Chapter 7

Development Communication:
Strategies and Methods

Andrew A. Moemeka

No one is qualified to change the system he does not

understand.
-----George E. Johnson

In chapter Six the need for adequate and appropriately relevant planning
is discussed. And it is pointed out there that appropriate planning
presupposes adequate knowledge of the target social system - its
peoples, human and material resources, communication policy and
infrastructure, mass media and traditional communication, socio-cultural
realities, development objectives, etc. This is "knowing the audience"
(the target social system), its strengths and weaknesses, as well as its
aspirations and expectations before any meaningful planning should be
embarked upon. The need for this initial task of gathering and analyzing
basic information needed to ensure that the communication plans for
development or social change in any social system is appropriate and
relevant to that social system is universal; it is not exclusive to the
developing world. But it would seem to strike a particularly urgent note
for the countries of the South -- the developing societies -- because these
countries are sensitively tradition-conscious, and have cultures many
elements of which are impenetrable for outsiders. Reasonable
fami liarity with the people and adequate knowledge of their cultural
expectations and demands are therefore essential for-

**meaningful examination of the enhancing and the

hindering or impeding factors of development or social
change with a view o determining how they -collectively
or singly - apply to that target social system; and
11 4 Development Communication in Action

**intelligently determining the most appropriate strategy or

strategies to use for the solution of the problems identified development communicate
social system in order to c
in the target social system.
ideas about an advocated
level, concerned with wh
It is generally accepted that because each target social system is what medium/media and
unique, the approaches and methods that work for one may not relevant and acceptable in
work for the other. But there seems to be an unwillingness to project and sustain the c
appreciate the fact that to be able to know which approach - about the change. It wo
Strategy and Method- would be most effective in any target social endeavor is set at the
system, the development or social change communicator must first implementation are work•
study and understand the socio-cultural environments of that target one cannot achieve devt
social system. This important exercise of finding out relevant facts Both must be used, but t
about one's target social system has been the Achilles heel of most level.
development or social change projects. It is more often than not
(i) Socio-Politically-base1
either neglected or haphazardly done to the detriment of the
Socio-Political strategi
projects. The success of any development strategy is strongly communicator/target aud
dependent upon its relevance to the socio-cultural contexts of the meeting the identified n~
target social system in which it is to be used. These contexts or with how to relate to the
realities can only be appropriately identified and articulately unnecessary conflicts
understood through culturally r elevant formative . research - in background, perception'
other words, through knowing the target social system. This is implementation. They a
why Graeff, Elder & Booth (1993 , p. 13) have emphasized that the or tone of the communi1
communication process must alternate listening and doing - within the existing soci
research and action . T he communicator must enter into a dialogue not necessarily acceptir
with the community through the use of ongoing systematic people. Adequate know
contexts of the target ~
research with representatives of the target audience. "We first
disadvantage of "unacce
listen to the community during assessment, in order to plan implementation. They
communication strategies and activities based on that community's are action-tools for crea
needs, cultural context, and practices. We then test sample development communi<
strategies and materials (see Trialability, p. 74) with the implementation of the p
community before delivering them on a mass scale." These working rei
individually, in order
Development Communication Strategies. change or development
There are two basic levels at which to examine the strategies that may be ever used singly. In I!
considered appropriate for implementing advocated social change or find some form of a coi
development. The first is the socio-political level, which is concerned one after the other de
with establishing an effective - and efficient rapport between the implementation proces
 Strategies and Methods 115

e strategy or
ns identified development communicator or the development agency and the target
social system in order to create a conducive atmosphere for exchange of
ideas about an advocated change. The second is the communication
level, concerned with what to say, to whom, when and how, through
. social system is
what medium/media and by who. The intention is to provide the
for one may not
relevant and acceptable information that would advance the cause of the
unwillingness to project and sustain the conducive atmosphere for exchange of ideas
rhich approach - about the change. It would appear that the scene for social change
1 any target social endeavor is set at the socio-political level, while the details of
micator must first implementation are worked out at the communication level. However,
ents of that target one cannot achieve development success working only at one level.
out relevant facts Both must be used, but the process should begin at the socio-pol itical
tilles heel of most level.
>re often than not
detriment of the (i) Socio-Politically-based strategies.
·ategy is strongly Socio-Political strategies are those directed at determining
communicator/target audience working relationship in the process of
al contexts of the
meeting the identified need of a target social system. They are concerned
These contexts or with how to relate to the target social system in such a way as to avoid
and arti culately unnecessary conflicts ansmg from difference in socio-cultural
ive . research - in background, perception of objectives, existing mind-set, and methods of
. system. This is implementation. They are based primarily on the socio-political climate
nphasized that the or tone of the community. The development communicator must work
ng and doing - within the existing socio-cultural/political system recognizing (even if
ter into a dialogue not necessarily accepting) it if he/she must gain the attention of the
1going systematic people. Adequate knowledge of subject-matter, and of the socio-cultural
ience. "We first contexts of the target social system, almost always helps to turn the
in order to plan disadvantage of "unacceptable" systems into advantage.
implementation. They Therefore, Therefore, socio-political strategies
that communi ty's
are action-tools for creating conducive working relationship between the
then test sample development communicator and the target social system vis-a-vis the
>. 74) with the implementation of the plans for an advocated change.
!e." These working relationships have been identified and discussed
indi vidually, in order to help understand the place of each in social
change or development activities. In practice, however, they are hardly
rategies that may be ever used singly. In most, if not all, development projects, one could
d social change or fi nd some form of a combination of these strategies -- each strategy used
which is concerned one after the other depending on when they appropriately fit into the
?POrt between the implementation process; or all strategies used simultaneously, each for a
116 Development Communication in Action

