Bernoulli’s Equation

Application of Bernoulli’s Equation: Flow

Force momentum relation applied to steady, 1D, inviscid fluid flow
measurement Consider a small stream tube having length ds
𝑑𝑠 𝑝 + 𝑑𝑝 𝐴 + 𝑑𝐴
For an inviscid flow, shear stresses are absent

𝑑𝑧 ෍ 𝐹𝑠𝑦𝑠 = 𝜌𝑄 𝑉2 − 𝑉1
Measuring devices: 𝜃
The pitot tube and the pitot-static tube
𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝 + 𝑑𝑝 𝐴 + 𝑑𝐴 + 𝑝𝐴 − 𝜌𝑔𝐴 𝑑𝑠 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝜌𝑄 𝑉2 − 𝑉1
The venturi meter 𝜌𝑔𝐴 𝑑𝑠
Orifices −𝑑𝑝 𝐴 − 𝜌𝑔𝐴 𝑑𝑧 = 𝜌𝑄 𝑑𝑉

−𝑑𝑝 𝐴 − 𝜌𝑔𝐴 𝑑𝑧 = 𝜌𝐴 𝑉 𝑑𝑉
Euler’s equation 𝑑𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔 𝑑𝑧 + 𝜌 𝑉 𝑑𝑉 = 0
For a constant density fluid 𝑑 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 + 𝜌𝑉 2 /2 = 0 or 𝑑 𝑝/𝜌𝑔 + 𝑧 + 𝑉 2 /2𝑔 = 0

𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 + 𝜌𝑉 2 /2 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 Total pressure is constant along a streamline

𝑝/𝜌𝑔 + 𝑧 + 𝑉 2 /2𝑔 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 Total head is constant along a streamline

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1D Frictionless flow in a converging pipe Pitot tube

Consider a stream of uniform velocity flows into a blunt body
𝑃 𝑉2 Total head
+𝑧+ =𝐻
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝑉12 𝑉22 Apply Bernoulli equation to central streamline (1)
2𝑔 Piezometric head line 2𝑔 and (2)

𝑃2 𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
𝑃1
𝜌𝑔 𝑉2 = 0; 𝑍1 = 𝑍2
𝐴2
Stream line pattern
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2
+ =
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔
𝜃
𝐴1 1
𝑍2 𝑃2 = 𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑉12
2
𝑍1
Datum z=0 Stagnation Static Dynamic
Pressure Pressure Pressure

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1
 Pitot tube
Two piezometers, one as normal and one as a Pitot tube within the pipe can be used in
an arrangement shown below to measure velocity of flow
Close-up of a Pitot-static tube

1
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑉12
2
1
𝜌𝑔ℎ2 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 + 𝜌𝑉12
1
2
2 𝑉1 = 2𝑔 ℎ2 − ℎ1

A piezometer and a pitot tube Pitot tube

Pitot-static tube

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Pitot-static tube
A pitot tube is connected to a manometer. The holes on the side of the tube connect to one side of a
manometer and register the static head, (h1), while the central hole is connected to the other side of the
manometer to register, as before, the stagnation head (h2).

Consider the pressures on the level of the centre line

Connected point (2) of the Pitot tube
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑔𝑥 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑔(𝑥 − ℎ) + 𝜌𝑚𝑎𝑛 𝑔ℎ
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ − 𝜌𝑚𝑎𝑛 𝑔ℎ
Applying Bernoulli equation
1
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑉12
(1) 2
(2) 1 2
𝜌𝑉 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ − 𝜌𝑚𝑎𝑛 𝑔ℎ
2 1
(1) x
h 2𝑔ℎ
Connected point (1) 𝑉1 = 𝜌 − 𝜌𝑚
𝜌
A B
Pitot-static tube The Pitot/Pitot-static tubes give velocities at points in the
flow

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 Constriction flow meters Constriction flow meters
h1=P1/ρg Δh
Bernoulli equation:
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 (1) h2=P2/ρg Venturi meter
(2)
𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑉22 𝑉12
+ 𝑧1 − + 𝑧2 = −
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔
Z1 Z2
𝑄2 1 1 Datum
∆ℎ = − Orifice meter
2𝑔 𝐴22 𝐴21 Converging section
Carefully designed to minimize the energy losses
2𝑔∆ℎ 2𝑔∆ℎ Converging section: 𝒅𝒑ൗ𝒅𝒙 < 𝟎
𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝐴2 ; 𝑉1 = 𝐴2
𝐴21 − 𝐴22 𝐴21 − 𝐴22 Favorable pressure gradient, Stable flow, negligible
energy loss
Continuity equation:
𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2; 𝐴2 < 𝐴1 ; 𝑉2 > 𝑉1 Diverging section: 𝒅𝒑ൗ𝒅𝒙 > 0 Flow nozzle
Adverse pressure gradient: Unstable flow, energy loss

