Pre-Medical : Physics

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Common Lecture Notes Enthuse Course (12th Appearing)
Topic : Alternating Current Lectures / Hours allotted : 6L/9H

LECTURE # 01
An electric current is known as alternating current if
(i) It changes its direction at regular time interval i.e. periodically
(ii) It must have constant amplitude.
Examples of AC :
i i

t t
(1) Sinusoidal AC (2) Square AC
–i0 –i0

i i

(3) t Triangular AC (4) t Saw-tooth AC

–i0 –i0

Exampls of non-AC
i
i

t
t DC Pulsating DC

t Damped AC

Sinusoidal AC ;
I

I = I0sin wt t
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–I0

where I = Instantaneous current

I0 = Peak value / Maximum value / Amplitude of current

2p
w = Angular frequency w = 2p f =
T
In India : f = 50 Hz, Supply voltage = 220 V
In USA : f = 60 Hz, Supply voltage = 110 V

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T
Ex.I Find out instantaneous current value for I = I0 sinwt at t =
8
Sol. As I = I0 sinwt
T
At t=
8
æ 2p ö æ T ö p
I = I 0 sin ç ÷ ç 8 ÷ = I 0 sin 4
è T øè ø

I0
I=
2
1
Ex.II Find out instantaneous voltage for V = 200 sin (400 pt) at t = sec.
800
Sol. As V = 200 sin 400 pt
1
At t= sec
800

1
V = 200sin 400p ´
800
Þ V = 200 volt

æ pö T
Ex.III Find out instantanous value for I = I 0 sin ç wt - ÷ at t =
è 6ø 2

é 2p T p ù p I
Sol. I = I 0 sin ê ´ - ú = I0 sin = 0
ë T 2 6 û 6 2

Ex.IV Find the time taken by the current to reach half of its maximum value.

I0
Sol. = I0 sin wt
2

1 p
sin wt = Þ wt =
2 6

2p p T
.t = Þ t =
T 6 12
Alternative :
At I = 0, f=0

I0 p
At I= , f=
2 6
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2p
Q Df = Dt
T

T p T
\ Dt = ´ =
2p 6 12

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I0
Ex.V Find the time taken by current to reach , if the frequency of current is 50Hz.
2

Sol. At I = 0, f = 0°

I0 p
At I= , f=
2 4

T p T
As Dt = ´ =
2p 4 8

1 1
or Dt = = = 2.5 ms
8f 8 ´ 50

Average value of alternating current

Definition : The mean value of A.C over any half cycle (either positive or negative) is that value of DC which
would send same amount of charge through a circuit as is sent by the AC through same circuit in the same time.

t2

Iavg = I =< I >=

ò t1
Idt
=
Area under I-t graph
t2
time interval
ò t1
dt

Important formulae :
1. <sinq> =<cosq> = 0 (for full cycle)

2
2. <sinq> = <cosq> = (for half cycle)
p

1
3. <sin2q> = <cos2q> = (for full / half cycle)
2
Average value of sinusoidal AC I
Let I = I0 sin wt
· For one complete cycle t
<I> = <I0 sin wt> = I0 <sin wt>
Þ <I> = 0
Note : (a) Therefore batteries cannot be charged by using ac.
(b) Electrolysis and electroplating cannot be done by using ac.
· For positive half cycle : I
<I> = <I0 sin wt> = I0 <sin wt>
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2I0 t
Þ < I >=
p

· For negative half cylce :

I

t
2I0
< I >= -
p

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· For Quarter cycle :
æ A1 ö I
ç 2÷
A1 ç 2 ÷ A1
< I >= 4
=è ø= 2
t1 æ 1 ö
t t1
4 ç 2÷ 2
ç 2 ÷ t
è ø
2I0
Hence < I >=
p
· Average value for full wave rectifier
I
A 2A1/ 2 A1 / 2
< I >= = = I0
T 2t1/ 2 T1/ 2
0 t
T
2I0
Hence < I > full cycle =< I >Half cycle =
p
· Average value for half wave rectifier :
A1 + 0 A I
A 2 1 12 1
< I >= = = = < I >1
t 2t 1 2 t1 2 2 I0
2 2
0 t
1 æ 2I ö I0 T/2 T
Hence < I >= ç 0 ÷=
2è p ø p

HOMEWORK (Module 19-20)

BB-1 ; Q. 1, 6, 7

Ex-1 ; Q. 2, 7, 8, 10

HOMEWORK (Module 18-19)

BB-1 ; Q. 1, 6, 7

Ex-1 ; Q. 2, 7, 8, 10
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LECTURE # 02
Root mean square value of current
It is value of DC which would produce same heat in given resistance in given time as is done by the alternating
current when passed through the same resistance for the same time.

t2
ò I dt
2
t1
Irms = t2 or I2rms =< I2 >
ò dt
t1

I
1. RMS value of sinusoidal ac
1
I2rms =< I2 > =< I20 sin2 wt > = I20 < sin2 wt > = I20 ´ t
2
–I0
I0
Hence Irms = or Irms = 0.707I0
2
2. RMS value for full wave rectifier :
I
ïì ïü T ïì ïü T
( )
2
í( Irms ) T ý + í Irms
2
T ý I0
ï 0- ï 2 -T 2
îï þï
=î 2þ 2
I2rms 0 t
T T T/2 T
+
2 2
2 2
æ I0 ö T æ I0 ö T I20 T
ç ÷ +ç ÷ ´ ´2
è 2ø 2 è 2ø 2 = 2 2 I2
= = 0
T T 2

I0
Hence Irms =
2
3. RMS value for half wave rectifier
I
ïì ïü T ïì ïü T
( )
2
I0
í( Irms ) T ý + í Irms
2
T ý
ï 0- ï 2 ïî -T
ïþ 2 0 t
=î 2þ 2
I2rms T/2 T
T T
+
2 2
2
æ I0 ö T 2 T
ç ÷ + (0)
2ø 2 2 I20
=è =
T 4
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I0
Hence I rms =
2
4. RMS value for a square wave AC I