Facilitative ~
different aspect of the project. This is a testimony to the importance objectives. Then
now attached to the concept of integration in development activities. on the part of tt
Two or more strategies, skillfull y used, are always better than one. any other strate
There are four main working relationships - change agents tc
Behind (Moem<:
helping a people to solve a problem which they have social system' s
identified and for which they are eager to find solution, for development anc
example, the spread of Aids vir us; of life of its pee
directly telling 1
persuading a people to do what they know they need to do it, but rather, le:
but do not want to do it, for example, stoppage of Socratic Proces:
cigarette-smoking; to effectively an
It is expec
educating a people to unlearn old and detrimental habits communicator
and to learn new and beneficial ones that advance the cause development cc
of social change, for example, envir onmental sanitation; social system :
and identified. Wil
usually high f1
coercing a people to do what, if left to themselves, they conserve energ
may not be enthusiastic enough to want to do it even though used their knm
it is recognized as a necessity for the community, for it. This is leac
example, educating daughters. know their pro
and self-confic
These four types of working relationships find expression in the participants in
classification of social change strategies into Facilitative, Persuasive, nonchalant att
Re-educative and Power (Zaltman and Duncan's (1977: 91-180). ' unwelcome' I
Facilitative strategy is most appropriate under conditions in which communalistic
the target group does not only already recognize that it has a problem, the Communit
but also indicates in substantial measure that it wants the problem wrath of coffil
solved. Also important to the success of a facilitative strategy are suspicion of th
willingness on the part of the target group to seek, accept and When a cc
successfully utilize external assistance and the willingness to be "the towards a solu
captain of its own ship", that is, to be fully involved in, and committed to do as litt
to, the social change tasks directed at improving its conditions. This community. ~
was the strategy used by the people of Aniocha West in Delta State, learning that i
Nigeria when they decided to electrify their villages. They knew what agent dumps
they wanted; had contributed from among themselves the financial have deprived
resources needed for the project and drawn up a plan for change proces
implementation. Then they sought the approval of the government, and
the services of experts to facilitate their plan.
 Strategies and Meth ods 117

Facilitative strategy is directed at helping target groups realize their

ony to the importance
objectives. Therefore a very positive attitude/behavior towards self-help
levelopment activities.
on the part of the people is imperative for success. Here, more than in
better than one.
any other strategy, the call on development communicators or social
change agents to lead from behind is most appropriate. Leading from
rhich they have Behind (Moemeka, 1993) is a concept that gives top priority to target
·ind solution, for social system's involvement, active participation and leading role in
development and social change project directed at improving the quality
of life of its people. It derives from an ancient African tradition of not
directly telling those under one's supervision what to do and how to do
· they need to do
it, but rather, leading them on through what the world now knows as the
e, stoppage of
Socratic Process, to correctly identify what is appropriate to do and how
to effectively and efficiently do it.
It is expected that the social change agent or the development
:trimental habi ts
communicator should be well-informed not only on the subject of
lvance the cause
development communication or social change, but also about the target
ntal sanitation;
social system and about the possible solution to the social problem
identified. With this level and breadth of knowledge, the temptation is
usually high for development communicators to believe they would
hemselves, they
conserve energy and save time and resources most effectively if they
lo it even though
used their knowledge to "just tell the people" what to do and how to do
community, for
it. This is leading from the front; and it robs communities that already
know their problem and are willing to have it solved of their self-worth
and self-confidence. It turns the people into active but order-taking
nd expression in the
participants in the process of their own development, thus creating
acilitative, Persuasive,
nonchalant attitude if not a feeling of inferiority complex. Such an
977: 91-180).
'unwelcome' leading role by development agents is at odds with the
ter conditions in which
communalistic principles of Sanctity of Authority and the Supremacy of
that it has a problem, the Community (Moemeka, 1998, 1984). It almost always incurs the
it wants the problem
wrath of community leaders, evokes cultural pride in the people and
tcilitati ve strategy are
suspicion of the agent. It creates an uncomfortable working relationship.
to seek, accept and When a community can identify its problems, and is ' ready' to work
willingness to be "the
towards a solution under the guidance of an agent, it behooves that agent
ved in, and committed to do as little imposition of ideas and plans as possible on the
; its conditions. This community. Solutions to social problems have an added advantage- the
t West in Delta State,
learning that is embedded in the process of solving a problem. If the
.ges. They knew what
agent dumps ideas and solutions on a community, then he/she would
1
mselves the financial have deprived such a community of the learning involved in the social
wn up a plan for change process. But it is such a learning process that eventually equips a
)f the government, and
118 Development Communication in Action