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Venturi meter Orifice meter

Orifice in a pipe
In terms of the manometer readings
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑔𝑍1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑔(𝑍2 − ℎ) + 𝜌𝑚𝑎𝑛 𝑔ℎ
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 𝜌𝑚𝑎𝑛
+ 𝑍1 − 𝑍2 = ℎ −1
𝜌𝑔 𝜌
About 60

About 200 𝑃1 − 𝑃2
2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 + 𝑍1 − 𝑍2
𝑉1 = 𝐴2 Streamline pattern
𝐴21 − 𝐴22

Thick-plate square
𝜌𝑚𝑎𝑛 Sharp-edge Square shoulder edge Rounded
2𝑔ℎ 𝜌 −1
𝑉1 = 𝐴2
𝐴21 − 𝐴22
Z2
Z1 h
𝜌𝑚𝑎𝑛
2𝑔ℎ 𝜌 −1
Datum 𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴1 𝐴2
𝐴21 − 𝐴22

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3
 Small orifice In practice, actual discharge is less than the theoretical discharge
Reasons:
‘small orifice’: orifice diameter is small compared to head producing flow (head does not vary across the
orifice) Actual velocity <Theoretical velocity due to energy loss between (1) and (2)
𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑣 2𝑔ℎ 𝐶𝑣 − coefficient of velocity
Applying Bernoulli’s equation to (1) and 2)
P0 (1) 0 open 0 Tank is
to atm large 0 Fluid path converges on the orifice. Area is less than the orifice area
h 𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃 𝑉2
+ 𝑍1 + = 2 + 𝑍2 + 2 𝐴𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑐 𝐴𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 ; 𝐶𝑐 - coefficient of contraction
(2) 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

Liquid 𝑉2 = 2𝑔ℎ ; 𝑄 = 𝑎 2𝑔ℎ 𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑣 2𝑔ℎ . 𝐶𝑐 𝐴𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒

flow
Actual area 𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑣 2𝑔ℎ . 𝐶𝑐 𝐴𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 Actual area

Coefficient of discharge 𝐶𝑑 = 𝐶𝑐 𝐶𝑣

Vena Contractor

Torricelli’s theorem: Velocity of a issuing jet is proportional to the square root of the head producing Vena Contractor
flow

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Coefficient of discharge depends on the edge condition Determination of the coefficient of contraction, velocity, and discharge (C c , Cv , and Cd)

𝑢𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 2𝑔𝐻

𝑈𝐴 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑉𝑇
*Contraction of jet
𝑔
2𝑦 𝑥
H

𝐶𝑣 =
2𝑔𝐻
y
𝑥2
𝐶𝑣 =
𝐶𝑐 ≈ 1 4𝑦𝐻
𝐶𝑐 ≈ 0.62 𝐶𝑐 ≈ 0.62 𝐶𝑐 ≈ 1
𝐶𝑣 ≈ 0.98 𝐶𝑣 ≈ 0.98 𝐶𝑣 ≈ 0.86
𝐶𝑣 ≈ 0.98 x
𝑄𝐴
𝐶𝑑 ≈ 0.61 𝐶𝑑 ≈ 0.61 𝐶𝑑 ≈ 0.86 𝐶𝑑 ≈ 0.98
𝑥 = 𝑢𝑡; 𝑡 = 𝑥Τ𝑢 𝐶𝑑 =
Sharp-edge 𝑄𝑇
Square shoulder Thick-plate square edge Rounded 1
𝑦 = 𝑔𝑡 2 𝑄𝑇 = a 2𝑔ℎ
2 𝑄𝐴 √ Use direct method
𝑔
𝑢= 𝑥 𝐶𝑑
2𝑦 𝐶𝑐 =
𝐶𝑣