ïì ïü T ìï üï T
( )
2
í( Irms ) T ý + í Irms
2
T ý T 2T
0- ï 2 -T 2 I20 + I0
ï îï þï t
=î 2þ 0
2 2 2 = I2
Irms = 0 T/2 T
T T T
+
2 2

Hence Irms = I0

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I
ïì üï T ìï üï T
( )
2
í( Irms ) T ý + í Irms
2
T ý T T
ï 0- ï 2 ïî -T 2
ïþ I20 + (0)2
=î 2þ 2 2
5. I2rms = 2 2 = I0
T T 0 t
+ T 2 T/2 T
2 2

I0
Hence Irms =
2
6. As y = mx
I
æ 2I ö
I=ç 0 ÷t
è T ø T/2
0 t
T
T 2
2 æ 2I 0
ö –I0
ò
0
ç T t ÷ dt 2 4I2
è ø
T

ò
2 2
I2rms = = ´ 20 t dt
T T T 0
2

8I20 é 1 æ T ö ù 8I20 T3 I20

3
ê I0
= ç ÷ ú= ´ = Hence Irms =
T 3 êë 3 è 2 ø úû 3T 3 8 3 3

ìï üï T ìï üï T 2
æ I0 ö T
í( I rms ) T ý + í( I rms ) T ý
2 2 T
+ (0)2 I
0 - 2 - T 2 ç ÷
ï ï îï þï = è 3 ø 2 2
7. I2rms =î 2þ 2
T T T
+ 0 t
2 2 T/2 T

I20 T I0
´
I2 Þ Irms =
I2rms = 3 2 = 0 6
T 6
Ex. Find out average and RMS value of following currents
(i) I = a + b sin wt (ii) I = a + b sin wt + c cos wt
(iii) I = a sin wt + b cos wt (iv) I = a sin wt cos wt
Sol. (i) I = a + b sin wt
<I> = <a + b sin wt>
= <a> + b <sin wt>
= a + b <sin wt>
Hence <I> = a

I2rms =< I2 >=< (a + b sin wt)2 >

=< a2 + b2 sin2 wt + 2ab sin wt >

=< a 2 > + b2 < sin2 wt > +2ab < sin wt >

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1
= a 2 + b2 ´ + 2ab ´ 0
2

b2
= a2 +
2

b2
Hence Irms = a2 +
2

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(ii) <I>=<a + b sin wt + c cos wt>
= <a> + b<sin wt> + c <cos wt)
Þ <I> = a

I2rms = < I2 >

=<(a + b sin wt + c cos wt)2>
=<a2 + b2 sin2 wt + c2 cos2 wt + 2ab sin wt + 2ac cos wt + 2bc sin wt cos wt>
=<a2> + b2<sin2 wt> + c2<cos2 wt> + 2ab<sin wt> + 2ac < cos wt> + bc <sin2 wt>

b2 c 2
= a2 + + +0+0+0
2 2

b2 c2
Þ Irms = a2 + +
2 2
(ii) I = a sin wt + b cos wt

Imax = a2 + b2
<I> = <a sin wt + b cos wt> = a<sin wt> + b<cos wt>
Þ <I> = 0

I2rms =< I2 >

= a2 < sin2 wt > + b2 < cos2 wt > +ab < sin 2 wt >

a 2 b2
= + +0
2 2

a2 b2
Þ Irms = +
2 2
(iv) I = a sin wt cos wt
a a
or I= sin2wt Þ Imax =
2 2
a
< I >= < sin 2wt >= 0
2

a2 a2 1 a2
I2rms =< I2 > = < sin2 2wt > = ´ =
4 4 2 8
a
Irms =
2 2

Ex. I= t
Find rms between 0 to 2 sec.
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22
ò0 I dt
Irms =
2
ò0 dt

2
ò0 t dt
=
2
[ t ]0

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2
æ t2 ö
çç ÷÷
=
è 2 ø0
[2 - 0 ]
=
1 1 2
,
2 2
(
2 -0 )
1
= .4 = 1
4
Advantages of AC
• A.C. is cheaper than D.C
• It can be easily converted into D.C. (by rectifier)
• It can be controlled easily (by choke coil)
• It can be transmitted over long distance at low power loss.
• It can be stepped up or stepped down with the help of transformer.
Measurement of A.C.
Alternating current and voltages are measured by a.c. ammeter and a.c. voltmeter respectively. Working
of these instruments is based on heating effect of current, hence they are also called hot wire instruments.
Terms D.C. meter A.C. meter
Name moving coil instrument hot wire instrument
Based on magnetic effect of current heating effect of current
Reads average value r.m.s. value
If used in A.C. circuit then they reads zero A.C. or D.C. then meter works
Q average value of A.C. = zero properly as it measures rms value
Deflection deflection µ current deflection µ heat
f µ I (linear) f µ I2rms (non linear)
Scale Uniform Seperation Non uniform sepration
f = Number I - 1 2 3 4 5 I - 1 2 3 4 5
of divisions f- 1 2 3 4 5 f - 1 4 9 16 25
Phase and phase difference
(a) Phase
I = I0 sin (wt + f)
Initial phase = f (it does not change with time)
Instantaneous phase = wt + f (it changes with time)
• Phase decides both value and sign. l UNIT: radian
(b) Phase difference
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Voltage V = V0 sin ( wt + f1)

Current I = I0 sin (wt +f2)
• Phase difference of I w.r.t. V f = f2 – f1
• Phase difference of V w.r.t. I f = f1 – f2

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Lagging and leading Concept
I=I0 sin (wt - f)
(a) V leads I or I lags V ® It means, V reach maximum before I wt
V,I
Let if V = V0 sin wt then I = I0 sin (wt – f)
V=V0sinwt
and if V = V0 sin (wt+f ) then I = I0 sin wt

I=I0 sin (wt + f)

(b) V lags I or I leads V ® It means V reach maximum after I
wt
V,I
Let if V = V0 sin wt then I = I0 sin (wt + f)
and if V = V0 sin (wt – f ) then I = I0 sin wt V=V0sinwt