Persuasive strategy
community with the knowledge to deal with similar or new problems in obvious; it can create a
future. Handouts, whether tangible or intangible, mental or physical, are receptivity to informati
generally mere palliatives; they are useful only as a stop-gap. When they of commitment to chan
are used as the solution to human problems they almost always create use of persuasive str:
more problems than they were supposed to have solved. They are unwanted conflict. It i
particularly frustrating for a people who want to be their own masters in to change.
the task of improving the quality of their own lives. Such a people want Persuasive strate~
a facilitation of their ideas, expectations, efforts, and actions, not a communalistic cultura
'take over' by an outside expert. The people may make mistakes; but Religion as a Way '
such mistakes generally tum out to be part of the learning process that communication activit
eventually helps communities gain useful knowledge and experience. Individuall - abhors
Persuasive strategy is geared towards using indirect means and children, and advocate
methods of persuasion to induce from a target social system the please Providence to
acceptance and implementation of an advocated change. It is almost a quantity over quality.
misnomer because it does not involve open persuasion or the direct use happier the parents, n<
of persuasive methods. It is most useful when there is a conspicuous (or also because of the e
even 'unspoken') conflict between what the people need in order to community. This i:
improve the quality of their lives, and what they want because of the communities admire I
illusion of happiness and the lure of immediate gratification. It is not the sickly and weak
uncommon to find target social systems which know they have problems profitably cash-in on t
that are impeding their progress, but because of some socio-cultural or The latter value -
political reasons, the majority of their citizens are not willing to change inducing attitude a'
or think that the economic and emotional cost of changing would rob communalistic societ
them of existing advantages. A case in point is developing societies and activities - personal a1
their attitude towards family planning. Even though it is realized in most law is a moral vice an
of these societies that having fewer children would improve the quality and a religious imper
of life in the family, the economic advantage of having many children to to the religious insf
provide for the family, the fear that the fewer the number of children the distinction between tl
sooner a family may be without any child because of the high rate of and the material arer
infantile mortality, the desire to have enough children to look after one more a demand for c1
in one' s old age, the social status accorded polygyny and its attendant to win approval and e
competition among the wives not to be outdone in the number of Re-educative st1
children they could have - all contribute to make the acceptance of provide a rational jw
family planning very difficult. Here the project value of high standard and when the target
of living does not only conflict with existing cultural values, but is also effects of the exisl
seen as less important in the social system. Any hope for effective 'unlearning' of existi1
change in such social systems cannot but be through indirect efforts. expected to help in
Hence the persuasive strategy which tries to bring about social change beings are capable
and development through very subtle ways and indirect inducement is
generally preferred.
 Strategies a!ld Methods 119

Persuasive strategy is more effective when the persuasion is not too

rnilar or new problems in obvious; it can create an openness to change, or in the very least, induce
le, mental or physical, are receptivity to information about change. In general, the lower the degree
as a stop-gap. When they of commitment to change in the target group, the greater the need for the
hey almost always create use of persuasive strategy if the issue is one that cannot generate
have solved. They are unwanted conflict. It is very effective in reducing the level of resistance
:o be their own masters in to change.
ives. Such a people want Persuasive strategy provides an opportunity for infusing two
'forts, and actions, not a communalistic cultural values - the Usefulness of the Individuall and
i may make mistakes; but Religion as a Way of Life - into social change and development
the learning process that communication activities. It is true that the former - Usefulness of the
rledge and experience. Individuall - abhors 'interrupting' nature with regards to bearing
1sing indirect means and children, and advocates the acceptance of any number of children it may
target social system the please Providence to give to one. But it does not specifically prefer
~d change. It is almost a quantity over quality. In fact, the healthier and stronger a child is, the
.rsuasion or the direct use happier the parents, not only because the child is strong and healthy, but
there is a conspicuous (or also because of the encomiums usually poured on such parents by the
people need in order to community. This is an 'unspoken' admission that communalistic
.hey want because of the communities admire healthier and stronger citizens more than they do
lte gratification. It is not the sickly and weaklings. The persuasive strategy can be used to
know they have problems profitably cash-in on this subtle admission of preference for quality.
of some socio-cultural or The latter value- Religion as a Way of Life- is an effective tool for
are not willing to change inducing attitude and behavior change. Because in authentic
;t of changing would rob communalistic societies, religion is "a way of life", it pervades all
s developing societies and activities - personal and communal. In such societies, what is a crime in
1ough it is realized in most law is a moral vice and a religious sin, what is duty is a moral obligation
vould improve the quali ty and a religious imperative (Moemeka, 1998, 1984). An indirect appeal
f having many children to to the religious instincts of a people for whom there is no formal
he number of children the distinction between the sacred and the secular, and between the spiritual
:cause of the high rate of and the material arenas of life, is not likely to fall on deaf ears. The
children to look after one more a demand for change has a religious tint to it, the easier it is likely
iolygyny and its attendant to win approval and evoke appropriate action.
ione in the number of R e-educative strategy is used when there is an obvious need to
make the acceptance of provide a rational justification for development or social change action
ect value of high standard and when the target social system is not fully aware of the adverse
;ultural values, but is also effects of the existing order of things. It generally involves the
Any hope for effective 'unlearning' of existing behaviors and the learning of the new that are
: through indirect efforts. expected to help in solving existing problems. It assumes that human-
bring about social change beings are capable of discerning facts and adjusting their behavior
nd indirect inducement is
120 Developme/it Communication in Action