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4
 Falling head method: Determine coefficient of discharge (For any outflow Exercise
device) A large tank contains a liquid to a depth z. A small orifice located at height y above the tank base
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉 discharges a horizontal jet to the atmosphere. The jet strikes the base level of the tank at a
𝑑ℎ horizontal distance x. Assume 𝐶𝑣 = 1 , 𝐶𝑐 = 0.63, 𝐴 = 670𝑎
𝑄=𝐴
𝑑𝑡 (i) Show that 𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 = 4𝑦𝑧 and that the maximum horizontal distance occurs when 𝑧 = 2𝑦
Area A 𝑑ℎ
A 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 (ii) Given y=0.25 m, find the time taken for the jet striking distance x to change from 𝑥1 = 1𝑚 to
𝑥2 = 0.5𝑚
h2 h1 𝑄𝑖𝑛 =0; 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐶𝑑 𝑎 2𝑔𝐻 for small orifice

𝑑ℎ
A = −𝐶𝑑 𝑎 2𝑔𝐻
𝑑𝑡

𝐴 𝑑ℎ
𝑑𝑡 = −
Orifice area =a 𝐶𝑑 𝑎 2𝑔 𝑑 ℎ 0.5
h1
2𝐴 z h2
𝑡=− ℎ 0.5 + 𝐶
𝐶𝑑 𝑎 2𝑔 𝑑
𝑡 = 0; ℎ = ℎ1
y
𝑡 = 𝑇; ℎ = ℎ2

2𝐴 x
𝑇= ℎ10.5 − ℎ20.5
𝐶𝑑 𝑎 2𝑔

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Exercise: Approach velocity (𝑽𝟎 ) correction Exercise: Approach velocity (𝑽𝟎 ) variation with A/a
Area: A
P0
Area: A 𝑃0 𝑉02 𝑃1 𝑉12
(0) If approach velocity is
+ 𝑍0 + = + 𝑍1 + 𝑉1 = 2𝑔𝐻 = 7 𝑚/𝑠 neglected
P0 (0) 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

𝑉02 𝑉12 H=2.5 m

𝑍0 + =𝑍1 + 2𝑔𝐻
H=2.5 m
2𝑔 2𝑔 (1) 𝑉1 =
Area: a 𝑎2
1−
(1) 𝑉02 𝑉12 𝐴2
Area: a + 𝐻=
2𝑔 2𝑔
Liquid 13.0
flow 12.5
Liquid
Applying continuity equation: 12.0
flow 𝑎 11.5
𝐴0 𝑉0 = 𝐴1 𝑉1 𝑉0 = 𝑉 11.0
𝐴 1
10.5
A/a V 10.0
9.5

V1
5 ? 𝑎 2 𝑉12 𝑉12 9.0 A/a=5
+ 𝐻= 8.5 V=7.148 m/s
𝐴 2𝑔 2𝑔
10 ? 8.0 7.059 m/s
7.5
100 ? 7.0
2𝑔𝐻 6.5
1000 ? 𝑉=
𝑎2 6.0
1− 2
𝑉= 2𝑔𝐻 = 7 𝑚/𝑠 𝐴 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A/a

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 Large rectangular orifice: vertical height is large

Assumed small area; if orifice area is not small For small area dA;
𝑉= 2𝑔ℎ
h1
Head vary substantially from top to bottom h
h1 h2
dh
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑏𝑑ℎ 2𝑔ℎ
h2
𝑉1 = 2𝑔ℎ1 Velocity will change across the orifice Integrate over area;
ℎ2
𝑉2 = 2𝑔ℎ2
𝑄 = 𝑏 2𝑔 න ℎ. 𝑑ℎ
ℎ1

*Side contraction
2𝑏 3/2 3/2
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 2𝑔 ℎ2 − ℎ1
3

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Notches and weirs Vee notch

Notch: Opening in the side of a tank or reservoir, extending above the free surface (No
upper edge)

Weir: notch on a large scale, to measure the flow of a river h

H
Rectangular notch
h
H

b 𝑑𝐴 = 2 𝐻 − ℎ 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝜃. 𝑑ℎ

𝑑𝑄 = 2𝑔ℎ .2 𝐻 − ℎ 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝜃. 𝑑ℎ
𝐻
0 𝑑𝑄 = 2 2𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃. න ℎ1/2 𝐻 − ℎ 𝑑ℎ
2𝑏 0
3/2 3/2
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 2𝑔 ℎ2 − ℎ1
3 8
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑑 2𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝐻5/2
2𝑏 15
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 2𝑔 𝐻3/2
3

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 Weir Calibration

For a V notch:
Applying mass continuity equation (assume quasi steady condition)
𝑑𝐻 8 5
𝐴 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0 − 𝐶𝑑 2𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝐻 2
𝑑𝑡 15

Integrating:
−3/2 −3/2
5𝐴 𝐻2 − 𝐻1
𝑇=
4𝐶𝑑 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 2𝑔

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