HOMEWORK (Module - 2019-20)

BB-1 ; Q. 2, 3
Ex-1 ; Q. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 11
Ex-2 ; Q. 10

HOMEWORK (Module - 2018-19)

BB-1 ; Q.
Ex-1 ; Q.
Ex-2 ; Q.
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LECTURE # 03
Phasor and phasor diagram :
Phasors are sinusoidal vectors that rotate about origin with an angular speed equal to angular frequency of related
physical quantities.
Properties :
(1) They rotate anticlockwise
(2) The length of phasors represents the maximum value (amplitude) of quantity.
(3) Vertical component represents its instantaneous value.
Let V = V0 sin wt and I = I0 sin(wt + f)

V0
I0
V f
I
wt
x
Different types of ac-circuit :
In order to study the behaviour of A.C. circuits we classify them into two categories :
(a) Simple circuits containing only one basic element i.e. resistor (R) or inductor (L) or capacitor (C).
(b) Complicated circuit containing any two of the three circuit elements R, L and C or all of the three elements.

1. AC circuit containing pure resistance R

Let at any instant t, the current in the circuit = I. V = IR
Potential difference across the resistance = I R
with the help of kirchoff’s circuital law
s

E = E 0sinwt
E – I R = 0 ÞE0 sin wt = I R
E0 E0
Þ I= sin wt = I0 sin wt ( I0 = = peak or maximum value of current)
R R
Alternating current developed in a pure resistance is also of the sinusoidal E=E 0 sinwt
E and I
nature. In a.c. circuits containing pure resistance, the voltage and current I=I0 sinwt

are in the same phase. The vector or phasor diagram which represents
the phase relationship between alternating current and alternating e.m.f. p 3p/2 wt
O X
are as shown in figure. p/2 2p

In the a.c. circuit having R only, as current and voltage are in the same
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phase, hence in fig. both phasors E0 and I0 are in the same direction,
making an angle wt with OX. Their projections on Y-axis represent the
Y
instantaneous values of alternating current and voltage.
P
E E0
i.e. I = I0 sinwt and E = E0 sinwt. wt
I I0
E I0 E0 E
Since I0 = 0 , hence = Þ I rms = rms wt X
R 2 R 2 R O

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2. AC circuit containing pure inductance
L
A circuit containing a pure inductance L (having zero ohmic resistance)
connected with a source of alternating emf. Let the alternating e.m.f. E = E0 sin wt

dI
When a.c. flows through the circuit, emf induced across inductance = -L

s
dt E = E 0sinw t

Note : Negative sign indicates that induced emf acts in opposite direction to that of applied emf.
Because there is no other circuit element present in the circuit other than inductance so with the help of

æ dI ö dI
Kirchoff’s circuital law E + ç -L ÷ = 0 Þ E = L
è dt ø dt
E0 æ pö
so we get I = sin ç wt - ÷
wL è 2ø

E0 E æ pö
Maximum current I0 = ´ 1 = 0 , Hence, I = I 0 sin ç wt - ÷ E = E0 sintw
è 2ø

E and I
wL wL
p 3p/2
In a pure inductive circuit current always lags behind the emf by p/2 p wt
2 O
2p
p
or alternating emf leads the a. c. by a phase angle of .
2 I = I0 sin (wt -p/2)

E0 E
Expression I0 = resembles the expression I0 = 0 .
wL R

This non-resistive opposition to the flow of A.C. in a circuit is called the Y P E

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inductive reactance (XL) of the circiut.

XL = wL = 2 p f L where f = frequency of A.C.

wt X
O
Unit of XL : ohm p/2 – w t

(wL) = Unit of L × Unit of (w =2pf) = henry × sec–1

I I0
Q
volt volt
= ´ sec -1 = = ohm
ampere / sec ampere
Inductive reactance XL µ f

Higher the frequency of A.C. higher is the inductive reactance offered by an inductor XL
in an A.C. circuit.

For d.c. circuit, f = 0 \ XL = wL = 2 p f L = 0

f
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Hence, inductor offers no opposition to the flow of d.c. where as a resistive path to a.c.

3. AC circuit containing pure capacitance

C
A circuit containing an ideal capacitor of capacitance C connected with a source of
alternating emf as shown in fig. The alternating e.m.f. in the circuit E = E 0 sin wt. When
alternating e.m.f. is applied across the capacitor a similarly varying alternating current
s

flows in the circuit. E = E0 sinwt

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The two plates of the capacitor become alternately positively and negatively charged and the magnitude of the
charge on the plates of the capacitor varies sinusoidally with time. Also the electric field between the plates
of the capacitor varies sinusoidally with time.

E = E0 sintwt

E and I
p/2 p 3p /2 wt
O
2p

I= I0sinw (t + p /2)

Let at any instant t charge on the capacitor = q

Instantaneous potential difference across the capacitor E = q/C

Þ q = C E Þ q = CE0 sin wt

dq d
The instantaneous value of current I = = ( CE 0 sin wt ) = CE 0 w cos wt
dt dt Y P
E E0
E0 æ pö
ÞI = sin ç wt + ÷ = I0 sin æç wt + p ö÷ where I0 = wCE0 Q
(1/ wC) è 2ø è 2ø I0
I

°
90
wt X
In a pure capacitive circuit, the current always leads the e.m.f. by a phase O

angle of p/2. The alternating emf lags behinds the alternating current by a
phase angle of p/2.

IMPORTANT POINTS
f
E/I is the resistance R when both E and I are in phase, in present case they differ

p 1 XC
in phase by , hence is not the resistance of the capacitor, the capacitor offer
2 wC
opposition to the flow of A.C. This non-resistive opposition to the flow of A.C. in a

1 1
pure capacitive circuit is known as capacitive reactance XC. X C = =
wC 2pfC

Unit of XC : ohm
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Capacitive reactance XC is inversely proportional to frequency of A.C. XC decreases as the frequency increases.
For d.c. circuit f = 0

1
\ XC = = ¥ but has a very small value for a.c.
2pfC

This shows that capacitor blocks the flow of d.c. but provides an easy path for a.c.