culturally-sanctioned n
accordingly when facts are presented to them. The strategy is listen to them, just as t
particularly useful when the target social system does not possess the sanctioned moral and t
skills and knowledge required to bring about an advocated change, or interest of the communi
when there is a clear need for clarification of the goals, direction and Power strategy (al
expected benefits of an advocated change. This was the major strategy The first - hard-core 1
used in the Northern part of Nigeria to convince parents of the need to coercion or threats of '
accept free primary education and to send all their children of school age for a community are 1
to school. treated with levity by rr
Because this strategy utilizes, to a great extent, the non-formal and when the target soci<
informal methods of education, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish opposition to a social c
between it and the persuasive strategy. The distinction, however, is · realities of the target s'
mostly in intent. Re-education, unlike the persuasive strategy, is not benevolent power strat
directed at persuading citizens, directly and indirectly, to accept new an authority to provide
forms of behavior. Rather, it is aimed at creating a conducive of the community) sen
environment in which clear understanding, and subsequently, willing the community. Althc
acceptance of new ideas, will be feasible. It does not present information core type, it is nonethe
not clearly rooted in objective facts . The objective information without working with
provided, and the exchange of ideas they generate, help to show the particularly recommen•
relationship between the target audience's needs and wants on the one Power strategy,
hand, and the advocated change on the other. Such a clear recommended as a las
picture would reveal , for the benefit of the development communicator, win support have fai
any gaps between objectives and expectations, and any discontinuities in motivation of the taq
the planning and implementation of the advocated change. opposition to it and th
It is in re-educative strategy, more than in any other, that an most social change p
extensive use of local opinion leaders (not decision makers) is required. above, or a combina
These opinion leaders are members of the community who are respected working relationship
by the majority of the people, and whose opinions "bulk large" in the power strategy which
judgment of others. Decision makers, (whose role is considered used around the wor
important for the next strategy to be discussed), are those leaders who its 'benevolent' form
are officially and traditionally recognized as having the power to "make The majority in a
others do things." They may not command the respect and admiration of a new idea, e.g. educ
the majority. Opinion leaders are always respected and admired. Their community may stro
power to influence others is ascribed by the very people whom they redistribution of farm
positively influence, sometimes without they knowing it. In strong, and if the use
communalistic communities, for example, opinion leaders are usually proves inadequate to
from among the older generation, generally reputed for their life and seem to be the onl
community experience, and for their wise counsel. Herein lies the changes to the comm
relevance of the communalistic principle of Respect for Old Age. Not solution, the use o
only do the people respect and admire these opinion leaders for who they
are vis-a-vis their usefulness to the community, but also they have a
 Strategies and Methods 121

cul turall y-sanctioned moral and traditional obligation to respect and

nem. The strategy is listen to them, just as the opinion leaders themselves have a culturally-
!m does not possess the sanctioned moral and traditional obligation to speak and advise in the
an advocated change, or interest of the community.
the goals, direction and Power strategy (also known as Coercive strategy) is of two types.
s was the major strategy The first - hard-core power strategy - is predicated on the need for
:e parents of the need to coercion or threats of coercion when new ideas considered a necessity
:ir children of school age for a community are totally rejected by the community or are being
treated with levity by majority of the people in the community. It is used
tent, the non-formal and when the target social system is recalcitrant and unyielding in its
s difficult to distinguish opposition to a social change or development issue which, based on the
distinction, however, is · realities of the target social system's situations, is crucial. The second -
rsuasive strategy, is not benevolent power strategy - is based on the 'assumed' responsibility of
tdirectly, to accept new an authority to provide for a community (without the active involveme?t
: creating a conducive of the community) services, goods and facilities considered necessary m
1d subsequently, willing the community. Although it looks less confrontational than the hard-
; not present information core type, it is nonetheless a good example of "how to work for a peop~e
1 objective information
without working with the people." Neither of these two types IS
erate, help to show the particularly recommended with enthusiasm. .
Is and wants on the one Power strategy, especially the hard-core type, IS generally
: other. Such a clear recommended as a last resort. This should be when all other attempts to
:lopment communicator, win support have failed, but the need for a change is very high, the
nd any discontinuities in motivation of the target social system towards it is very low or the
d change.
opposition to it and the unwillingness to be involved is ve~y hi~h. For
in any other, that an most social change problems, any of the first three strateg1es d1scussed
lion makers) is required. above, or a combination of them, would suffice to create a suitable
mnity who are respected working relationship between providers and beneficiaries. Ironically,
ions "bulk large" in the
ose role is considered
!s
power strategy which should be used the least, the ~o~t co~on~y
used around the world, especially in the developmg soc1ettes, albe1t, m
I, are those leaders who
its ' benevolent' form.
ring the power to "make The majority in a community, especially the rank and file, may reject
~spect and admiration of
a new idea, e.g. educating daughters; or the influential members of the
cted and admired. Their community may strongly oppose a shift in the power structure, e.g.
rery people whom they redistribution of farmland. If the opposition to either of these is very
.hey knowing it. In strong, and if the use of either the persuasive or there-educative strategy
ion leaders are usually proves inadequate to create a change of heart, then power strategy would
puted for their life and seem to be the only alternative in view of the importance of these
unsel. Herein lies the changes to the community. Situations such as these usually require, for
;pect for Old Age. Not solution, the use of the hard-core type of power strategy, that is,
ion leaders for who they
1, but also they have a
122 Development Communication in Action

