53
Satellite communication – space segment

Ku - band transponder

14 GHz 12 GHz
Amp Mixer Amp

Receiving Transmitting
Antenna
Local Antenna
Oscillator
Uplink Downlink

Institute of Telecommunication 54
Satellite communication – ground segment

Antenna Axis

Elevation Angle Local Horizon

Power Supply
Monitoring
Diplexer Tracking & Control

RF Input
IF
Baseband
HPA Modulator
Signals

Output
RF IF
Baseband
LNA Demodulator
Signals

Institute of Telecommunication 55
Wireless transmission

Institute of Telecommunication 56
 Evolution of satellite technology

• Big GEO satellite (mass up to 6 ton, 15KW)

• Longer life time
• Ka band
• Multibeam systems
• OBP
• Regeneracja
• Switching
• Inter Satellite Links - ISL

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On Board Processing

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Intersatellite Links

GEO-GEO
Larger capacity
Larger coverage area
LEO-LEO
Routing in satellite constellation (Iridium)
LEO-GEO, MEO-GEO, LEO-MEO
Data transfer in hybrid constellations
 Radio (GHz)
 Optical (microns)
• 22.55-23.55 • 0.8-0.9
• 32-33 • 1.06
• 54.25-58.2 • 0.532
• 59-64 • 10.6
• 116-134
• 170-182
• 185-190

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Satellite communication – VSAT networks

Very Small Aperture Terminals

 Communication system via satellite
 Multipoint to multipoint connections
 Small aperture terminals (<1,8m)
 Intelligent interfaces to existing network protocols
 Value added services (multimedia, etc.) offered to
users.

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Satellite communication – VSAT networks

Services supported by VSAT networks

One--way VSAT networks

One
- stock market and other news broadcasting
- distribute financial data (trends and analysis)
- distribute market related data, news and prices
- training or education at distance
- distribute music, video or TV programmes

Two--way VSAT networks

Two
- interactive computer transactions
- reservation systems
- bank transactions
- video conferencing
- database enquires
- voice communication
- medical data transfer

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Satellite communication – VSAT networks

VSAT Topologies
Terminal

VSAT VSAT
VSAT VSAT
Terminal

VSAT
VSAT VSAT
VSAT

VSAT VSAT VSAT

HUB

Star network Meshed network

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Satellite communication – VSAT networks

GEO, Ku and C bands

satellite

Inbound Channel (Inroute)

VSAT HUB
D < 1.8m
POut=0.1  2W Outbound Channel (Outroute) D = 310m
POut= 10  100W
Modem:
Modem:
RX continuous
RX burst
TX burst Data bit rates: TX continuous
BPSK, QPSK, OQPSK inbound: up to few Mb/s BPSK, QPSK, OQPSK
Convolutional Encoder outbound: several Mb/s
Viterbi Decoding Convolutional Encoder
Viterbi Decoding

Interfaces: Interfaces:
HDLC (SNA/SDLC) HDLC (SNA/SDLC)
X.25 X.25
TCP/IP TCP/IP

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 Satellite communication – VSAT networks

IDU - Indoor Unit

ODU - Outdoor Unit

VSAT input/output
IDU
Users terminals
terminal
ODU

Connection cable
(950-1450 MHz) Up-converter Power
Modulator Demodulator
amplifier

frequency
Power supply frequency Diplexer
synthetiser synthetiser

FEC FEC Down- Low noise.

encoder decoder converter receiver

Power supply
Interface

IDU ODU
Input/output
Users terminals

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Satellite communication – VSAT networks

HUB
IDU

Transmission system

modulation/demodulation
encoding/decoding
Computer synchronization
(control & Interface
(baseband)
management) (U/D converter,...)

Network management

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Satellite communication – navigation systems

GPS (USA):
Global Positioning
System

GLONASS (Russia):
Global Orbiting
Navigation Satellite
System

GNSS-2
GNSS-
(GALILEO) Europe:
Global Navigation
Satellite System

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Satellite communication – GPS

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Satellite communication – GPS

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Satellite communication – GPS

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 Satellite communication – GPS

GPS transmitter

C/A code
L1=1575.42 MHz
Rc= 1 Mb/s

Data BPSK
X Modulator
Rb= 50 bit/s
Σ RF

Rb= 50 bit/s BPSK

X Modulator

Rc= 10 Mb/s
L1 L2=1227.6 MHz
P code

C/A (Coarse/Acquisition Code), repeating period - 1023 bity

P (Precision Code), repeating period - 2x1014 bitów

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 Satellite communication – GPS
code
Receiver synch. start
code generator
τ1 synch.
Signal from
sat1 X
time
synch. code
code generator
τ2 .
synch

Signal from
sat2 X
time
synch. code
code generator τ3 synch .
sygnał z
sat3 X
time
synch. code
code generator
τ4 .
synch

sygnał z
sat4 X
time

• signal is received from minimum 4 satellites

• measurement of relative propagation times for signals from visible satellites
(relative distances between the visible satellites and the receiver)
• satellite position in GPS constellation

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Satellite communication – GPS

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Satellite communication – GPS

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Satellite communication – GLONASS

Space segment
24 satellites (including 3 spare)
3 circular orbits, inclination angle 64.8 deg, altitude 19100km (MEO)
period: 11h15min

Transmission
SP (Standard Precision) i HP (High Precision) signals
transmitted on 15 different frequencies (FDMA)
Center frequency 1602MHz
System accuracy 20, 40m

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Satellite communication – Galileo

Space Segment
30 satellites (26 operational and 3 spare), mass 675kg, lifetime
longer than 12 years
3 circular orbits, inclination angle 56 deg, orbit altitude 23222km
(MEO)
Services
• Open Service (OS) – free access, accuracy: 4m horizontal and 8m
vertical
• Commercial Service (CS) - encrypted, service charged, accuracy
about 1m
• Public Regulated Service (PRS) i Safety of Live Service (SOL) –
police, military and emergency services, accuracy the same as in
CS
fully operational Galileo system is expected by 2020

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