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INDIVIDUAL COMPONENTS (R or L or C)

TERM R L C

R L C

Circuit

Supply Voltage V = V0sin wt V = V0 sin wt V = V0 sin wt

p p
Current I = I0 sin wt I = I0 sin (wt – ) I = I0 sin (wt+ )
2 2

V0 V0 V0
Peak Current I0 = I0 = I0 = =V0wC
R wL 1 wC

V0 V0 V0 1
Impedance (W ) =R = wL = X L = = XC
I0 I0 I0 wC
V0 Vrms
Z= = R = Resistance XL=Inductive reactance. XC=Capacitive reactance.
I0 Irms

p p
Phase difference zero (in same phase) + (V leads I) - (V lags I)
2 2

V
I

I
Phasor diagram
V
I
V

R XL f

XL µ f
Variation of Z with f XC µ 1
f
f f
XC

G,SL,SC G=1/R = conductance. SL = 1/XL SC = 1/XC

(mho, seiman) Inductive susceptance Capacitive susceptance

Behaviour of device Same in L passes DC easily C - blocks DC

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in D.C. and A.C A C and D C (because XL = 0) while (because XC =¥) while

gives a high impedance provides an easy path

for the A.C. of high for the A.C. of high

é 1ù
frequency (XLµ f) frequency êX C µ f ú
ë û
Ohm's law VR = IR VL = IXL VC = IXC

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4. Resistance and inductance in series (R-L circuit)
A circuit containing a series combination of a resistance R and an inductance L, connected with a source
of alternating e.m.f. E as shown in figure.
R L

s
E = E0 sinwt

• phasor diagram For L-R circuit

Let in a L-R series circuit, applied alternating emf is E = E0 sinwt. As R and

L are joined in series, hence current flowing through both will be same at Y
Q R
each instant. Let I be the current in the circuit at any instant and VL and
VR the potential differences across L and R respectively at that instant.
VL E
Then VL = IXL and VR = IR

p I
Now, VR is in phase with the current while VL leads the current by . X
2 VR P

So VR and VL are mutually perpendicular (Note : E ¹ VR + VL)

The vector OP represents VR (which is in phase with I), while OQ represents VL (which leads I by 90°).

The resultant of VR and VL = the magnitude of vector OR E = VR2 + VL2

E
Thus E² = VR² + VL² = I² (R² + XL² ) Þ I =
R + X 2L
2

XL
ZL
The phasor diagram shown in fig. also shows that in L-R circuit the applied

emf E leads the current I or conversely the current I lags behind the e.m.f. f R
E by a phase angle f

VL IX L X L wL æ wL ö
tan f = = = = Þ f = tan -1 ç
VR IR R R è R ÷ø

• Inductive Impedance ZL :

E0
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In L-R circuit the maximum value of current I0 = Here R2 + w2 L2 represents the effective
R + w 2 L2
2

opposition offered by L-R circuit to the flow of a.c. through it. It is known as impedance of L-R circuit and

is represented by ZL. ZL = R2 + w 2 L2 = R 2 + (2pfL)2

1 1
The reciprocal of impedance is called admittance YL = =
ZL R + w 2 L2
2

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5. Resistance and capacitor in series (R-C circuit) C R

A circuit containing a series combination of a resistance R and a capacitor

C, connected with a source of e.m.f. of peak value E0 as shown in fig.

s
• phasor diagram For R-C circuit E = E0 sinwt
Current through both the resistance and capacitor will be same at every instant
and the instantaneous potential differences across C and R are

VC = I XC and VR = I R

where XC = capacitive reactance and I = instantaneous current.

VR P
Now, VR is in phase with I, while VC lags behind I by 90°. O X
f
E
The phasor diagram is shown in fig. =
V
VC R
2
+V
The vector OP represents VR (which is in phase with I) C
2

Q S
p E (applied emf)
and the vector OQ represents VC (which lags behind I by ).
2

The vector OS represents the resultant of VR and

VC = the applied e.m.f. E.

E
Hence VR2 + VC2 = E 2 Þ E = VR2 + VC2 Þ E² = I² (R² + XC² ) Þ I =
R + X 2C
2

P X
The term (R 2 + X 2C ) represents the effective resistance of the R-C O f R
Z=
circuit and called the capacitive impedance ZC of the circuit. R2
+X 2
C

2 XC
æ 1 ö Q S
Hence, in C-R circuit ZC = R +X =
2 2
R +ç
2
C
è wC ÷ø

• Capacitive Impedance ZC :

In R-C circuit the term R 2 + X 2C effective opposition offered by R-C circuit to the flow of a.c. through
it. It is known as impedance of R-C circuit and is represented by ZC.The phasor diagram also shows
that in R-C circuit the applied e.m.f. lags behind the current I (or the current I leads the emf E) by
a phase angle f given by
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VC X C 1/ wC 1 X 1 æ 1 ö
tan f = = = = tan f = C = Þ f = tan -1 ç
VR R R wCR , R wCR è wCR ÷ø

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6. Combination of components (R-L or R-C or L-C)
TERM R-L R-C L-C

R L R L
C C
Circuit

I is same in R & L I is same in R & C I is same in L & C

VL VR VL
I I
V
Phasor diagram I
VC VC
VR

V2 = VR2 + VL2 V2 = VR2 + VC2 V = VL – VC (VL>VC)

V = VC – VL (VC>VL)

p p p
Phase difference V leads I (f = 0 to ) V lags I (f = – to 0 ) V lags I (f = - ,if XC>XL)
2 2 2

p
in between V & I V leads I (f = + ,if XL>XC)
2

R2 + ( X C )
2
Impedance Z= R 2 + X 2L Z= Z = X L - Xc

Variation of Z as f ­, Z ­ as f ­, Z ¯ as f ­, Z first ¯ then ­

Z Z Z

with f R R
f f f

At very low f Z ; R (XL ® 0) Z ; XC Z ; XC

At very high f Z ; XL Z ; R (XC ® 0) Z ; XL

HOMEWORK
BB-2 ; Q. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14
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HOMEWORK
BB-2 ; Q. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14