implementing the change in spite of opposition -forcing the change. In and were not educated
doing so, the authority and/or the development communicator almost they could not properly
always requires the help of those members of the community that have maintenance. There co1
power to enforce decisions - the decision makers. for target social system
While the development agent may not be able to coerce community social change project, a
members to accept and implement necessary changes, decision makers in hard-core or benevolent
the community can. This is why they are considered extremely
important if and when a decision to use the power strategy has been (ii) Communication-bG
made. The involvement of decision makers in the utilization of the Whether the chosen 'w
power strategy, and the necessity for their continued presence in the target social system re
execution of projects using this strategy, are a necessary, even though system, or educating it
not a sufficient, condition for success. Because the strategy does not imperative. Comrnm
admit of failure, it is almost always, at least in the interim, successful. implementation of any
But to sustain any successes, those who exercise the power behind the as there are different
strategy must continue to make their presence felt. This is why the relationships, so there a
involvement of local decision makers is a necessity. They are working relationships
particulattrly effective in communalistic societies. Not only are they creates the appropriate
physically present in the community on a continuous basis, but also the whom, through what d
influence of their culturally-sanctioned role which derives its power It also identifies the in1
from the communalistic principle of Sanctity of Authority has both a to know what is happe1
moral and a religious binding on the people's allegiance and obedience. · resources and help; ho\
Sometimes, power strategy is used to implement a necessary change what resources, how to
in a community without the concurrence of the community, or with their identify possible prob
concurrence but without their involvement. Such cases come under atmosphere within the
benevolent power strategy because even though the project may be There are three ba
beneficial to, and may be welcomed, by the community, there is usually use of communication
no consultation seeking the opinion of community members before the differently, there are tl
implementation of the project. A government and/or a donor agency messages within a soc
may decide to implement a change seen as necessary in a community on which is of two type
the basis of what they themselves think is most urgently needed, but not Ideological and Mass
on the expressed wishes of the people. A case in point is the provision also of two types: the
of facilities for pipe-borne water for numerous villages in Nigeria in the and the Integrated Str
1980s by the Nigerian government. Heralded as one of the greatest signs media strategies in rat
of the government' s concern for improving the quality of life of the needs and socio-cultur
people, the facilities started breaking down within one year. And by the
end of the fourth year less than 10% was still functional. A. Interpersonal S
This is the fate that befalls most power strategy-driven
(i) Extension and Co
development projects. When the power behind the projects leaves, the This is the oldest str
projects literally "leave" the people. Because the villagers were not
change or developm~n
involved in the planning and execution of the pipe-borne water project,
 ?II
Strategies and Methods 123

opposition - forcing the change. In and were not educated on how to care for and maintain the facilities,
development communicator almost they could not properly supervise their use or pay sufficient attention to
!mbers of the community that have maintenance. There could not be many better cases to illustrate the need
;ion makers.
for target social system participation and involvement in development or
ly not be able to coerce community social change project, and for less dependence on the power strategy --
cessary changes, decision makers in hard-core or benevolent.
y they are considered extremely
) use the power strategy has been (ii) Communication-based Strategies
n makers in the utilization of the Whether the chosen 'working relationship' is one aimed at helping the
or their continued presence in the target social system reach its goals, or one aimed at persuading the
tegy, are a necessary, even though system, or educating it or coercing it to take action, communication is
ss. Because the strategy does not imperative. Communication is the one vehicle without which
at least in the interim, successful. implementation of any working relationship would be imp~ssible. J.ust
who exercise the power behind the as there are different socio-political strategies to detenrune working
ir presence felt. This is why the relationships, so there are communication strategies to bring the chosen
kers is a necessity. They are working relationships to fruition. It is communication strategy which
istic societies. Not only are they creates the appropriate atmosphere for determining who is to say what to
on a continuous basis, but also the whom, through what channels; how much is to be said, how and when.
ed role which derives its power It also identifies the information channels that would enable the people
Sanctity of Authority has both a to know what is happening where, and to whom; where to go for what
eople's allegiance and obedience. · resources and help; how to plan and operate, who is doing what and with
i:l to implement a necessary change what resources, how to monitor the progress of the change efforts and
~ce of the community, or with their identify possible problem spots, and how to maintain an enabling
vement. Such cases come under atmosphere within the target social system.
even though the project may be There are three basic approaches (Moemeka, 1989: 201-222) to the
by the community, there is usually use of communication in development and social change endeavors. Put
of community members before the differently, there are three ways of utilizing development communication
overnment and/or a donor agency messages within a social system. These are the Interpersonal Strategy,
en as necessary in a community on which is of two types: Extension and Community Development, and
1k is most urgently needed, but not Ideological and Mass Mobilization; the Mass Media Strategy which, is
e. A case in point is the provision also of two types: the Centralized and the Localized (or Decentralized);
1Umerous villages in Nigeria in the and the Integrated Strategy which combines the interpersonal and mass
[eralded as one of the greatest signs media strategies in ratios appropriate to each social system, based on felt
proving the quality of life of the needs and socio-cultural realities.
down within one year. And by the
as still functional. A. Interpersonal Strategies
~falls most power strategy-driven
wer behind the projects leaves, the (i) Extension and Community Development:
Because the villagers were not This is the oldest strategy for using communication to generate social
>n of the pipe-borne water project, change or development within social systems. Its aim is di sseminating,
124 Development Communication in Action

with the purpose of generating dialogue and exchange of ideas, useful awareness would awaken the
and practical information on any issue for which a development program them to participate in developn
is to be, or has been, launched. Such issues include, but are not limited This is the strategy that
to Agriculture, Health, Sanitation, Conservation, Self-help, Social degrees of success in the
Responsibility, etc. This is done through face-to-face and interpersonal especially in China. One cour
(letters, telephone, handbills, etc) communication and group discussions. Africa is Tanzania (Greenhol
Extensive use is made of group meetings during which new information when us~d along with power Sl
is provided for purposes of clarifications, and practical demonstrations commumst world) and benevol
are held in order to help people to learn and internalize the new pointed though that Tanzania
ways/methods introduced into their social system. The method has a For a good many of the project
good chance of succeeding if the following are present: participation and active invoh
the successes achieved. But a~
Awareness of the need for change and willingness to change; the tenets of power strategy, 1
appear to have since dissipated
Provision of necessary resources to support and make the
change effort as easy as possible (e.g. in the case of B. Mass Media Strategies
agriculture: new breed of crops, machinery, fertilizers ,
extension agents, experts etc, etc); (i) Centralized Mass Media
This strategy emphasizes tl
Existence of educated, intelligent and public-spirited personnel, infrastructure and
leaders who can motivate the people and provide positive direction and flow of mas~
leadership. development. It is predicated '

Extension and Community Development is the 'traditional' method used that the authorities,
for self-help rural community development efforts in Africa and some agencies know more
other developing societies. It is particularly useful for agricultural and should have complet
health improvement projects. development in the sc

(ii) Ideological and Mass Mobilization: that a good and 'use

This is another development communication strategy that makes by the people wheth•
extensive use of interpersonal channels and modes. Because this constructing the me
strategy treats development, especially community development, as a consulted (Gunter &
process which begins with a radical change in the political orientation of
the people, the ruling political party or ruling elite in the target social Not many development cc
system is required to play a major role in its operation. Here, the main controversial principles. In f
function of development communication is seen as that of "promoting principles can stand the test
and heightening" the political consciousness of the people. The second may know more about develo
function is to ensure that workers and peasants become self-reliant the government may not nece
through the rational mobilization and utilization of internal resources. use mass media resources for
Political consciousness is stressed because it is held that political
 Strategies and Methods 125

~xchange of ideas, useful

awareness would awaken the people to their social role and motivate
:h a development program them to participate in development activities. .
tclude, but are not limited This is the strategy that has been used with limited and varymg
tation, Self-help, Social degrees of success in the former communist social systems, _a~d
-to-face and interpersonal especially in China. One country known to have successf~lly used tt m
on and group discussions. Africa is Tanzania (Greenholm, 1975). It tends to funct10n very well
1g which new information when used along with power strategy-- hard-core (as was the case in the
. practical demonstrations communist world) and benevolent (as it was in Tanzania). It needs to be
and internalize the new pointed though that Tanzania used a unique combination. of strategies.
;tern. The method has a For a good many of the projects carried out in that country m the 70s, the
present: participation and active involvement of the_ peopl~ was a_ key fa~tor for
the successes achieved. But as it is usual wtth proJects dnven mamly by
ess to change; the tenets of power strategy, such successes that were achieved would
appear to have since dissipated.
>port and make the
!.g. in the case of B. Mass Media Strategies
;hinery, fertilizers,
(i) Centralized Mass Media .
This strategy emphasizes the centralized control of mass medta
tnd public-spirited personnel, infrastructure and content, as well as the control of the
!ld provide positive direction and flow of mass media messages for the purposes of
development. It is predicated on two controversial principles:
! 'traditional' method used that the authorities, that is, the government or development
Jorts in Africa and some agencies know more about development priorities and therefore
.seful for agricultural and should have complete control over activities directed towards
development in the social system;

that a good and 'useful' message is capable of being accepted

on strategy that makes by the people whether or not they were part of the process of
j modes. Because this constructing the message and whether or not they were
ilunity development, as a consulted (Gunter & Theroux, 1977).
the political orientation of
~ elite in the target social
Not many development communication specialists subscribe to these
)peration. Here, the main controversial principles. In fact, there is no evidence to show that the
!en as that of "promoting principles can stand the test of scrutiny. It is true that ~he go:e~ent
1f the people. The second may know more about development priorities, but what ts a pr~~nty for
sants become self-reliant the government may not necessarily be a priority for commumttes. ~o
ion of internal resources. use mass media resources for the people without involving the people m
it is held that political
126 Development Communication in Action