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LECTURE # 04
Ex. Find out the required inductance to put in series of bulb (10W, 60V) to run it safely across an alternating supply
of 100V, 60Hz.
Sol. For LR-circuit 10W

VR=60V VL 60 ´ 60
V = VR2 + VL2 R= = 360W
10

~
VL = (100)2 - (60)2 = 80V 100V, 60Hz
As VL = I XL

é ù
éVù 100
80 = ê ú X L = ê ú XL
ëZû ê (360)2 + X 2 ú
ë L û

25X 2L = 16 é (360)2 + X 2L ù
ë û

9X 2L = 16 ´ (360)2

XL = 480W
Finally XL = wL = 480

480 4
L= = Henry
2p ´ 60 p
Ex. For the RL-circuit calculate the following :
(i) Impedence of circuit R=3W XL=4W
(ii) Phase difference between V & I
(iii) Irms ~
V=100 sin wt
Sol. (i) Z = R2 + X 2L = 9 + 16 = 5W

XL 4
(ii) tan f = = Þ f = 53°
R 3

æ 100 ö
ç ÷
Vrms 2 ø
(iii) Irms = =è 10 2A
Z 5
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100
Ex. A capacitor mF is connected across an ac-source V = 100 sin 200 pt. Find out :
p

(i) Impendence (ii) Imax (iii) Irms (iv) Equation of current

Sol. As V = 100 sin (200 pt)
Hence V0 = Vmax = 100 volt & w = 200p

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1 1 1
Z= = = ´ 102 = 50W
(i) wC 100 2
200 p ´ ´ 10 -6
p

Vmax 100
(ii) I0 or Imax = = = 2A
Z 50

I0 2
(iii) Irms = = = 2A
2 2

p
(iv) For a c-circuit current leads voltage by .
2

æ pö
So I = 2 sin ç 200pt + ÷ or I = 2cos(200pt)
è 2 ø

10
Ex. An inductor mH is connected across an ac-source of 50 V, 50 Hz. Find out :
p
(i) Impendence (ii) Irms (iii) I0 (iv) Equation of current

10
Ans. Given L = mH , f = 50 Hz
p

10 Vrms 50
(i) Z = wL = 2p ´ 50 ´ ´ 10-3 = 1W (ii) Irms = = = 50A
p Z 1

æ pö
(iii) I0 = Irms 2 = 50 2A (iv) I = 50 2 sin ç 100pt - ÷ = -50 2 cos(100p)t
è 2ø

Ex. Actross two different inductors same alternating source is connected. For this Z = w graph is given.

L1
Find out L
2

Z
Z wL
Sol. As tan f = = =L 1
w w
2
L1 tan 60° 3 30°
So = = =3 30°
L 2 tan 30° 1 w
3

Ex. Two capacitors C1 & C2 are connected across the same ac-source one by one and for them Z-w-graphs are
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shown in figure. Select the correct one

Z
(i) C1 = C2

(ii) C1 < C2

(iii) C1 > C2 1
2
(iv) None of these w

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Sol. For same value of w
Z1 > Z2 Z

1 1
or >
wC1 wC2 Z1
Z2 1
2
or C1 < C2 w

Ex. For the given RC-circuit.

What will happen regarding brightness of bulb if following changes are done
(i) Frequency of ac-source is increased.
Bulb
(ii) A mica slab is inserted in between plates of capacitor

1
Sol. (i) As XC =
wC

f ­ ¾¾® w ­ ¾¾® X C ¯ ¾¾® I ­ ~

In this way brightness will increase

(ii) If the mica slab is placed than
C' > C Þ XC¯ Þ brightness ­
Ex. An alternating emf V = 100 sin (100 pt) volt is connected to a choke coil of negligible resistance. The electric
current in circuit oscillates with amplitude of 10A. Find the inductance of choke coil.
L ¹ 0, R = 0
V 100
Sol. As I0 = 10A Þ Z= 0 = = 10W
I0 10

Z 10 1
Q Z = XL = wL Þ L= = = Hz ~
w 100p 10p V

100
Ex. An inductor of resistance 200W and self inductance 1 H is connected to an ac-source of frequency Hz.
p
Find out the phase difference between voltage and current in circuit.

100 L = 1 H, R = 200W
Sol. As w = 2pf = 2p ´ = 200
p

100
f= Hz
p
~
For LR-circuit

X L wL 200 ´ 1
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tan f = = = =1 Þ f = 45°
R R 200

Ex. An ac source of 20V is applied across a circuit consisting of a resistance and a coil with negligible resistance.
If the voltage across the resistance is 12V. Find out across coil. VL V =12V
R

Sol. As V = VL2 + VR2

Þ VL = V 2 - VR2 = (20)2 - (12)2 = 256 = 16V ~

20V

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Ex. When 100V DC is applied across a choke coil then current of 1A flows in it. If 100V ac is applied across the
same source then electric current drops to 0.5A. Find the inductance of coil.
(Given = frequency of ac source is 50 Hz)

V 100
Sol. In dc R = = = 100W
I 1

V 100
In ac Z = = = 200W
I 0.5

Q Z = X2L + R 2

Þ X L = Z2 - R2 = (200)2 - (100)2 = 100 3W

X L 100 3 3
Again L = = = H
w 2p ´ 50 p

HOMEWORK (Module 19-20)

Ex-1 ; Q. 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35,
36,37, 38, 39

Ex-2 ; Q. 2, 8, 11, 17, 22, 24, 25, 27, 30, 33, 34

Ex-3 ; Q. 1, 2, 5, 6, 13, 14, 17, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24

HOMEWORK (Module 18-19)

Ex-1 ; Q.

Ex-2 ; Q.

Ex-3 ; Q.