the activities is like shooting into the dark. It is talking at, or at best,
talking to the people, but not talking with them. Information 'dumped' and strongly demands, (and
on a people hardly ever wins their support. And this leads on to the media channels to provide ace
second controversial principle. The problems that confront communities activities by the people. The :
are not uni versals; these problems are unique in each community. the identification of the problc
Therefore a global type of message cannot be adequately relevant to all goals through personal cal
communities at the same time. No matter how 'good' or 'useful' a meetings. Not only do such a'
message may appear to be, unless it is adequately relevant to the unique also create opportunities for
situations of a commun ity, it will not be fully accepted. cultural contexts of the target
Admittedly, the centralized mass media strategy has some at fi rst hand. The strategy n
advantages. Because it uses the mass media, its coverage potential is may have similar (or even the
substantiall y extensive. And because the content of its mass media such problems would depend
messages is usually of a general nature, there is always something of system, and therefore soluti1
relevance, no matter how small, to different segments of the target social based on such local pecul
system. Unfortunately, these very limited advantages soon tum into establishment of local medi~
disadvantages when they are used as the sole basis for communicating television, and television prOJ
with the people, for they merely touch on, but do not deal with, the success.
realities of the people's development problems. Localized mass media st
This is the strategy used by almost all developing societies. It may societies. It is what these co1
be argued that developing countries adopt this strategy because it is the (anti-drug, teenage pregnane;
cheapest and easiest method to use, and it is the strategy which gives the In the United States, the Uni
almost authoritarian governments of developing societies complete societies, programs aimed a
control over how the mass media are used. Because, in this strategy, communities are broadcast
programs and messages are planned, produced and disseminated by national broadcast media org
experts and program officers with little or no reference to the views and and magazines. This allow~
opinions of receiving audiences, relevance of content is almost always conditions, and therefore '
very weak. And this ultimately affects the effect of such programs and Because of the cost involv(
messages. The strategy gives the impression, false as it is, that there has implications (creating open
been adequate communication between the authorities and the people, rural populations most of
and leaves the authorities with a false sense of satisfaction that they have countries have not shown
met the requirement of fully consulting with the people before project ironically, was meant for ai
plans are implemented. As research has shown (Heshmat, 1967:76; developing countries (fore
Moemeka, 1987:63) centralized mass media strategy is the least effective strategy has been applied
in ensuring intelligent and effective understanding and utilization of evidence of strong commi
development messages. conspicuously lacking.

(i i) Localized (Decentralized) Mass Media: C. The Integrated Strate

This strategy is also very much mass media-oriented. Deriving its
strength from the Democratic-Participant Media theory (McQuail, 1994, This strategy combines the
1983) the strategy emphasizes interaction with and among the people, one, with the aim of elin
 Strategies and Methods 127

It is talking at, or at best,

em. Information 'dumped ' and strongly demands, (and depends on), the establishment of local
And this leads on to the media channels to provide access for direct participation in mass med ia
; that confront communities activities by the people. The starting point in the use of this strategy is
tique in each community. the identification of the problems of the people and the clarification of
e adequately relevant to all goals through personal calls, discussion groups and community
how 'good' or 'useful' a meetings. Not only do such activities provide relevant information, they
ately relevant to the unique also create opportunities for media personnel to enter into the socio-
accepted. cultural contexts of the target social system, and understand its problems
tedia strategy has some at first hand. The strategy recognizes that while many social systems
a, its coverage potential is may have similar (or even the same) problems, the causes and impacts of
content of its mass media such problems would depend on the special peculiarities of each social
:re is always something of system, and therefore solutions to the problems should be localized
egments of the target social based on such local peculiarities. This is why it considers the
advantages soon tum into establishment of local media - local radio stations, rural press, cable
le basis for communicating television, and television production/viewing centers - as imperative for
but do not deal with, the success.
IS. Localized mass media strategy can be found mostly in developed
~veloping societies. It may societies. It is what these countries use in their social change endeavors
is strategy because it is the (anti-drug, teenage pregnancy prevention, and anti-smoking campaigns).
:he strategy which gives the In the United States, the United Kingdom, Sweden and other developed
1
loping societies complete societies, programs aimed at changes in individuals and in individual
Because, in this strategy, communities are broadcast or telecast in local or affiliate stations of
uced and disseminated by national broadcast media organizations or published in local newspapers
) reference to the views and and magazines. This allows for relevance of message contents to local
lf content is almost always conditions, and therefore creates conducive conditions for success.
:ffect of such programs and Because of the cost involved, and particularly because of its political
, false as it is, that there has implications (creating open and free communication environment for
authorities and the people, rural populations most of whom are non-literate) most developing
,f satisfaction that they have countries have not shown significant interest in this strategy which,
the people before proj ect ironically, was meant for application in their societies. In the very few
shown (Heshmat, 1967:76; developing countries (for example, Colombia, Brazil, Nigeria) where the
:trategy is the least effective strategy has been applied to a number of development activities,
standing and utilization of evidence of strong commitment on the part of the government was
conspicuously lacking.