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LECTURE # 05
1. L-C-R series circuit L C R
A circuit containing a series combination of an resistance R, a coil of inductance
L and a capacitor of capacitance C, connected with a source of alternating
e.m.f. of peak value of E0, as shown in figure.
A.C. source

• Phasor Diagram For Series L-C-R circuit E = E0 sinwt

Let in series LCR circuit applied alternating emf is E = E0 sin wt.As L,C and R are joined in series, therefore,
current at any instant through the three elements has the same amplitude and phase.

However voltage across each element bears a different phase relationship with the current.

Let at any instant of time t the current in the circuit is I. Y

VL Q
Let at this time t the potential differences across L, C, and R

VL = I XL, VC = I XC and VR = I R
I VR
O X
Now, VR is in phase with current I but VL leads I by 90° P
VC
While VC lags behind I by 90°.

The vector OP represents VR (which is in phase with I) the vector OQ represent VL (which leads I by 90°)

and the vector OS represents VC (which legs behind I by 90°) Y

VL Q
VL and VC are opposite to each other. T K
f)
m
de

(VL-VC)
If VL > VC (as shown in figure) the their resultant will be (V L – VC) which pp
lie
(a
E
is represented by OT. Finally, the vector OK represents the resultant
f
O X
of VR and (VL – VC), that is, the resultant of all the three = applied VR P

e.m.f. VC

E Y
Thus E = VR2 + (VL - VC )2 = I R 2 + (X L - X C )2 Þ I=
XL Q
R + (X L - X C )2
2

T K
2
æ 1 ö
Impedance Z = R 2 + (X L - X C )2 = R 2 + ç wL -
wC ÷ø
(XL-XC)

è Z

The phasor diagram also shown that in LCR circuit the applied e.m.f. f R
O X
P
XL - XC
leads the current I by a phase angle f tanf =
R XC

2. Series LCR and parallel LCR combination

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SERIES L-C-R CIRCUIT PARALLEL L-C-R CIRCUIT

1. Circuit diagram
R
R L C L

I same for R, L & C V same for R, L and C

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2. Phasor diagram
VL IC
I V
VR IR
VC IL

(i) If VL > V C then VL–V C I (i) if IC > IL then IC-IL

V
VR IR

(ii) If VC > VL then VC–VL VR I (ii) if IL > IC then IL-IC IR V

(iii) V= VR2 + (VL - VC )2

Impedance Z = R 2 + (X L - X C )2

XL - XC V - VC
tanf = = L
R VR

(iv) Impedance triangle

Z
X=XL–XC

f R

3. Resonance
A circuit is said to be resonant when the natural frequency of circuit is equal to frequency of the applied voltage.
For resonance both L and C must be present in circuit.
There are two types of resonance : (i) Series Resonance (ii) Parallel Resonance

4. Series Resonance
(a) At Resonance
(i) XL = XC (ii) VL = VC (iii) f = 0 (V and I in same phase)
V
(iv) Zmin = R (impedance minimum) (v) Imax = (current maximum)
R
(b) Resonance frequency

1 1 1 1
Q XL = XC Þ wrL = w C
2
Þ wr = Þ wr = Þ fr =
LC LC 2p LC
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(c) Variation of Z with f Z

(i) If f< fr then XL < XC circuit nature capacitive, f (negative)

(ii) At f = fr then XL = XC circuit nature, Resistive, f = zero
(iii) If f > fr then XL > XC circuit nature is inductive,f (positive) R

fr f

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(d) Variation of I with f as f increase, Z first decreases then increase

I max I max= V
R

I max
2
I
Df as f increase, I first increase then decreases

f1 fr f2 f

• At resonance, impedance of the series resonant circuit is minimum so it is called 'acceptor circuit' as it most readily
accepts that current out of many currents whose frequency is equal to its natural frequency. In radio or TV tuning
we receive the desired station by making the frequency of the circuit equal to that of the desired station.
HALF POWER FREQUENCY
There are two such frequencies of applied ac-source in LCR-series circuit where power consumption is exactly
half of the maximum at resonance such frequencies are called half power frequencies.
Hence f1 & f2 are called half power frequencies where
f1 = f0 – Df
f2 = f0 + Df I

Imax Pmax
& f0 = f1f2 or w0 = w1w2

Pmax
At w1 & w2 Þ P= Imax 2Df Pmax
2
2 Band width 2

I2max R I max
I2half R = Þ Ihalf =
2 2 w
f1 f0 f2

V 1 V
Again = Þ Z = 2R or Z2 = 2R2
Z 2 R

R2 + (XL – XC)2 = 2R2 Þ XL – XC = R

1 1 R w20 R
or wL - =R or w- = or w- =
wC LCw L w L
If w = w0 + Dw
-1
R w20 é Dw ù R
then (w0 + Dw) - w02 (w0 + Dw)-1 = or (w0 + Dw) - ê1 + ú =
L w0 ë w0 û L

w20 é Dw ù R
(w0 + Dw) - ê1 - ú=
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w0 ë w0 û L

é Dw ù R R R
(w0 + Dw) - w0 ê1 - ú= Þ w0 + Dw - w0 + Dw = Þ Dw =
ë w0 û L L 2L
Quality factor or Q-factor
This factor gives relative information about stored energy and lost energy per cycle. Hence

é Maximum energy stored per cycle ù w0 w

Q = 2p ê ú = = 0
ë Maximum energy los per cycle û Band width 2Dw

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I
R w L 1 L
Since Dw = So Q= 0 or Q=
2L R R C
R1
Magnification
At resonance VL or VC = Q × (supplied voltage) R2
Hence at resonance magnification factor is the Q-factor R3
Q - factor µ Magnification factor µ Sharpness
w
According to figure, if 'R' is decreasing means Q-factor or sharpness will increase in the circuit.
PRACTICE QUESTION
Que. For the given LCR-series circuit. Find out applied source voltage of ac.
40V 50V 20V