C. The Integrated Strategy

dia-oriented. Deriving its
.dia theory (McQuail, 1994, This strategy combines the Interpersonal and Mass Media strategies into
rith and among the people, one, with the aim of eliminating their limitations and problems and
128 Development Communication in Action

maximizing their potentials and strengths. The thrust of the strategy is Neces!
feeding the interpersonal and traditional networks within the target
social system with relevant information that would generate positive What has been said so f:
discussions which, in tum, would lead to intelligent understanding of condition for ensuring su
development objectives and each person's and each group's role in added two other conditiO!
achieving those objective. To feed the interpersonal channels, the unique factors (some enh<
strategy depends on the mass media which have the capacity for rapid substantial impact on ch,
dissemination of information and wide-area coverage. But because the adequate supply of materi
mass medi a are generally not able to change people's attitudes, the enhancing factors are R
strategy depends, for such necessary changes in attitudes and behavior, expected outcome, Com
on interpersonal and traditional channels which are regarded as very fundamental (not peripht
effective in inducing attitude change and effective development language and processes aJ
behaviors. The use of the integrated approach gains support in the and of its requirements.
fi ndings of the research on the use of radio for education and Values and Beliefs, Cult
development (Rogers, et al, 1977). The researchers found that the Solidarity. Unless thes~
combination of a mass medium with an interpersonal channel is efforts can be successfull
generally more effective than using either alone. (see Fig. 8.1, p. 150). The best of planning
All over the world, the many benefits of the integrated approach in no more. The developm
the use of communication to advance development purposes are no may know what to do, h
longer questioned. Whether in the developed societies (the North) or in unless the all-important
the developing societies (the South), development communicators have present, everything else
found that going over the heads of traditional rulers, opinion leaders, four 'unspoken' imperat
peer-groups and the leadership of organizations to which the people any one of them is rnissir
belong has made understanding and acceptance of development or social human and material resc
change messages almost impossible. On the other hand, depending only even take off; and if
on the interpersonal communication that goes on with these leaders resources, most change e
slows down considerably the speed of development messages as well as In spite of its diffic
the spread of development momentum. So, some form of integration is doubts about success, so
practiced almost everywhere. The commonest form in the human race, and an imp
developing societies is the integration of the Interpersonal strategies is constantly changing,
with one half of the Mass Media strategies - the Centralized Mass problems can only be
Media. In the developed societies, the Interpersonal strategy is usually appropriately executed
combined with the other half of the Mass Media strategy - the Localized change to be relevant,
Mass Media. As stressed by Piotrow, et al (1997, p 73), a good target social system in
communication strategy will combine different media to repeat and this knowledge which h
reinforce key messages. Not everyone is reached by the same channels potentially successful) s
of communication, so a multimedia approach is the only way to reach a
substantial proportion of the audience.
 Strategies and Methods 129

;, The thrust of the strategy is Necessary and Sufficient conditions.

al networks within the target
. that would generate positive What has been said so far constitute very necessary but not sufficient
to intelligent understanding of condition for ensuring successful development projects. To it must be
n's and each group's role in added two other conditions - adequate analysis and knowledge of those
te interpersonal channels, the unique factors (some enhancing, others hindering) that have significantly
ch have the capacity for rapid substantial impact on change processes; and the need for prompt and'
rea coverage. But because the adequate supply of material resources to implement change. Among the
change people's attitudes, the enhancing factors are Relative (not Comparative) Advantage of the
nges in attitudes and behavior, expected outcome, Compatibility of the expected outcome with the
s which are regarded as very fundamental (not peripheral) values of the people, Simplification of
and effective development language and processes and Commun icability of the facts about the issue
tpproach gains support in the and of its requirements. Among the hindering factors are Cultural
of radio for education and Values and Beliefs, Cultural Ethnocentrism, Social Norms, and Group
ile researchers found that the Solidarity. Unless these factors are taken into account, few change
an interpersonal channel is efforts can be successfully executed, and fewer still can endure for long.
alone. (see Fig. 8.1, p. 150). The best of planning and the best of strategies can do so much and
; of the integrated approach in no more. The development communicator and the target social system
development purposes are no may know what to do, how to do it, and be very willing to do it. But
>ped societies (the North) or in unless the all-important factor - having the resources to do it - is
elopment communicators have present, everything else will go to naught. It is true that each of those
itional rulers, opinion leaders, four 'unspoken' imperatives of social change is important, and that if
1izations to whic h the people any one of them is missing not many change efforts can succeed. But if
tance of development or social human and material resources are not available no change effort can
the other hand, depending only even take off; and if there is no prompt and adequate supply of
t goes on with these leaders resources, most change efforts that have taken off will grind to a halt.
velopment messages as well as In spite of its difficulty to plan and execute, and in spite of the
:o, some form of integration is doubts about success, social change or development is a necessity for the
!nest form in the human race, and an imperative for the developing societies. The world
of the Interpersonal strategies is constantly changing, and new problems arise every day. Such
egies - the Central ized Mass problems can only be reduced or eliminated through relevant and
terpersonal strategy is usually appropriately executed social change or development programs. For
Media strategy - the Local ized change to be relevant, there is the need to know and understand the
et al (1997, p 73), a good target social system in which the change effort is to be exec uted. It is
,ifferent media to repeat and this knowledge which helps to plan appropriately and put a relevant (and
reached by the same channels potentially successful) strategy in place.
ach is the only way to reach a
130 Development Communication in Action

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