V
~

V = VR2 + ( VL - VC ) = (40)2 + (50 - 20)2 = 50V

2
Sol.

Que. A capacitor, a resistor and a inductor are connected in series to an ac-source of 110 V and frequency 60Hz.
Find reading of voltmeter V3 and ammeter in the given LCR-series circuit.
R=220W

V1 V2 V3
A 300V 300V
~
110V, 60Hz
Sol. Q V1 = V2

V 110
therefore V3 = VR = 110 volt and I = = = 0.5A
R 220
OPTIONAL QUESTION
Que. In the circuit shown in the figure, the A.C. source gives a voltage V = 20 cos (2000 t) volt neglecting source
resistance, the voltmeter and ammeter readings will be :
6W
A

5 mH, 4W 50 µF

V
(1) 0V, 1.4A (2) 5.6V, 1.4A (3) 0V, 0.47 A (4) 1.68 V, 0.47 A
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Que. When an AC source of e.m.f. e = E0 sin (100t) is connected across a circuit, the phase difference between the
e.m.f. e and the current i in the circuit is observed to be p/4, as shown in the diagram. If the circuit consists
possibly only of R–C or R–L or L–C in series, find the relationship between the two elements
i or e
i e

(1) R = 1 kW, C = 10 mF (2) R = 1 kW, C = 1 mF

(3) R = 1 kW, L = 10 H (4) R = 1 kW, L = 1 H

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Que. The figure shows a LCR network connected to 300 V a.c. supply. The circuit elements are such that
R = XL = XC = 10W. V1, V2 and V3 are three a.c. voltmeters connected as shown in the figure. Which of the
following represents the correct set of readings of the voltmeters ?
V1 V2 V3

R L C

300 V
(1) V1 = 100 V, V2 = 100 V, V3 = 100 V(2) V1 = 150 V, V2 = 0 V, V3 = 150 V
(3) V1 = 300 V, V2 = 100 V, V3 = 100 V(4) V1 = 300 V, V2 = 300 V, V3 = 300 V
LCR – PARALLEL CIRCUIT
E IL L
IL =
XL
IC C
E
IC = R
XC
E IR
I
IR =
R
Let I C > IL E IC
I

(IC–IL)
I 2R + ( I C - I L )
2
I= ..... (1)
f
E 1 E
Again Z= = ..... (2) IR
I 1 æ 1 1 ö
2

+ç - IL
R è X C X L ÷ø
2

Condition of Resonance – I
At w = w0 ; XL = XC or IL = IC
E
then Z max = R but I min =
R Imin
w w
POWER CONSUMPTION IN AC-CIRCUIT 0

Instantaneous power
As Pinst = VI
= (V0 sin wt)(I0 sin (wt + f)
VI
= V0I0 sin wt sin(wt + f) = 0 0 éë2sin wt sin(wt + f) ùû
2
VI
Hence Pinst = 0 0 éë cos f - cos(2wt + f) ùû {Since 2sinA sinB = cos(A–B)–cos(A+B)}
2
Note : Therefore frequency of power fluctuation is twice the frequency of applied ac-source.
Average power :
T

=
ò
0
(V0 sin wt)(I 0 sin(wt + f)dt
V0 I0 é T sin f T ù
Pav
ò ò
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T = êcos f sin 2 wtdt + sin2 wt dt ú

ò 0
dt T ë 0 2 0 û

é T T ù
ê
= V0 I0 êcos f
ò 0
sin2 wt dt
+
sin f ò
0
sin2 wt dt ú
ú = V0 I0 écos f ´ 1 + 0 ù
ê T 2 T ú ê 2 ú
ë û
ëê ûú
1
Pav = V0 I 0 cos f or Pav = Vrms Irms cos f
2
R
Note : Hence cos f = = Power factor of ac-circuit.
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Wattless current : That component of current in ac-circuit which is not active.

Icosf

f
I

Isinf
Hence Icosf is the activity component of current because it is in phase with applied voltage.
p
But Isinf is the component which is inactive, called as wattless current because it is in phase with applied voltage.
2
Choke Coil : tube light rod
In a direct current circuit, current is reduced with the help of a resistance.
Hence there is a loss of electrical energy I2 R per sec in the form of
heat in the resistance. But in an AC circuit the current can be reduced starter
by choke coil which involves very small amount of loss of energy. Choke
coil is a copper coil wound over a soft iron laminated core. This coil
is put in series with the circuit in which current is to be reduced. choke coil
Circuit with a choke coil is a series L-R circuit. If resistance of choke coil = r (very small)
E
The current in the circuit I = with Z = (R + r)2 + (wL)2 So due to large inductance L of the coil, the
Z
current in the circuit is decreased appreciably. However, due to small resistance of the coil r,
The power loss in the choke Pav = Vrms Irms cos f ® 0
r r r
Q cos f = = » ®0
Z 2
r +w L 2 2 wL

HOMEWORK (Module 19-20)

BB-3 ; Q. 1 to 6
BB-4 ; Q. 1 to 8
Ex-1 ; Q. 20, 28, 40 to 57
Ex-2 ; Q. 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 19, 20, 26, 28, 29, 31, 35, 37
Ex-3 ; Q. 3, 4, 7, 8, 12, 15, 20, 25, 26

HOMEWORK (Module 18-19)

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BB-3 ; Q.
BB-4 ; Q.
Ex-1 ; Q.
Ex-2 ; Q.
Ex-3 ; Q.

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LECTURE # 06
LC OSCILLATION
The oscillation of energy between capacitor (electric field energy) and inductor (magnetic field energy) is called
LC Oscillation.

1. Undamped oscillation
When the circuit has no resistance, the energy taken once from the source and given to capacitor keeps on
oscillating between C and L then the oscillation produced will be of constant amplitude. These are called undamped
oscillation.
I

C L t

After switch is closed

Q di Q d2 Q d2Q 1
+L =0 Þ +L 2 =0 Þ + Q=0
C dt C dt dt2 LC
é d2 x 2 ù
By comparing with standard equation of free oscillation ê 2 + w x = 0ú
ë dt û
1 1
w2 = Frequency of oscillation f =
LC 2p LC
Charge varies sinusoidally with time q = qm cos wt
dq p
current also varies periodically with t I= = qm w cos (wt + )
dt 2
1 q 2m
If initial charge on capacitor is qm then electrical energy strored in capacitor is UE =
2 C
At t = 0 switch is closed, capacitor starts to discharge.
As the capacitor is fully discharged, the total electrical energy is stored in the inductor in the form of magnetic
energy.
1 2
UB = LIm where Im = max. current
2
1 q 2m 1 2
(Umax)EPE = (Umax)MPE Þ = LIm
2 C 2

2. Damped oscillation
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Practically, a circuit can not be entirely resistanceless, so some part of energy is lost in resistance and
amplitude of oscillation goes on decreasing. These are called damped oscillation.

R
L

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Only for AIIMS

1 R2 I
Angular frequency of oscillation w = - 2
LC 4L

1 1 R2 t
frequency of oscillation f = - 2
2p LC 4L

1 R2
oscillation to be real if - 2 >0
LC 4L
1 R2
Hence for oscilation to be real >
LC 4L2

GOLDEN KEY POINTS

• In damped oscillation amplitude of oscillation decreases exponentially with time.

T 3T 5T
• At t = , , ..... energy stored is completely magnetic.
4 4 4

T 3T 5T
• At t = , , ..... energy is shared equally between L and C
8 8 8

p when charge is maximum, current minimum

• Phase difference between charge and current is
2 when charge is minimum,current maximum

• Comparison of Damped Mechanical & electrical systems

L C R
(I) Series LCR circuit :

2
dV=Vq sinR dq 1 V
2
+ 0 wt + q=
dt L dt LC L
compare with mechanical damped system equation
d2x b dx k F
2
+ + x =
dt m dt m m
where b = damping coefficient.

Mechanical system Electrical system s (series RLC)

Displacem ent (x) Charge (q)
Driving force (F) Driving voltage (V)
æ1 ö Electromagnetic energy of moving charge
Kinetic energy ç mv 2 ÷
è2 ø 1 æ dq ö
2
1 2
Lç ÷ = Li
2 è dt ø 2
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1 2 q2
Potential energy kx Energy of static charge
2 2C
mass (m) L
Power P =Fv Power P=VI
Damping (b) Resistance (R)
Spring constant (k) 1/C
Velocity (v) Current (i)
æ d xö
2
æ di ö
Acceleration ç ÷ Rate of change of current ç ÷
è dt 2 ø è dt ø

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(II) Parallel LCR circuit : In this case
L

f d æ df ö 1 d f C
I = I L + IC + IR = + Cç ÷ +
L dt è dt ø R dt R
2
d f 1 df 1 i
Þ 2
+ + f=
dt RC dt LC C V=V 0sin wt

Displacement (x) Flux linkage (f)

æ dx ö æ df ö
Velocity ç ÷ Voltage çè V = ÷ø
è dt ø dt
Mass (m) Capacitance (C)
Spring constant (k) Reciprocal Industance (1/L)
Damping coefficient (b) Reciprocal resistance (1/R)
Driving force (F) Current (i)
1 2 1 f2
Potential Energy kx
2 2 L
1 1 2
Kinetic Energy mv2 CV
2 2
Que. In LCR oscillation circuit resistance is 10 W and inductive reactance at resonace condition is
æ1ö
1 kW. After how many oscillation peak value of current will fall to ç ÷ times maximum value of peak current.
èeø
50 100
(1) (2) 100 (3) 50 (4)
p p
é -b t ù
Sol. From equation damped oscillator x = ê Ae 2m ú sin wt
êë úû

é -R t ù -R
From comparision I = ê I0 e 2L ú cos wt Þ I0e 2L = 0 Þ t = 2L
t I
ëê ûú e R

2wL 2x L
Phase displacement f = wt = =
R R
2x L xL 100
2pn = n= =
R pR p
Que. An LC circuit contains a 20mH inductor and a 50mF capacitor with an initial charge of 10mC. The resistance of
the circuit is negligible. Let the instant the circuit is closed to be t = 0.
(a) What is the total energy stored initially.
(b) What is the natural frequency of the circuit.
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(c) At what minimum time is the energy stored is completely magnetic.

(d) At what minimum time is the total energy shared equally between inductor and the capacitor.
1 q2 1 (10 ´ 10-3 )2
Sol. (a) UE = = ´ = 1.0J
2 C 2 50 ´ 10-6
1 1
(b) w= = = 103 rad/sec Þ f = 159 Hz
LC 20 ´ 10 -3
´ 50 ´ 10 -6

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(c) Q q = q0 cos wt
Energy stored is completely magnetic (i.e. electrical energy is zero, q = 0)
T 1
at t= , where T = = 6.3 ms
4 f
q0
(d) Energy is shared equally between L and C when charge on capacitor become
2
T
so, at t = , energy is shared equally between L and C
8
OPTIONAL QUESTION
1. Initially key was placed at position (1) for long time. When key is placed on position (2) at t=0. Calculate minimum
time when the energy in both capacitor and inductor will be same.

(1) (2)

E L
C

p 10
Ans. t=
4
di
2. In an LC circuit the capacitor has maximam charge q0. Calculate value of dt .
max
L C

q0
Ans.
LC
Que. A RC series circuit of R = 15W and C = 10 mF is connected to 20 volt DC supply for very long time. The capacitor
is disconnected from circuit and connected to inductor of 10 mH. Calculate amplitude of current.

HOMEWORK (Module 19-20)

BB-5 ; Q. 1, 2

Ex-2 ; Q. 7, 16, 21, 23, 32, 36, 38, 39

Z:\NODE02\B0AH-AI\TEACHING NOTES\PHYSICS\ALTERNATING CURRENT.P65

Ex-3 ; Q, 9, 10, 11, 16, 18, 27

HOMEWORK (Module 18-19)

BB-5 ; Q.

Ex-2 ; Q.

Ex-3 ; Q,

30 E